Author : Abhay Kumar Singh

 proposition" typically refers to a declarative statement  denoted by → or ⇒, it represents the logical "implies" operation. For
 that can either be true or false, but not both. example, "p → q" means "if p, then q".
 Propositions are fundamental to logic and form the basis of
reasoning and proofs in mathematics. p q p→q
 They are often represented symbolically (p,q,r etc) and
manipulated using logical operators such as AND, OR, NOT, true true true
IMPLIES, etc. true false false
 Example: false true true
 "2 + 2 = 4" is a proposition, and it is true.
 "5 is a prime number" is a proposition, and it is true.
false false true
 "The moon is made of cheese" is a proposition, and it is
false.
:
 A compound proposition is formed by composition  denoted by ↔ or ⇔, it represents the logical "if and only if"
 of two or more propositions called components or sub- operation. For example, "p ↔ q" means "p if and only if q".
propositions.
p q p↔q
 For example
 Risabh is intelligent and he studies hard. true true true
 Sky is blue and clouds are white. true false false
false true false
 connectives are symbols or words used to combine or modify
propositions. false false true

Examples of connectives :
 "It is raining AND it is windy."
 I will have pizza OR I will have pasta for dinner."  The converse of a conditional statement P→Q is Q→P.
 "It is NOT raining."  example: If it's raining, then I'll bring an umbrella.
 "If it is raining, THEN I will take an umbrella."  Converse: If I'm bringing an umbrella, then it's raining.
 I will go to the party IF AND ONLY IF my friends are going
P Q Q→P
(It's raining) (I'll bring anumbrella) P→Q Converse)
True True True True
 denoted by ∧, it represents the logical "and" operation. For
example, "p ∧ q" means "p and q". True False False True
p q p∧q
False True True False
true true true
true false false False False True True
false true false
false false false  The contrapositive of a conditional statement P→Q is ¬Q→¬P.
 Contrapositive: If I'm not bringing an umbrella, then it's not raining.

P Q ¬Q → ¬P
 denoted by ∨, it represents the logical "or" operation. For (It's raining) (I'll bring an umbrella) P→Q (Contrapositive)
example, "p ∨ q" means "p or q".
True True True True
p q p∨q
True False False False
true true true
False True True True
true false true
False False True True
false true true
false false false  The inverse of a conditional statement P→Q is ¬P→¬Q.
 Inverse: If it's not raining, then I won't bring an umbrella.
 denoted by ¬ or ~, it represents the logical "not" operation. For P Q
example, "¬p" means "not p". (It's raining) (I'll bring an umbrella) P→Q ¬P → ¬Q (Inverse)
p ¬p True True True True
true false True False False True
false true False True True True
False False True True
 It is typically constructed from propositional variables ( atomic  A statement is satisfiable if there exists at least one assignment of
formulas) and logical connectives. truth values to its variables that makes the statement true.
 The rules for constructing .  Example: P∨Q ("It's raining and it's sunny.")
 well-formed formulas are used to represent logical statements
or propositions. P Q P∧Q
1. An atomic statement P is considered a well-formed formula. True True True
2. If P is a well-formed formula, then ¬P (negation) is also a well-
formed formula. True False False
3. If P and Q are well-formed formulas, then (P∨Q), (P∧Q), (P→Q),
and (P↔Q) are also well-formed formulas. False True False
4. A statement composed of variables, parentheses, and connectives is
False False False
recursively a well-formed formula if it can be derived by applying the
above rules.

Examples of WFF
1. ¬(P∧Q)∨ R (false) --> (¬(P∧Q))∨ R or ¬((P∧Q)∨ R)
2. (P∧Q) , ((P∨ Q)∧(¬P∨ R)) , (¬(P→Q)∨ R) (true)

 If two propositions P and Q where p, q, ..... are propositional

variables, have the same truth values
 in every possible case, the propositions are called logically
equivalent or simply equivalent, and denoted by P ≡ Q
1. ¬(P→Q)≡P∧¬Q
2. P→Q≡¬P∨Q
3. P↔Q≡(P→Q)∧(Q→P)
4. ¬(P↔Q)≡(P∧¬Q)∨(¬P∧Q)
5. P↔Q)∨(Q↔R)≡P↔R

 A tautology is a statement that is always true, regardless of the

truth values of its variables.
 Example: P∨¬P ( "Either it's raining or it's not raining.")

P ¬P P ∨ ¬P (Tautology)
True False True
False True True
Numerical: Prove (p → q) ∧ (p → r) ≡ p → (q ∧ r).
≡ (¬ p ∨ q) ∧ (¬ p ∨ r) Substitution for →, twice
≡ ¬p ∨ (q ∧ r) Distribution law
 A contradiction is a statement that is always false, regardless of ≡ p → (q ∧ r) Substitution for →
the truth values of its variables.
 Example: P∧¬P ( "It's both raining and not raining.") Numerical: Prove ¬ (¬ p ∨(¬p ^q))=¬p^¬q

P ¬P P ∧ ¬P (Contradiction)
True False False
False True False

 A statement is contingent if it is neither a tautology nor a

contradiction, meaning it can be true or false depending on the
truth values of its variables.
 Example: P→Q ("If it's raining, then it's cloudy.")

P Q P → Q (Contingency)
True True True
True False False
False True True
False False True
 The proof is a valid argument that determines the truth values Quantum questions : 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 (2019-2020)
of mathematical statements.
 The argument is a set of statements or propositions
Example 1:Premise: Every mother is a woman.  First-order logic extends propositional logic by quantifying and
Premise: All women are caring. generalizing over a given universe.
Conclusion: Therefore, every mother is caring.  Also known as first-order predicate calculus, attributing properties to
Example 2: Premise: All humans have wings. individual entities.
Premise: Birds have wings.  Predicate calculus: A generalized form of propositional calculus for
Conclusion: Therefore, all humans are birds. manipulating statements.
 Universe of Discourse (UD): Set encompassing all potential values for
 Rules of inference are logical principles or techniques predicate variables.
 used to justify the validity of logical arguments or deductions.
 They provide a systematic way to derive new conclusions from
given premises.  Universal quantifier: Symbolized by ∀ , signifies "for all" or "for
 Here are some common rules of inference: every" element in a set.
 Premises are statements or propositions that are assumed to be  Existential quantifier: Symbolized by ∃ , denotes "for some" or
true in an argument or logical deduction "there exists" elements in a set.

Numerical quantum 4.18 4.19 4.20

Numerical : For students to do well in discrete structure course, it is necessary

that they study hard. Students who do well in courses do not skip
classes. Student who study hard do well in courses. Therefore
students who do well in discrete structure course do not skip class.
Given the propositional variables:
p→"Do well in the course.
q→"They study hard.
r→"Do not skip classes.
1. For students to do well in the discrete structure course, it is
necessary that they study hard: p→q
2. Students who do well in the courses do not skip classes: p→r
3. Students who study hard do well in courses: q→p
4. Therefore, students who do well in the discrete structure
course do not skip classes: p→r

Given premises: I. p→q II. p→r III. q→p Conclusion: p→r

Proof:
Step1: Taking premise III (q → p) and premise II (p → r) together:
q→p and p→r give q→r (Using hypothetical syllogism).

Step2: Now, taking premise I (p → q) and the result from step 1:

p→q and q→r give p→r (Using hypothetical syllogism).
Therefore, the conclusion p→r is valid.