Opinion Section

54

Available for free online at https://ojs.hh.se/

Journal of Intelligence Studies in Business 3 (2013) 54-62

No dice nada de IC. Ni me lo he leído. Sólo las

conclusiones y promete ser un rollo

Big Data, Tacit Knowledge and Organizational

Competitiveness

Nowshade Kabir and Elias Carayannis

Grenoble Graduate School of Business, France

Email: [email protected]
George Washington University School of Business, USA
Email: [email protected]

Received October 10, accepted 19 December 2013

ABSTRACT: In the process of conducting everyday business, organizations generate and gather a large number
of information about their customers, suppliers, competitors, processes, operations, routines and procedures.
They also capture communication data from mobile devices, instruments, tools, machines and transmissions.
Much of this data possesses an enormous amount of valuable knowledge, exploitation of which could yield
economic benefit. Many organizations are taking advantage of business analytics and intelligence solutions to
help them find new insights in their business processes and performance. For companies, however, it is still a
nascent area, and many of them understand that there are more knowledge and insights that can be
extracted from available big data using creativity, recombination and innovative methods, apply it to new
knowledge creation and produce substantial value. This has created a need for finding a suitable approach in
the firm’s big data related strategy. In this paper, the authors concur that big data is indeed a source of
firm’s competitive advantage and consider that it is essential to have the right combination of people, tool
and data along with management support and data‐oriented culture to gain competitiveness from big data.
However, the authors also argue that organizations should consider the knowledge hidden in the big data as
tacit knowledge and they should take advantage of the cumulative experience garnered by the companies
and studies done so far by the scholars in this sphere from knowledge management perspective. Based on this
idea, a big data oriented framework of organizational knowledge‐based strategy is proposed here.

KEYWORDS: Big data, tacit knowledge, big data strategy, knowledge management, knowledge strategies and
organizational knowledge
 Opinion Section
55

Introduction what type of knowledge is found in big data? Can

this knowledge be considered as tacit knowledge?
One of the key driving forces of knowledge What should be the right strategy for organizations
economy is knowledge intensity of economic to handle a knowledge resource as complex as big
activities (Smith, 2002). In recent decades data? In the article we try to answer to these
increasing dependence of economy on knowledge questions and offer a big data related strategy
has bolstered by rapid pace of technological framework. The rest of the article is divided into
innovation and information technology revolution. several parts: a short discussion on the present
This, in turn, propelled the emergence of new interest in big data followed by a review of big
knowledge‐based industries and augmented share data concept, analysis of knowledge and tacit
of knowledge as a resource in economic input in knowledge in the context of big data, a holistic
most traditional industries. Knowledge, now, is big data strategy model with explanation and finally,
recognized as a pillar of innovation, a source of the closing remarks.
economic growth and a central element in
organization's competitive advantage (Stehr, 1994). Why now?
This heightened importance of knowledge, in part
thanks to globalization and speedy technological The emergence of big data phenomenon is the result
advancement, obliges organizations to pay serious of a blending of several rising trends: the
attention to their existing, potential and growing proliferation of social and business networks, the
knowledge resources. growth of mobile telecommunication, dramatic cost
reduction in data collection, storage, processing and
Present phenomenal growth of knowledge resource transportation and the increased deployment of
can be attributed to several factors such as sensors and machine to machine communication
continuous advances in information technology along with technological advancement in cloud
related hardware, development of new algorithms computing, smart ICTs, data mining and analytics
and programs, ubiquitous access to information (OECD, 2011).
thanks to the Internet and steady decline of cost
related to data creation, transmission and storage. In LaValle et al. (2010) assert that companies that use
recent years, the combination of these factors has business information and analytical tools in their
also prompted the appearance of a new knowledge differentiation strategy have twice as many chances
resource, which is capable of further revolutionizing to be in the group of top performers than lower
organizational knowledge landscape. This new performers of their industry.
knowledge resource is big data!
Big data can produce minimum two types of values
Big data is a unique knowledge resource that is to an organization. Firstly, it can be a source of
immensely valuable to any organization. It helps innovation. Specially, it can enable development of
transforming many of the traditional methods of new products, processes and services. Secondly, use
conducting business activities. Insights and of various analytics on big data can generate
knowledge from big data boost management’s knowledge and insights that can support and
ability to take well‐informed decisions (Provost and improve organizational decision making
Fawcett, 2013). Efficient use of data created and significantly (Provost and Fawcett, 2013). The
located within a firm and collection and analysis of present interest in big data grew mostly thanks to
critical data from external sources impact a firm's these new value creation possibilities that were
product, process and strategic innovation as well unavailable to most companies even recently due to
as marketing and operational capabilities. Current the high cost of data storage, processing and
development shows that big data has already become analyzing.
a major catalyst in bringing sweeping changes to a
Big Data – the concept
range of business processes in many industries. As
a result of this, organizations’ interest in big data Big data is a concept that means, firstly, the
initiatives has intensified significantly. A study volume of the data is too large. Secondly, it is
done by Tata consulting (2013) shows that almost impossible to analyze it using conventional
half of the companies surveyed have introduced technologies, and thirdly, special tools and
some types of big data projects, and they are treatment are necessary to extract knowledge from
expecting a very high return from these initiatives. it (Manyika et al., 2001). Another way of viewing
No doubt that big data is considered as a big data is to regard it as a massive pool of data that
valuable knowledge resource. If that is the case,
 Opinion Section
56

allows creating insights and values that are not two sides of knowledge continuum (Nonaka and
possible to generate from smaller scale of same data Takeuchi, 1995). Explicit knowledge is the type of
(Jacobs, 2009). knowledge, which can be expressed using common
language and codes. It is fully transferable and easy
Douglas Laney (2001) of Gartner, while explaining to share (Nonaka, 1991). Tacit knowledge, on the
the challenges related to data growth noted that other hand, is subjective and informal (Polanyi,
there are three dimensions to this problem: 1958; Nonaka, 1995). Taking after Polanyi's view,
increasing amount of data – the growth of its the concept of tacit knowledge and its place in
volume, inflow and outflow speed of data – its organizational knowledge creation was largely
velocity and heterogeneity of the data types and popularized by Nonaka (1995) and defined as
sources – data variety, the three Vs. This has knowledge that indwells human mind and body
become the industry standard in characterizing big (Nonaka and Von Krogh, 2009). Many subjectivist
data. However, many argues that along with this scholars believe that tacit knowledge cannot be
model, value, veracity and variability also should articulated, captured or interpreted in any form as
be included as they are more important than the this type of knowledge gets developed and remains
attributes of 3Vs (Swoyer, 2012). embodied only in the human mind (See Tsoukas
2006). However, others conclude while some tacit
The concept of knowledge
knowledge is impossible to explicate, most tacit
Definition of knowledge in organizational science knowledge can be codified (Nonaka, 1995; Collins,
differs from the classical epistemological view of 2010).
knowledge as "justified true belief" (Nonaka and
We believe that reality exists independently from
Von Krogh, 2009). Despite its long history, the
the human mind and knowledge, including tacit
concept of knowledge is still subjective, complex
knowledge, can reside in various other silos apart
and opaque. As a result, we see numerous
from the human cognizance (Searle, 1993). Many
variations of definitions of knowledge depending
other scholars also support this notion. Walsh and
on discipline, context, approach and task at hand. In
Ungson (1991) posit that knowledge resides in five
a broader sense, and for the purpose of this article,
venues of an organization: people, roles and
knowledge can be defined as information that is
organizational structures, operating procedures and
validated, contextual, relevant and actionable
practices, culture, and the physical structure of the
(Soliman and Youssef, 2003). Another similar
workplace. Hershbach (1995) believes
definition is, knowledge is tested, validated and
Technological activities embody a larger portion of
codified information (Earl, 1994).
tacit knowledge than we normally recognize. Some
Scarbrough & Barrel (1996) propose the content researchers describe tacit knowledge as uncertain,
theory of knowledge, where knowledge is deemed unstructured, indeterminate, and indirect (See
as an object that can be codified and stored. This Kikoski and Kikoski, 2004) and others conclude
approach of objectification of knowledge brings tacit knowledge is the kind of knowledge which is
flexibility to the perception of knowledge. implied but not yet documented (Junnarkar and
Knowledge as an object can be acquired, integrated, Brown, 1988). These views support the idea that
stored and disseminated much like a commodity and knowledge, insights, patterns, indicators and
becomes a tradable product (Carlsson et al., 1996). pointers embedded in big data and waiting to be
In knowledge science knowledge is also considered extracted are a form of tacit knowledge.
as information with meaning, information is data
Knowledge management strategy
with context and data is a basic element of analysis
(Boisot, 1995). This concatenation of data, Organizational knowledge management strategy
information and knowledge is the most popular refers to planning and deployment of methods,
model of their correlation in knowledge and processes, procedures and guidelines of knowledge
information literature (Rowley, 2007). acquisition, organization, utilization and
distribution in order to achieve business goals.
Tacit knowledge
Knowledge being a valued resource, knowledge
Much of the theoretical understanding of tacit management strategy must be always aligned with
knowledge in knowledge science derives from the organization's business strategy (Eisenhardt and
Polanyi's concept of tacit and explicit knowing Santos, 2002). For example, focus of knowledge
(Polanyi, 1962). Tacit and explicit knowledge are management strategy can be the development of
intellectual capital using both knowledge
 Opinion Section
57

exploration and knowledge exploitation and as a Management support

result gain competitive advantage (Zack, 1999)
Knowledge exploitation strategy builds upon For any transformation oriented knowledge project
existing knowledge and knowledge exploration on to become successful, it requires strong support
acquisition of new knowledge. Both of them are from management (Davenport et al., 1997).
vital in organization's overall knowledge strategy Management support should include: giving clear
(Ichijo, 2002). These knowledge strategies motivational message to the organization about the
encompass knowledge processes that include importance of the big data project and its
knowledge creation, acquisition, integration, benefits in company's success, participating in
sharing, replication, storage, organization, identifying objectives and domain of the big data
measurement and identification (Grant, 2008) and projects, allocating finance and other required
require performing balancing act between external resources and monitoring success. Success of a big
and internal factors relevant to organization’s goals. data project depends among others on having a
clear understanding of what types of knowledge and
Big data strategy insights are necessary in a decision making process.
Often, this requires knowledge way beyond data
The sudden emergence of big data as a source for engineering skills of a data specialist. On the
new knowledge, valuable insights, and innovation other hand, the business decision makers also
and, as a result, competitive advantage has caught need to have knowledge about what type of big
many companies off‐guard. The fact that data can provide needed insights. This means
management can have a more holistic picture of people involved in the big data project either have
their business and convert that knowledge to to have the necessary knowledge and education or
make more informed decision and improve overall they have to develop needed skills and core
company performance is forcing firms to adopt competencies.
comprehensive big data related knowledge
strategies. Mere adoption of a strategy based on Senior management's commitment and involvement
industry experience is not good enough. Knowledge in facilitating learning are crucial in building an
strategy, in this case, must be aligned with the adequately knowledgeable team capable of
expected insights and knowledge received from big accomplishing big data project related assignments.
data and correlated to the business strategy, so that
this new knowledge can be implemented across
the board. This means focusing on not just
Infrastructure
understanding how the insights and knowledge can
be infused in the business processes but also take Organizational Infrastructure includes people,
necessary actions to embed the new knowledge in process, technology, structure and their correlation.
the business processes of most critical areas starting Big data related infrastructure needs to be focused
from new product development to customer on innovation and knowledge creation and, as a
satisfaction and from manufacturing to logistics. result, should have a high degree of flexibility and
freedom. To achieve set strategic objectives
Big data strategy framework
organizational structure and roles should ensure a
Rubenstein‐Montano et al. (2001) asserts that a seamless flow of best practices throughout the
holistic framework of knowledge management that firm. Strategic goals setting and decision making
covers general requirements and can be followed in relation to the big data project should come
by any knowledge management initiative from top management. If the big data initiative
independent of methodologies and tools is essential. envisioned to be a large project, it makes sense to
Following this suggestion in this paper we propose appoint a chief data officer who can oversee all data
a universal strategy framework suitable for any related projects.
organization in relation to big data initiatives from
People
knowledge management strategy perspective.
Prerequisites Big data projects need to have different skills set
than organizations are normally accustomed to. This
An organization must possess or develop several
is one of the added reasons why it is necessary to
critical preconditions in order to implement an
pay special attention to the key success factor of a
initiative successfully, to execute the processes
big data project ‐ people. Depending on the kind of
smoothly and to ensure having expected outcome.
technologies the company is planning to implement,
 Opinion Section
58

it would require at the IT level specialists in cloud sense from big data. Business intelligence
architecture, Hadoop, MapReduce, Semantic Webs professional understands the business decisions
and number of other key areas. Vital to big data needs and capable of analyzing the big data in order
project are the holders of a new job title called data to divulge correlations, knowledge and insights.
scientist. Data scientists are necessary for making

Figure 1: Big data strategy framework

Data‐driven culture considered as part of dynamic capabilities of the

firm and are divided as potential absorptive
Organizational culture is the collective capacity, which derives from knowledge acquisition
programming that includes vision, norms, values, and integration abilities and realized absorptive
symbols, rituals, beliefs, habits and attitudes of the capacity, which encompasses transformation and
members that work as a normative glue in unifying exploitation of knowledge (Zahra and George,
the organization and influence the behavior of an 2002). Absorptive capacity is the firm's capability
individual member (Hofstede, 1996).Having a of developing skills related to tacit knowledge
data‐driven culture that fosters implementation of (Mowery and Oxley, 1995). Kim (1997) deems that
big data projects is imperative for a firm that is it is the firm's learning and problem solving ability
striving to have competitive edge using data‐based and Kedia and Bhagat (1988) view that absorptive
decision‐making and business analytics. Data‐ capacity is firm’s ability to transform in accordance
driven culture means having a clear understanding with technological shift.
among the employees that data is everybody's
business not just IT departments and data has to be Processes
taken in consideration in almost all decision
making. A study by Economist Intelligence Unit A key reason for paying attention to processes in
shows that there is a strong positive link between strategy is the need for the organization to grasp
data‐driven decision‐making and organizational how technologies, people, and processes in
performance. Moreover, data driven companies combination influence its business performance.
with superior performance regard data sharing as a
Goal setting
valuable process. They also consider that shared
data needed to be used across the board and all The first and foremost goal for a company that is
units should collect data proactively (The seriously investing in big data should be to depict
Economist, 2013). a clear vision that emphasizes on the expected
strategic outcome from the realization of the big
Absorptive capacity
data projects. In setting goals and developing
The concept of "Absorptive Capacity" is defined as roadmaps, all relevant departments and units need to
"ability of a firm to identify, assimilate and exploit participate. Setting achievable and measurable goals
knowledge from the environment" (Cohen and is vital for the success of a big data project as half
Levinthal, 1989: p. 569). Absorptive capacity is
 59

of the big data projects initiated never get completed Metrics selection
(LaValle et al., 2011).
The criticism of financial performance based
Team building management style that does not accommodate
knowledge as one of the most valuable assets has
Because of the complex knowledge and skill set that been well documented (Meyer and Gupta, 1994).
are required for receiving effective results from a big Efforts have been made to develop performance
data project, it is necessary to organize the team measurement frameworks that are more
according to organization's business objectives. encompassing and comprehensive in relation to
The two most needed members of such a team are intangible assets (Epstein and Manzoni, 1997) and
a data scientist and a business analytics which in various degrees encapsulate knowledge
professional. Other members may include IT assets measurements (See for example: Edvinsson
specialists and workers from the business and Malone, 1997). Since, big data analytics don't
department most relevant to the data project. For impact on the revenue generation directly, the ROI
example, if the big data team is working on analysis metrics should include indirect benefits
finding a solution related to marketing, for best that emanate from the big data initiative.
result it has to incorporate people from the
marketing department as well (Ohlhorst, 2013). Plan implementation
Mistake will be to assign the team to IT
department. Analyzing information from a number In line with the strategic goals and expected
of large corporations, researchers found that while outcome, a firm needs to create and deploy a
IT departments are highly efficient in data storage roadmap of big data initiative. Along with setting
and protection, they are unable to offer solutions that objectives and milestones, selecting teams
can convert data into business value (Beath et al., members and developing proof of concept one
2012). More over, organizations that are endowed more important issue is to identify and obviate
with a large amount of big data, they have 70 stifles related to the specificity of big data
percent more chances of having business initiative environment. Big data fundamentally
intelligence projects initiated by the business differ from any other technology related projects. At
community rather than IT people (Rowe and White, one side, the team members work with the high
2012). velocity, high volume, high intensity and complex
data in a real‐time environment of discovery and
Technology selection innovation, but the insights and knowledge garnered
in this environment ultimately need to be aligned
Big data projects are complex systems requiring with traditional technology based environment of
various types of information technologies that data compliance, governance, security and
encompasses from storage to applications and perfunctory decision making. Organizations should
include data warehouse solutions, information and be aware that this coupling of the two different
data management, virtualization and visualization, environments might not go smoothly and may have
different analytical tools to name a few. These a negative impact on the implementation of a well
elements can be divided into three categories: developed plan.
Warehouse infrastructure, big data analytics
platforms and big data applications. Big data Outcome
analytics is not a recent phenomenon. Business
intelligence tools are getting used in business The big data generated by the organization's
decision making for more than several decades. business processes and operational activities,
What is new now is the explosive growth of data which include innovation and knowledge related
and capacity to store that data. The sudden activities, as well as employee's skill development,
popularity of big data can be attributed to the have all the potential to become instrumental to
new technological platforms that haveemerged developing competitive advantage. The big data
recently. They are capable of processing and base innovations are still in its infancy! Early
analyzing data in various structures outperforming signs from various large corporations, however,
traditional database technologies in massive scale. demonstrate the immense possibilities that are hold
Selection of needed technologies will depend on in the tacit knowledge hidden in big data.
the followings: data amount, speed of data flow,
Improved human capital
structure of data expected to be used, integration
requirement of the data, expected outcomes from the One of the fundamental elements of organizational
data analysis, users' need, costs, etc. intellectual capital is human capital (Edvinsson and
 60

Sullivan, 1996). Stewart (1999) defines intellectual capturing new business opportunities thanks to
capital as a combination of intellectual elements that aggressive acquisition of external knowledge,
include knowledge, information, intellectual which in turn leads to better innovation, is a key
properties and experience that are applied to to firm's competitiveness (Zhou and Uhlaner,
generate wealth. The execution of big data projects 2009). Big data initiative develops a kind of
requires hiring new talents and developing new dynamic capability that contributes significantly to
professional skills among existing workers. The organizations knowledge base in respect to
experiences of the professionals developed in the knowledge repositories, employees' knowledge
process of big data project are indubitably valuable foundation and absorptive capacity.
assets. Their contribution to the creation of new
knowledge and innovative products, services and Conclusion
processes has a positive influence on the top and
In this paper, we have explored the idea that
bottom lines of an organization.
knowledge residing in the big data is indeed tacit
Innovation and in most of the cases open to explicability. Once
extracted this new knowledge can be transferred,
Most organizations understand that key to used and shared much like any other explicit
sustainable competitive advantage in today's knowledge. This new and unique knowledge has all
globalized and wired world is innovation. In fact, the potential of creating economic value for an
Innovation capabilities, arguably, are the most organization and bolster innovation, productivity
important determinant of firm's performance (Mone and growth. Thus, It is also a possible major
et. al., 1998). Big data is an enabler, a driver and a source of competitive advantage.
source of new products, processes, services,
strategies and business models (Manyika et al., We then proposed a big data centric knowledge
2011). Through big data capturing, aggregating, strategy framework that outlines requirements,
storing and analyzing companies from every processes and outcomes of a big data initiative that
industry and sector have the potential to reap aims at creating competitive advantage. We
benefits of innovation. Innovations originated and recommend consulting and adopting the strategy
spawned from big data can be divided into three framework prior to engaging in a big data project.
categories: The main limitation of this paper is, although, in
this paper we have delineated a strategy model that
Big data‐driven innovation: Innovation where big can be implemented in any organization, the concept
data is the primary material in the development of a is not validated by any empirical research. We
product, service, process or model. One example is suppose that study covering multiple industries on
high speed trading. the impact of this strategic framework is necessary to
identify its strength and weakness.
Big data enabled innovation: In an innovation
where big data works as a catalyst. Examples are: References
Determining marketing campaign effectiveness,
using sensors data to predict machinery failure, Beath, C., Becerra‐Fernandez, I., Ross, J. and Short J.
monitoring customer's experience of a product and (2012). The Forrester Wave: Advanced Data
finding design and manufacturing problems. visualization Platforms, Q3
Boisot, M. (1995). The Information Space.
Big data related innovation: Technology, process Routledge, London.
and service innovation that opens new possibilities Carlsson, S. (2003). Knowledge managing and
in handling big data. Example could be a new in‐ knowledge management systems in inter‐
house business analytics technique. organizational networks. Knowledge and process
management, 10(3), pp. 194‐206.
New knowledge base Cohen, W. and Levinthal, D. (1989). Innovation and
learning: The two faces of R&D, The Economic
Knowledge acquired from diverse sources is crucial
Journal, Volume 99, September, pp. 569‐596.
for creating new knowledge. Organizations pursue
Collins, H. (2010). Tacit and explicit knowledge.
externally sourced knowledge actively as the more
University of Chicago Press.
knowledge absorbed from external sources the
Davenport, T.H., De Long, D.W. and Beers, M.C.
better the chances of new types of knowledge
(1997) Building Successful Knowledge
recombination and generation (Cohen and
Management Projects.
Levinthal, 1989). Developing dynamic capabilities
that help recognizing new possibilities and
 61

Earl, M. J. (1994) The new and the old of Business Meyer, M.W. and Gupta, V. (1994), “The
Process Redesign, Journal of Strategic performance paradox”, Research in
Information Systems, 3(1), March, pp. 5‐22. Organizational Behavior, Vol. 16, pp. 309‐69.
Edvinsson, L., Sullivan, P. H. (1996). Developing a Mone, M.A., McKinley, W. and Barker, V.L. (1998)
model for managing intellectual capital. Organizational decline and innovation: a
European Management Journal, 14(4), pp. 356‐ contingency framework The Academy of
364 Management Review, Jan 1998, Volume: 23
Epstein, M. & Manzoni, J‐F. (1997). The balanced Issue: 1 pp.115‐132.
scorecard and tableau de bord: translating Mowery, D. C., & Oxley, J. E. (1995). Inward
strategy into action. Management Accounting technology transfer and competitiveness: the role
(US) august pp. 28–36. of national innovation systems, Cambridge
Galunic, D.C. and Rodan, S. (1998). Resource Journal of Economics, 1995 – CPES.
Recombination in the Firm: Knowledge Murphy, C. (2003). Tying it all together, Information
Structures and the Potential for Schumpeterian Week, March 17, 8700225.
Innovation. Strategic Management Journal, 19: Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge‐
pp. 1193–1201. creating company. Oxford University Press, NY.
Hofstede, G. (1996). Cultures and Organizations, Nonaka, I. (1991). The Knowledge Creating
Software of the Mind: Intercultural Cooperation Company. Harvard Business Review 69:6: pp. 96‐
and its Importance for Survival, McGraw‐Hill 104.
Jacobs, A. (2009). The pathologies of big data. Nonaka, I. (1995) The Knowledge‐Creating
Communications of the ACM,52(8), pp. 36‐44. Company, Oxford Press, NY.
Jones, P., Packham, G. and Miller, C. (2007) Do You Nonaka, I., & Von Krogh, G. (2009). Perspective—
Mean Us: the experience of teaching enterprise Tacit knowledge and knowledge conversion:
education in Germany? 21st British Academy of Controversy and advancement in organizational
Management conference, 11‐13th September, knowledge creation theory. Organization science,
Paper ref: BAM‐10429, ISBN: 0‐9549608‐3‐1. 20(3), pp. 635‐652.
Junnarkar, B. and C. Brown (1997) Re‐assessing the OECD (2013). Exploring Data‐Driven Innovation as
enabling role of information technology in KM. a New Source of Growth: Mapping the Policy
Journal of Knowledge Management 1(2): pp.142‐ Issues Raised by "Big Data", OECD Digital
148. Economy Papers, No. 222, OECD Publishing.
Kedia, B.L., and Bhagat, R.S. (1988). Cultural Ohlhorst, F. (2013). Big Data Analytics ‐ Turning
constraints on transfer of technology across Big Data into Big Money, John Wiley & Sons,
nations: Implications for research in international Inc., New Jersey.
and comparative management, Academy of Polanyi, M. (1958 & 1962). Personal Knowledge:
Management Review, 13:4, pp. 459‐571. Toward a Post‐critical Philosophy, University of
Kikoski, K. C. and Kikoski, F. J. (2004). The Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
Inquiring Organization: Tacit Knowledge, Provost, F., & Fawcett, T. (2013). Data Science and
knowledge and organizational knowing its Relationship to Big Data and Data‐Driven
Organization Science, 10(4), pp.381‐400. Decision Making. Big Data, 1(1), pp. 51‐59.
Kim, L. (1998). Crisis construction and Rao, M. (2012). Knowledge Management Tools and
organizational learning: Capability building in Techniques In Knowledge Management Tools
catching‐up at Hyundai Motor. Organization and Techniques, pp. 3–4. Abingdon, Oxon:
Science, 9(4), pp. 506–521. Routledge.
Laney, D. (2001), 3‐D Data Management: Rowe, N. and White, D. (2012). Go Big or Go
Controlling Data Volume, Velocity and Variety, Home? Maximizing the Value of Analytics and
META Group Research Note, [online] Big Data, Aberdeen Group.
http://goo.gl/Bo3GS. Rowley, J. (2007). The wisdom hierarchy:
LaValle, S., Lesser, E., Shockley, R., Hopkins, M. S., Representations of the DIKW hierarchy. Journal
& Kruschwitz, N. (2011). Big data, analytics and of Information Science 33: pp. 163‐180.
the path from insights to value. MIT Sloan Rubenstein‐Montano, B. et al. (2001). A systems
Management Review, 52(2), pp. 21‐31. thinking framework for knowledge management.
Manyika, J., Chui, M., Brown, B., Bughin, J., Dobbs, Decision Support Systems 31 (1): 5, pp. 5–16
R., Roxburgh, C., & Byers, A. H. (2011). Big Scarborough, H. & Burrell, G. (1996). The Axeman
data: The next frontier for innovation, Cometh: The Changing Roles & Knowledge of
competition, and productivity. Middle Managers in S. Clegg & G. Palmer (eds):
 62

The Politics of Management Knowledge, Teece, D.J., Pisano, G., Shuen, A. (1997). Dynamic
London: Sage. Capabilities and Strategic Management, Strategic
Smith, K. H. (2002). What is the 'Knowledge Management Journal, Vol. 18:7, pp. 509–533.
Economy'? Knowledge intensity and distributed The Economist, (2013). Fostering a Data‐Driven
knowledge bases (Doctoral dissertation, United Culture, Economist Intelligence Unit.
Nations Univeristy, Institute for New Tsoukas, H. (2006). Complex Knowledge: Studies in
Technologies). Organizational Epistemology, Organization
Soliman, F. and Youssef, M. (2003). The role of Studies October 2006 27, pp. 1563‐1569.
critical information in enterprise knowledge Van den Bosch, F. A. J., A. P. de Man, eds. (1997).
management, Industrial Management & Data Perspectives on Strategy. Kluwer Academic
Systems, Vol 103, No.7, pp. 484‐90. Publishers, Boston.
Stehr, N. (1994). Knowledge societies. Blackwell Walsh, J.P. and Ungson, G.R. (1991). Organizational
Publishing Ltd. memory, Academy of Management Review, Vol.
Stewart, T. (1999). Intellectual Capital: The New 16, pp. 57‐91.
Wealth of Organizations 1st ed., New York, New Zack, M. H. (1999). Managing codified knowledge.
York: Doubleday. Swoyer, S. (2012). Big Data ‐ Sloan management review,40 (4), pp. 45‐58.
Why the 3Vs Just Don't Make Sense, Agile White Zahra, S. and George, G. (2002). Absorptive
Paper, [online] Capacity: A Review, Reconceptualization and
http://www.myagiledata.com/articles/share/1875 Extension", Academy of Management Review,
9/ , accessed on September 01, 2013. Volume 27, Issue 2, pp. 185‐203.
Tata Consulting Services (2013). The Emerging Big Zhou, H., & Uhlaner, L.M. (2009). Knowledge
Returns on Big Data ‐ a TCS 2013 Global Trend management as a strategic tool to foster
Study, India. innovativeness in SMEs. (ERIM report series
ERS‐2009‐025‐ORG) Rotterdam: Erasmus
Research Institute of Management.