Colour CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) monitors use an electron gun to shoot electrons at a phosphor-coated screen, which emits

light
when struck by the electrons. The screen is divided into tiny red, green, and blue phosphor dots or stripes, arranged in a pattern
called a mask or aperture grille. The three primary colours—red, green, and blue—combine to create the full spectrum of colours
when activated in di@erent intensities.

The technique used is called shadow mask or aperture grille technology. These methods ensure precise control over the electron
beams, directing them to the correct phosphor dots to create accurate colour images. This technique was used in CRT monitors
because it provided high-quality colour reproduction, but it required bulky components and was gradually replaced by LCDs and
OLEDs in modern displays.

A raster scan system is a method used in displays where the image is drawn pixel by pixel in a regular pattern, typically from top to
bottom and left to right across the screen. This process is similar to how a television or computer monitor draws an image, covering
the screen in horizontal lines (or "scan lines") from the top to the bottom, one line at a time.

Characteristics of Raster Scan Systems: Pixel-based: The screen is made up of a grid of pixels, and the image is displayed by
illuminating these pixels. Continuous update: The image is refreshed continually, typically 60 or 120 times per second (refresh rate).
Resolution-dependent: The clarity of the image depends on the number of pixels (resolution), e.g., 1920x1080 for Full HD.

Di@erence from Random Scan: Raster Scan: Draws the entire screen by scanning each pixel in a systematic order (row by row). It is
ideal for displaying complex images like photographs. Random Scan (also called vector scan): Draws images by directly moving the
electron beam to specific points on the screen to create lines and shapes (like in early vector graphics displays). It doesn’t fill the
whole screen at once and is more suitable for simple graphics, like wireframe models.

Composite 2D Transformation refers to the combination of multiple 2D transformations (such as translation, scaling, rotation, and
shearing) into a single transformation. Instead of applying each transformation step-by-step, composite transformations allow you
to combine them into a single matrix operation, simplifying calculations and improving performance.

Steps: Representation: Each transformation is represented by a matrix (for example, a 3x3 matrix for 2D transformations).
Multiplication: The matrices for each transformation (e.g., scaling, rotation) are multiplied in a specific order to form a single
composite matrix. Application: The composite matrix is then applied to the original coordinates (or objects) in one step.

Example: Scaling (S), Rotation (R), and Translation (T) can be combined into a single transformation matrix: M composite=T⋅R⋅S M
composite=T⋅R⋅S Apply the resulting matrix to the point or object to achieve the combined e@ect.

Benefits: E@iciency: Instead of applying each transformation separately, the composite matrix can be used to apply all
transformations in one step. Simplification: Reduces the number of calculations needed, making complex transformations faster to
compute.

Bezier Curves:

A Bezier curve is a parametric curve used in computer graphics to model smooth curves. It is defined by a set of control points. The
curve is generated by blending these points in a weighted manner based on a parameter (usually between 0 and 1).

• Linear Bezier curve: Defined by 2 control points, forms a straight line.

• Quadratic Bezier curve: Defined by 3 control points, forms a smooth curve.

• Cubic Bezier curve: Defined by 4 control points, commonly used in graphic design and animation.

The curve is computed using the Bernstein polynomials, which interpolate the control points to create the final curve.

Bezier Surfaces:

A Bezier surface is an extension of Bezier curves to two dimensions, used to model smooth surfaces in 3D space. It is defined by a
grid of control points, usually in a 4x4 matrix (for cubic surfaces), and uses a similar blending technique as Bézier curves but in two
directions (U and V).

• A Bezier surface is a generalization of a Bezier curve, with control points arranged in a 2D grid. Each point on the surface is
a weighted average of the control points.
Back-Face Detection vs. Depth Bu@er Method (Z-bu@er)

1. Back-Face Detection:

• How it works:
Back-face detection removes polygons facing away from the camera. The surface normal of each polygon is compared
with the view direction:

o If the dot product of the normal and view direction is negative, the polygon is facing the camera and is visible.

o If the dot product is positive or zero, the polygon is a back face and can be discarded.

• Hidden Surface Detection:

Only back-facing polygons are removed. It does not handle occlusion (where objects block each other in 3D space).

• Advantages:

o Fast and simple, especially for wireframe rendering or simple models.

o Low memory usage (no additional bu@er needed).

• Disadvantages:

o Only works for visible surfaces facing the camera. It does not address objects occluding each other in 3D
space.

2. Depth Bu@er Method (Z-bu@er):

• How it works:
The Z-bu@er stores the depth (distance from the camera) of each pixel on the screen. As new pixels are processed:

o If a new pixel is closer (has a smaller depth value) than the existing one in the bu@er, it replaces the old pixel.

o If it’s farther, the pixel is discarded.

• Hidden Surface Detection:

The Z-bu@er method removes hidden surfaces by comparing depths for every pixel, ensuring that only the closest
surfaces are rendered.

• Advantages:

o Works for any scene and can handle occlusion (hidden surfaces caused by other objects).

o Accurate hidden surface removal, independent of the polygon orientation.

• Disadvantages:

o Requires additional memory for the depth bu@er (one per pixel).

o May experience Z-fighting if the depth bu@er lacks precision (when two surfaces are very close to each other).

Feature Back-Face Detection Depth Bu@er (Z-bu@er)

Hidden Surface Removal Removes back-facing polygons only Handles occlusion by comparing depth for each pixel

E@iciency Fast and low memory usage Requires more memory and computations

Precision Simple but limited to back-face removal More accurate, handles complex occlusion

Use Case Suitable for simple scenes (e.g., wireframes) Suitable for complex 3D scenes with occlusion
Feature Boundary Fill Flood Fill

Start Point Inside the area to be filled Inside the area to be filled

Stopping Condition When a boundary (specific color) is reached When a border of di@erent color is reached

Method Propagates outwards to the boundary Propagates outwards to matching color pixels

E:iciency Less e@icient for complex areas Can be more e@icient with simpler areas

Use Case Filling areas with clear boundaries Filling irregular regions without boundaries

2D Shearing

2D Shearing is a transformation that distorts or slants an object in the 2D plane, altering its shape by shifting points along the X or Y
axis, depending on the direction of the shear. Unlike scaling, which uniformly stretches or shrinks an object, shearing causes the
shape to "lean" or skew in a specific direction.

Parallel Projection:

• Definition: Projection lines are parallel and perpendicular to the projection plane, maintaining the object's size and
shape regardless of its distance from the viewer.

• Characteristics:

o No depth perception (objects remain the same size).

o Parallel lines do not converge.

o Examples: Orthographic and Isometric projections.

• Use: Technical drawings, CAD, engineering.

Perspective Projection:

• Definition: Projection lines converge at a vanishing point, making objects appear smaller as they get farther from the
viewer, creating a realistic depth e@ect.

• Characteristics:

o Provides depth perception (objects shrink with distance).

o Parallel lines converge at a vanishing point.

o Examples: One-point, Two-point, Three-point perspective.

• Use: Realistic rendering in 3D graphics, games, photography.