4 1.2 PARTS OF SPEECH explain how a word is used in a sentence and also it is about a gr pou? of ibe The parts of speech see aa eepere ple, “run,” “jump,” and “be” are all used to deso™ ved ina certain way. For exam ight main parts of speech (also known as word classes): nouns, pronou®S positions, conjunctions and interjections. into sub-classes. For example, pre] e, etc. Nouns can be divided into proper nouns, common words that are us ; actions/states. There are &H adjectives, verbs, adverbs, pre] Most parts of speech can be divided i into prepositions of time, prepositions of plac nouns, concrete nouns, etc. It is important to know that a wot example, with the word increase. Increase can be a verb, €.8 Prices increased and increase can also be a noun. ere was an increase in the number of followers. positions can be divided rd can sometimes be in more than one parts of speech. For Example: Ths Therefore, they belong to the VERBS group. In the English language, m: more than one way. This means that a word can function as several different parts of speech. For example, in the sentence “I would like to drink”, the word “drink” is a noun. However, in the “They drink too much”, the word “drink” is a verb. So, it all depends on the word’s role any words are used in sentence, in the sentence. 1.2.1___Noun - (NaminG Worp) ‘Anoun is the name of a person, place, thing or idea. Examples of nouns: Daniel, London, table, dog, teacher, pen, city, happiness, hope Example sentences: Steve lives in Sydney. Mary uses pen and paper to write letters. Noun Phrase Generally, the noun is a single word like ‘book’ but a noun i y i phrase is usually longer i word as ‘my books/ his books/ her books’ because it consists of an passesive or ont ene adjective or determiner with a noun. , - Personal pronoun, For example: My books are on the table. The eagle is the king of birds. Ramu is an intelligent student. Kinds of Nouns Common Noun: A c Frama pan umn nis nou that ames gene hing, no spect ti * Poy Si, city, country, company, planet, location, war, ete. ing. Proper Noun: A Toper Noun: A proper noun oo. 2 capil lever 1S @ noun that indicates the specific name of a thing. It begins with Examples: Robin, Alice, London, . Sweden, Gi . (Compare these exampl oogle, Earth, Eiffel Tower, Civil Wan les i or in the “Common nouns” section to see the sifee"”?Parts ef Speech 5 Countable Noun: A countable noun is a noun that indicates something you could actually count. For example, you could count pigs: one pig, two pigs, three pigs... However, you couldn’t count water: one water, two water — no, it doesn’t work... Accountable noun has both a singular and a plural form, and it can be used with the indefinite articles (a/an) gxamples: Window, teacher, tree, lion, eye, cloud, pencil, movie, etc. are examples for countable nouns. Uncountable Noun: An uncountable noun is a noun that indicates something you cannot count. uncountable Nou For example, you could count pigs: one pig, two pigs, three pigs... However, you couldn’t count water: one water, two water — no, it doesn’t work... An uncountable noun has only one form (no plural), and it cannot be used with the indefinite articles (a/an). Examples: Water, oil, sugar, advice, mail, news, coffee, information, etc. Abstract Noun: An abstract noun is a noun that names an idea, not a physical thing. —_— + a Examples: Hope, interest, love, peace, ability, success, knowledge, trouble, etc. Conerete Noun: A concrete noun is a noun that names a physical thing, Examples: Boy, table, floor, coffee, beach, king, rain, children, professor, etc. Collective Noun: A collective noun is the name of the group(collectively) of persons, animals or things considering as a complete/whole. Examples: Nation, Crowd, Army, Team, Family, herd, flock, etc are the collective nouns. 1.3 PRONOUN - (REPLACES A NOUN) A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun. For example, you could say, “Nancy is a nice girl.” ‘Then you could replace the noun “Nancy” with the word “She” and get the following sentence: “She is a nice girl.” “She” is a pronoun. Examples: I, he, it, we, them, us, mine, itself, etc Example sentences: He doesn’t want go with them. Would they help us? His house is bigger than ours. Who is she? The word “pronoun” comes from “pro” (in the meaning of “substitute”) + “noun.” The personal pronouns of modem standard English, and the corresponding possessive forms, ae as follows:Nominative | Oblique Reflexive ae Ist pers. sing. I me myself my : yourself/ 2nd pers. sing./pl. you you Getite your she, her, herself, her, ea : he, him, himself, his, his, a they, them, themself, their, theirs, it it itself its its Ist pers. pl. we us ourselves our | ours 3rd pers. pl. they them themselves their | _ theirs Personal pronouns represent people or things. The personal pronouns are: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, me, him, her, us, them. Demonstrative Pronouns “«Demonstrative” means “showing, making something clear.” Demonstrative pronouns point to things. The demonstrative pronouns ” to talk about things that are near in space or in time. ” to talk about things that are farther away in space or time. are: this, that, these, those. Use “this” and “these Use “that” and “‘those’ Example sentences: This cannot go on. He wanted those, but decided to compromise on these. That was beautiful! Interrogative Pronouns “Interrogative” means “used in questions.” Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are: who, whom, which, what, whoever, whatever, etc. Use “who” and “whom” to talk about people. Use “which” and “what” to talk about animals and things. Example sentences: Who is your father? Whom did you speak to? Which bag did you buy? What are my choices? Possessive Pronouns “Possessive” means “showing ownership.” Possessive pronouns indicate that something belongs to somebody/something. The possessive pronouns are: my, your, his, her, its, our, their, mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirsSia ‘ Parts of Speech 7 example sentences: _Tive lost my wallet. He married his girlttiend, This place is theirs. Is that cat yours? My car is slow. Hers is much faster. Relative Pronouns /opelstive” means “connected with something, Relative pronouns are pronouns that link different parts of a sentence. ‘The relative pronouns are: who, whom, which, that, whoever, etc.) ~ Examples sentences: . _The girl who called yesterday came to see you, The teacher whom you wrote has answered your questions. She lives in Kiev, whieh is the capital city of Ukraine I really liked the book that you gave me. Reflexive Pronouns . Gpeflexive” means “going back to itself.” eflexive pronouns show that the action affects the person who performs the action. Reflexive pronouns end in “-self” (singular) or “-selves” (plural), The reflexive pronouns are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves. ) Example sentences: Ae cut himself while shaving. I sent myself to bed. He could hurt himself! We must help ourselves. She trasts herself. Intensive Pronouns “{ntensive” means “giving force or emphasis.” ‘An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used for emphasis. In other words, intensive pronouns emphasize the subject of the sentence. They are written exactly the same way as the reflexive pronouns, but their function is different. ~I myself baked the cake The queen herself recommended this restaurant. -Have you yourself been there? The project itself wasn’t difficult. We will do it ourselves. Reciprocal Pronouns Reciprocal means that two people or groups do the same thing to each other. They treat each other in the same way. For example, Joe loves Kate, and Kate loves Joe. So we can say, “Kate and Joe love each other.” — example: Mike helps Lucy, and Lucy helps Mike, So we can say, “Mike and Lucy help ch other.”8 There are two reciprocal pronouns in English: Each other and one another. — The cat and the dog like each other. We must stop fighting one another. They can't hear one another. The tw ene They ae hate each other. a each other Christmas presen Indefinite Pronouns 2~Indefinite” means “not exact, not limited.” ndefini Indefinite pronouns are pronouns that do not refer to any specific person or thi ing, Examples: (Anything, everybody, another, each, few, many, none, some/ Example sentences: Can anyone call her? _-Many have died during the war. Something can be done to help. phrase to avoid repetition. them, him, her, this, those L Everybody wants to see you. un or noun dance with me. A pronoun is used in place of a no uns: I, you, we, they, he, she, it, me, us, I want her to Mary is tired. She wants to sleep. + (DESCRIBING Word) _ in or pronoun. 5 more information about a nou! young, fun, crazy, three, etc. Examples of prono' Example sentences: 1.3.1 __ ADJECTIVE An adjective describes, modifies or gives Examples: Big, pretty, expensive, big, happy, green, Example sentences: The little girl had a The new car broke down. He has big blue eyes. The old lady was talking in a quiet voice. which means “to throw.” from the Latin word jacere, pink hat. The word “adjective” comes Different Types of Adjectives Adjectives can be divided into several types based on how and the sense of sentence in its use. Opinion Nice, pretty, stupid, original, expensive, etc. Size Big, small, large, tiny, enormous, little, etc. Age Young, old, new, ancient, antique, etc. Shape Round, square, flat, straight, etc. Color Blue, red, white, black, dark, bright, yellowish, etc. Origin Italian, British, Mexican, western, southern, etc. plastic, golden, etc. 1, wooden, person oF thing you Material Meta Determiners A determiner is a word that comes before about. a noun to show which are talkingParts of Speech 9 Examples: A, an, the, my, your, some, any, several, enough, any. Example sentences: Thave a red hat. Please give me my bag. Some people decided to leave. She doesn’t want any money. They watched several movies, Some people consider determiners to be a type of adjective. What's special about determiners is that you usually can use only one determiner at a time. Incorrect: He has the my ticket, Correct: He has my ticket / He has the ticket. Nouns that act like adjectives Sometimes nouns function as adjectives. In other words, they come before another noun and describe it. Examples: Sports car Orange juice Television station Coffee shop Book cover Comparative adjectives “Comparative” means “comparing something to something else.” Comparative adjective shows us which thing is better, worse, stronger, weaker, and so forth. Examples: Better, worse, bigger, smaller, nicer, fatter, thinner, more dangerous. Example sentences: You are stronger than me. He seems healthier, You are more beautiful than her. Superlative adjectives “Superlative” means “of the highest degree.” Superlative adjectives show us which thing is the best, the strongest, and so forth. Examples: Best, worst, strongest, smallest, cheapest, most expensive. Example sentences: You are my best friend. This is the worst day of my life. 14___ VERB - (ACTION WORD) A verb shows an action or state of being. A verb shows what someone or something is going on/ doing. or a word or group of words that express an action or a state.av Examples: go, jump, become, drive, speak, run, eat, play, live, walk, have, Example sentences: We had a nice lunch. I study their charts and play.their games. He drove for hours. I think that he is right. The word “verb” comes for the Latin word verbum, which means “word.” Auxiliary Verbs (also called “helping verbs” ) Auxiliary verbs are verbs that are used together with the main verb of the senten action or state. Main verb + auxiliary verb = complete idea ce to express thi The main auxiliary verbs are: Derivatives of ‘Be’ form; be, am, is, are, was, were, do, did, Derivatives of ‘Have’ form : have, has, had Example sentences (the auxiliary verb is in bold, and the main verb is underlined): She was sitting. Is she sleeping? ‘We have gone a long way. They are jogging. We were waiting for hours. He didn’t know the answer. Has she received any of my letters? Do you smoke? Will she help? Compound Verbs ‘A compound verb = auxiliary verb + main verb. ° | Examples: has eaten, doesn’t want. He didn’t tell us the truth. She will meet us there. was playing, They were discussing their future. T have finished my homework. Stative Verbs Stative verbs are verbs that express a state rather than an action. Examples: | be, seem, love, own, want, sound, have, know, understand. Examples sentences: She is a great wife. He seems rather strange. Stative verbs are usually not used in the progressive tenses.es Parts of Speech 11 Examples: Incorrect: He is wanting to see you. Correct: He wants to see you. Incorrect: T am knowing what to do. Correct: I know what to do. Incorrect: They are seeming nice. Correct: They seem nice. er, if the i 7 Howevs same verb is used to describe an actual action (not a state), then it can be used in the progressive tenses. Example: the verb “have” means “own” — it i PA . When n” — it is a state. So we do not use it in the progressive tenses. Incorrect: I am having a laptop. Correct: T have a laptop. When the verb “have” means “eat” — it is an actual action, So we can use it in the progressive tenses. Correct: T am having lunch with Kate. Correct: T have lunch with Kate. Dynamic Verbs Dynamic verbs are the opposite of stative verbs. They express a real action. Examples: Jump, swim, catch, write, call, sleep, hit, open, speak. Example sentences: They swim to the other side. She hit me on the head! Open the window, please. The dynamic verbs can be used in the progressive tenses. Correct: He is drinking water. Correct: He drinks water. Regular Verbs Regular verbs are verbs that follow this rule: Past form of the verb = present form of the verb + ed / d. Examples: Past form of “check” = check + ed = checked. Past form of “open” = open + ed = opened.12 et <= Past form of “bake” = bake + d = baked. There are certain rules to adding “d” or “ed” to a verb. Read about them in the Regu.) and Irregular Verbs section. Irregular Verbs Irregular verbs are verbs that do not follow the above tule, and there are quite a lot of them! Examples: Past form of “drink” = drank. Past form of “sleep” = slept. Past form of “bring” = brought. Phrasal Verbs A phrasal verb is a verb that is combined with an adverb or a preposition. The combination creates a new meaning. Examples: Run = to move very quickly with your legs. (“She can run fast!”) Into = in the direction of something. (“He looked into my eyes.”) Run into = to meet someone by accident. (“I ran into Joe yesterday.”) Make = to create or do something. (“He made a lot of noise.”) Up = to a higher point. (“Look up!”) Make up = invent (a story, an excuse). (“It never happened. He made the whole thing up!”) = to place something somewhere. (“Could you put this upstairs?”) | Put Up = to a higher point. (“Look up!”) With = concerning (‘‘She is happy with her workplace.”) Put up with = to tolerate. (“I cannot put up with his behavior any more!”) 1.5 ADVERB - (DESCRIBES A VERB) An adverb is a word that describes/modifies or gives more information about a verb, an adjective or another adverb, It tells how, where, when, how often or to what extent. Many adverbs generally | end in -LY | Examples: slowly, quietly, very, always, never, too, well, tomorrow, here Example sentences: T am usually busy. Yesterday, I ate my lunch quickly. Adverbs usually answer the following questions : Where? Home. (“I went home.”) When? Yesterday. (“We met yesterday.”) How? Slowly. (“The turtle moves slowly.”)Parts of Speech 13 How often? Sometimes. (“Sometimes it stops responding.”) How long? Temporarily. (“She is staying with us temporarly.”) How likely? Surely. (“Our team will surely win!”) ‘To what degree? Very. (“She was very pleased.) an adverb can describe a verb: He runs quickly. ‘an adverb can describe an adjective: He is so handsome. ‘an adverb can describe another adverb: She smokes very rarely. ‘An adverb can describe an entire sentence: Naturally, you don’t have to come, The word “adverb” comes for the Latin ad- (in addition) and verbum (word). In General (but not always!) adverbs have the following form: Adjective + “ly” Examples: Quick + ly = quickly Strange + ly = strangely Dead + ly = deadly Sudden + ly = suddenly Clever + ly = cleverly Brave + ly = bravely Real + ly = really When an adjective ends with “y” replace the “y? with an “4”; Heavy + ly = heavi + ly = heavily Happy + ly = happi + ly = happily When the adjective ends with an “e” drop the “e”: True + ly = tru + ly = truly However, there are many adverbs that do not end in “-ly”: Fast, very, hard, home, just, too, well, never, sometimes, and so forth. We can divide English adverbs into several categories: Adverbs of degree, adverbs of manner, adverbs of place, adverbs of time, adverbs of frequency, adverbs of duration, adverbs of probability, comparative adverbs and superlative adverbs. Adverbs of degree Adverbs of degree show us the strength or degree of the action or state, They answer the following questions: . How much? To what degree? “amples: Very, highly, totally, perfectly, partially, almost. Pre14 Example sentence: He is very concemed with you We almost made it to the You are totally right Adverbs of manner adverbs of manner show us the way 4 he train 5 setion <0" How nis done. They answer the followin (Uo Example Well, badly, nicely. slowly. loudly, quietly.» an happily, sadly, secretly, weakly Example sentences: He handled the situation well She tstenc secretly to theif conversation The children ran happily to their father Adverbs of place Adverbs of place show us the logation of the action oF state, They answer the following question Where? Examples: Home. here. there. outside, inside, away. around, anywhere, abroad, up, down, out. Example sentence’ We are here. He went home. We found him outside She looked up. Adverbs of time Adverbs of time show us the time of the action or state. They answer the following question: When? Examples: Now, soon, later, yesterday. tomorrow, early, before, lately. recently. Example sentences: Let’s talk now I will do it Later. He promised to write back soon, — What are you doit We haven't met befere Adverbs of frequency erbs of frequenes show us the Hrequeney of the action or state. They answer the followin, question How often’ Examples: Always. never. Sometimes, often, rarely, usually, occasionallyFe Parts of Speech 15 gxample sentences: | always brush my teeth after a meal, He is usually here on time, We often meet and chat. Adverbs of duration Adverbs of duration show us the length of the action or state. They answer the following question: For how long? Examples: Forever, constantly, temporarily, briefly, Example sentences: He is working there temporarily. We spoke briefly. | will be forever grateful, Adverbs of probability ‘Adverbs of probability show us the chances for the action or state to happen. They answer the following question: How likely? Examples: Certainly, maybe, probably, possibly, surely. Example sentences: She will certainly forget about it. Maybe we'll come after all. It will probably not work. Surely you are not serious! 1.6 PREPOSITION - (SHOWS RELATIONSHIP) A preposition is a word that is used before a noun or a pronoun to connect it to another word in the sentence. It is usually used to show location, direction, time, and so forth. Examples: by, for, at, on, in, from, with, near, between, about, under,,,, Example sentences: I sat on the floor. Let’s go into the house. We will meet at four o'clock. Have a look under the couch. | He went to school. This letter is for you. The word “preposition” comes from the Latin word praeponere (put before). So prepositions usually come before the noun/pronoun. | 1.7 CONJUNCTION - (JOINING WORD) A conjunction is a part of speech that joins two words, phrases or clauses together.16 There are three types of conjuney, Hons; Coordinating Cons Conjunctions Conjuntive tion, io" SO > cither.on Common Subordis axing com > and > neither. nop meen ~ n oft = = > notomly..ty > bee 7 me 5 before > if —— > although > lest > > both...and though > even if oe > whether...or > “Ven though > that as a > cha > unless > oma > until > 4 ‘ON as, > when recatise > where > — since > whether > — so that > while Coordinating conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions, also called coordinators, are conjunctions that connect two or More equa} items. Examples: He plays tennis and soccer He works quickly but accurately You'd better do your homework, or you'll get a terrible grade. Correlative conjunctions. Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs. They work in pairs to coordinate two items. Examples ¢ correlative conjunctions includeboth...and..., eith 17, not only... but also... Examples: I didn’t know that she can neither read nor write. You can either walk to school or take the bus. Both Sara and James are invited to the party. Whether you watch TV or do your homework is your decision. Not only are they noisy but they are also lazy. Subordinating conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are conjunctions that join a dependent (9 subordinating) clause to an independent (or main) clause. Examples: He reads the newspapers after he finishes work. Even if you get the best grade in the writing test, you'll need to pass an oral test. etmre Although be is very old, he goes jogeing every m Fie or She didn’t go to school because she was ill Ty morning. Parts of Speech 17 They went to bed since it was late As soon as the teacher had arrived they started work. , work. “$0”, subordinating conjunction or coordinator? small English word that can h sorisas an have different mea i av : inings. As mentioned earlier, it is ly used vedinator rather than as a subord Seieras nese as600 inating conjunction. Th oc se “50” j jere are, however, instances when “so” imoduce purpose and in this case “So” is used as a subordinating conjunct uo rod s ‘onjunction, Examples: “1 took my umbrella with me so | wouldn't get wet.” el «| stayed so I could see you." The word “conjunction” comes from the Latin word conjungere (join together). gere (join together] INTERJECTION - (EXPRESSIVE WORD) In grammar, an interjection 1s a part of speech or (a lexical category), it is also a word or phrase which is used to show a short sudden expression of emotions/ thoughts/feelings. It is a type of short exclamation Examples: Ouch! Wow! Great! Help! Oh! Hey! Hit Using interjections Interjections or artistic writing ons are often used with exclamation mark are rarely used in academic or formal writing. They are, however, common in fiction Interject! Examples of interjections This is a list of some E 4h - Ah, what a delicious meal! slish interjections: * Aha - Aha. now [sce what you mean! Tove foothall but, alas, I have no talent as a player Eh - Eh? Sav tt again - 1 wasnt listening. * * Alas * + Er. well - hes got a nice friendly sort of face though he’s not Er- “Is he handsome? exactly handsome. Hello - Hello, Paul. I havent seen you for ages. Hey - Hey! Whar are you doing with my car? Hi - Hi. Hmm Oh - fy shat for me? Oh, you're so kind! He savy hes doing it for our benefit.” ” Hmm, I'm still not convinced.” * oe eH18 * Well - Well, what shall we do now? Neon : interjicere between) The word “interjection” comes from the Latin word interjicere (throw ne oe Final Words on the English Parts of Speech oe bee dee sr apeceh a certai WOE ver +e ill give you the ans iccless! Ifyou find any difficulty by yourself in knowing which par best solution is to check it out in a dictionary. The dictionary | together with examples on how to use the word. And that is DFChapter 2 Common Errors Identification in Parts of Speech 91 INTRODUCTION English grammar section is an important part for all the competitive exams. This section has the maximum share of the weightage and plays a vital role in shaping up your overall performance. It is very necessary to have a good hold on grammar and vocabulary to ace this section with ease. Parts of speech is considered as the base of English language and you need te have a clear concept to score wel. Generally, in any grammar, parts of speech are categories of words that are used to describe each word’s function in a sentence. The easy way to identify a word’s part of speech is to think about what role the word plays in the sentence, but there are also a few clues that can help you figure out the part of speech if you are unsure about the word’s function. Parts of speech will help you: To recognize which words to capitalize in a title and after a greeting. ‘To know which words need an apostrophe to form the possessive. To know when to insert a comma to connect two sentences correctly. To use the right labels to find information in a search. + ob Ob Oo OF To disagree confidently with people’s out-of-date rules. English has eight main parts of speech, namely, Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions and Interjections. In grammar, the parts of speech, also called lexical categories, grammatical categories or word classes is a linguistic category of words. 2.2 USE OF NOUN 2.2.1 __Rutes FoR THE Correct Use or NouN Rule 1: A proper noun becomes a common noun when it is used in the plural form, or an article is placed before it. aan atic \ 19 awy 20 Example: There are five Gandhis in our college. of your college. « of India. Rule 2: A collective noun takes a singular ver®- Dinesh Kumar is Kalidas is the Shak € consists of five members. Example: The commit CN vi 4] ennai. The family living next door has come from Chennai jes a i un 1 Note: If we refer to the members of the committee or family separately, collective n™ plural verb, but is (the collective noun) remains singular in form, rare Rule 3: An abstract noun can also be used as @ common Noun PY Placing an article i a Example: Rajani is a beauty. (a beautiful girl) Rule 4: An abstract noun can also be used in the sense Of @ Example: The youth of the country must be encoura young people) 7 in the plural form. Rule 5: When a material noun denotes a mass of matter, it is not used 2 the PI vis bil of brick Example: Their house is built of bricks and stones. (incorrect sentence) Their hous' and stone. (correct sentence) \-Riulle 6: Some nouns such as sheep, species, deer, aireraft, order, offspring, same form for the plural as well as for the singular. The following are belong to this category. Example: These species are endangered. (as plural) This is the rate species of water birds. (as singular) : scenery, pefore it collective noun. youth—the ged to work hard, (the yoke, etc., have the some nouns tha \-Rule 7: Some nouns such as advice, corn, grain, justice, clothing, information, poetry, machinery; hair, etc. are used in the singular only. Example: The scenery of the snow-capped mountains is amazing to look at. Different types of clothing is worn by people of different parts of the country. Note: Advice is the noun form and advise is the verb form. Example: The advice of the doctor is that I should not smoke. (noun) The doctor advised me not to smoke. (verb) Similarly, praetice is a noun and practise is a verb. Rule 8: The following nouns are used only in the plural form. scissors trousers bowels billiards | riches —_ gallows. shears pantaloons intestines gymnastics thanks innings bellows socks biceps premises. nuptials doldrums spectacles shorts genitals proceeds outskirts eaming \Rule 9: The following nouns are apparently plural in form but are singular in use. news : : i ; economics physics measles mumps ethicseee Common Errors Identification in Parts of Speech 21 Note: summons is singular and summonses is a plural exe 10: The following nouns are always used in plural Examples: cattle, public, police, people, etc. Rule 11: When a plural noun denotes a specific amount, length, weight, quantity, etc., considered as a whole, the verb must be in the singular form. Example: Ten thousand rupees is a large amount. Six kilometer is not a long distance for a runner like you. Rule 12: The following inanimate objects (lifeless object) which are remarkable for beauty, gentleness, gracefulness, tendemess, weakness, and so on, are treated as females. the moon the earth spring virtue peace charity fame nature hope justice mercy pity fortune truth victory defeat modesty liberty Note: Poets refer to them as females Rule 13: The following inanimate things which are known for the strength courage, violence, superiority, and so forth, are treated as males, | | the sun death summer winter war | anger fear thunder oor ‘os 24) Rute 14: When two or more nouns are joined by ‘and’, and_a joint posession is meant, the | possessive case will be formed by adding (’s) to the last word. Example: Amar and | Kumar's house is really beautiful. Note: This sentence denotes that one house belongs to both Amar and Kumar. Rule 15: When there are two nouns in apposition, the possessive case will be formed by adding (‘s) to the second noun. Example: Dr. Faraday, the scientist's discovery is a great contribution to science. Mohan, the professor’s son, is very intelligent. Note: These sentences denote that the two nouns in apposition (the addition or application of one noun to another noun). Rule 16: The possessive case of a compound noun will be formed by adding (’s) to the last word. Example: sister-in-law’s house, commander-in-chief’s office Rule 17: If the last syllable of a singular noun ends in -s or -ce and the noun is followed by the word ‘sake’, the possessive case of the noun will be formed by adding (’) only. Example: for goodness’ sake for justice’ sake for conscience’ sake for Jesus’ sakea ee eee 22 2.2.2 __USE OF Pronouns Rules for the Correct Use a Rule 1: Some important uses gp ronouns (a) to introduce a sen Example: It is not the pronoun ‘it? are given below with ‘example tence 5 certa . (b) to give emphasis Example: Itwas you iN that the president will come. to the noun or pronoun that follows (c) as an indefinite nom Example: It rains. ae of an impersonal verb <(d) in the sentence showing ce Example: It is not far to walk. * ~(e) in sentences indicating time Example: It is ten o’clock now, <(f to introduce a phrase Example: It is decided to declare holiday today. (gin exclamatory sentences Example: What a beautiful book it is! _A(h) to introduce a that clause Example: It is said that smoking is injurious to health, (i) as a sort of object in order to avoid repetition Example: Let us fight it (the fight) out. Rule 2; While confes sing a fault (or expressing a negative idea) the sequence of the personal pronouns should be as follows: Example: J, you, and he are in the wrong and will be punished. Sequence: First person first, second person next and third person last. Rule 3: While expressing a positive idea or praise, the sequence of the personal pronouns sh be as follows: Example: He, you, and I, will get an award for the good work we have done. Sequence: Third person first, second person next and first person last. Rule 4: When two singular nouns are joined by and denote the same person or thing, the pronoun for them must be singular in number. The definite article ‘the’ is placed before the first now Example: The accounts officer and treasurer should be careful in his work of keeping accoun Rule 5: When two singular nouns joined by and are preceded by each or every, the pro must be in singular number. Example: Every student and every teacher took his seat.Common Errors Identification in Parts of Speech 23 6; When a personal pronoun is connected by a conjunction with some ‘other word in the pale objective case, it must be in the objective or accusative case. + These clothes are for you and me. . When a singular noun and a plural noun are combined by or, either ... OF neither .-- Taal nor, the singular noun preferably comes first in the sentence, and the pronoun must be in the plural number. Either the manager or his subordinates failed in their_duty in sending the official message. sg; When nouns of different genders are combined by a conjunction, the pronoun must agree Rule with the gender of the one which is next to it (conjunction). gxample mple: Every boy and girl went to her house. qT Ls Every girl and boy went to his house. The personal pronouns such as ‘yours’, ‘ours’, ‘hers’, ‘theirs’, and ‘its’ are written without the apostrophe (°) Example: Your’s sincerely (wrong) Yours sincerely (right) 9; When a personal pronoun is used as a complement to the verb ‘to be’, it (the pronoun) must be in the nominative case. 9: v Rlle Rule ! example: It was he, who could solve the problem easily ale 11: A pronoun should be used in the objective case in a sentence beginning with ‘let’. Example: Let him go to his office immediately. Let her submit the records in time. 12: One can be used to talk about people in general. The pronoun that follows one should Rul " be followed by one’s. (not his/ her) Example: One should do his duty. (incorrect) One should do one’s duty. (correct) ‘Note: But there is a controversy here. In American English ‘one’ can be followed by ‘h However, usually one need not worry about this problem. If a sentence begins with ‘one’, be sure that ‘you’ or ‘they’ DOES NOT follow. Hence it is never correct to say: ? or ‘her’. If one takes this exam without studying, you are likely to fail. (incorrect) One should never tell his secrets to a gossip if he wishes them to remain secret. (correct) Rule 13: A relative pronoun must always be placed as near its antecedent as possible. Also, it must always agree with its antecedent in number, gender and person. Example: This is the manager who abused the clerk. Antecedent relative pronoun Rule 14: Generally, the relative pronoun in the objective case is omitted. Example: The student whom you wanted to punish is absent today. The student you wanted to punish is absent today. (whom is omitted)24 \Riile 15: Example: Rule 16: ene} Example: Rule 17: Rule 18: Rule 19: Example: > erally used for persons ‘The pronouns who, whom and whos Who is used in the nominative case. Whom is used in the objective case. is used in the possessive case. Who: 1. Sarita is the student who got an award. 2. They are the thieves whom the police caught. 3. This is the student whose certificates are lost. When the relative pronoun is in different cases, one in the nominative and other in th, objective, it must be mentioned twice, once for each verb, The girl, who is my daughter and whom you met in the library yesterday, left to Mumb,, this morning. | Uses of WHICH (1) for infants, small animals, and objects Example: This is the baby which was lost in the theatre. TI bought from the Kennel’s club. (2) when selection is expressed Example: Which of these televisions do you want to purchase? his is the dog which my frieng (3) to refer to a sentence Example: He was said to be drunk, which was not true, Uses of THAT (1) for persons, lifeless things and Example: This is the girl that failed in the exam. This is the radio that I bough yesterday. (2) as a substitute for a singular noun already mentioned (pay attention to this use particularly in the comparative degree) ‘The climate of Hyderabad is much better than Madras. (incorrect) ‘The climate of Hyderabad is much better than that of Madras. mall animals in the singular or in the plural numby Example: (here ‘that’ stands for climate) (3) After a noun phrase used as direct object. Example: I vividly remember the night that she eame. (here “that” is used in the sense o ‘when’) cpither’ and ‘neither” are used in speaking of two persons or places or things etc Neither Mahesh nor Mohan is intelligent. (negative meaning is implied) Either Mahesh or Mohan is expected to get a prize. (positive meaning is implied) RT