CH-12-BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLCATIONS notes
CH-12-BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLCATIONS notes
CH-12-BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLCATIONS notes
Introduction:
Biotechnology essentially deals with large scale production of valuable products
(primary and secondary metabolites, proteins, enzymes, coenzymes, hormones,
second messengers, vitamins, antibiotics, drugs and pharmaceuticals) useful for the
society.
Bacteria, fungi, plants and animals whose genes are manipulated (altered) for producing
valuable products and services are called “Genetically Modified Organisms” (GMO).
The applications of Biotechnology include therapeutics, diagnostics, Genetically
Modified Crops (GMC) food processing, bioremediation, waste treatment and energy
production.
Bt-cotton:
**Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that kill certain insects
such as lepidopterans (tobacco budworm, armyworm), coleopterans (beetles) and
dipterans (flies, mosquitoes).
Specific Bt toxin genes were isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis and incorporated into
the several crop plants such as cotton.
**The choice of Bt toxin genes depends upon the crop and the targeted pest, as most
Bt toxins are insect-group specific.
The toxin is coded by a gene cryIAc named cry.
These proteins forms crystalline inclusions on bacterial spores and hence are called
Crystal proteins (cry proteins).
These cry-proteins are encoded by Crystal genes (Cry-genes) which arc classified mainly
into Cry-I, Cry-II, Cry-III and Cry-IV groups.
**CryIAc and CryIIAb genes via their proteins control the cotton bollworms
(Helicoverpa sp) and CryIAb genes via its proteins control corn borers (Ostrinia
nubilalis).
Toxin coded by cry gene Useful to control
i. cry IAc and cry IIAb Cotton bollworms
ii. cry IAb Corn borer.
The gram-negative, soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumifaciens is a phytopathogen
that causes crown gall disease (tumours) at the collar region in dicot plants.
Crown galls formation is due to the T-DNA (Transfer DNA) present in tumour
inducing (Ti) plasmids of Agrobacterium tumifaciens
T-DNA enters into plant genome, integrates with the plant genome and produces
abnormal amounts of auxins and cytokinins which result crown galls in plants.
The size of T-DNA is approximately 10-30 kbp.
**Ti plasmids are the largest plasmids (150-250 kbp) of the bacterial kingdom and
hence are called megaplasmids.
The size of Ti plasmids is reduced and oncogenes (tumour forming genes) are removed
during the construction of Ti plasmid vectors.
**The removal of oncogenes from Ti-plasmids is known as disarming.
ETHICAL ISSUES:
Ethics includes ‘moral principles’ that control or influence a person’s behaviour.
This is connected with beliefs and principles about what is right or wrong, morally
correct or acceptable.
This includes a set of standards which evaluate the morality of all human activities that
might help or harm living organisms.
Thus bioethics makes a set of standards which is used to regulate our activities in
relation to the whole bio-kingdom.
Now a day, biotechnology, particularly recombinant DNA technology, is used for
exploitation of the biological world by various ways.
Genetically modification of organisms can have unpredictable results when such
organisms are introduced into the ecosystem.
The major bioethical concerns connected to biotechnology are:
i. There is a fear of transferring allergins from genetically modified food to
sensitive humans and animals.
ii. Due to molecular farming there is a risk of changing the fundamental nature
of vegetables.
iii. There is a risk whether they pose harmful effect on biodiversity and overall
impact on environment.
iv. There is a risk of gene pollution (genetic contamination), which may result in
the development of super weeds.
v. Use of animals in biotechnology is cruelty towards animals which causes great
suffering to them.
vi. Transfer of human genes into animals or vice versa is great ethic threat for
humanness.
vii. Biotechnology has no respect for living beings. Its only goal is to exploit them
for commercial use in benefitting human society.
Therefore, the Indian Government has set up organizations such as GEAC (Genetic
Engineering Approval Committee), which will make decisions regarding the validity
of GM research and the safety of introducing GM-organisms for public services
BIOPATENT:
A patent is the right granted by a government to an inventor to prevent others from
commercially using his invention.
It is the legally granted right on intellectual property (property of mind) called
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR).
At present, patents are being granted for biological entities and for products derived
from them. These patents are called biopatents.
Biopatents are awarded for the following:
i. New strains of microorganisms.
ii. Cell lines (cultures of animal cells that can be propagated repeatedly and
sometimes indefinitely.)
iii. Genetically modified of plants and animals.
iv. Novel biotechnological procedures.
v. Novel nucleic acid sequences.
vi. Novel products and biomolecules.
vii. Novel product applications.
Biopatents are being granted by the Government for biological entities and products
derived from them.
**Countries like USA, Japan, members of European Union are granting biopatents.
Biopatents help in economic growth for individual involved and also country
concerned.
Biopatents are being done due to their ethical and political values also.
Biopatents sometimes become ‘absurd’ and problem causing if they are done in broad
sense.
Example: Biopatent of all transgenic plants of Brassica family will provide monopoly (A
market structure characterized by a single seller, selling a unique product in the
market.) to few powerful corporate only.
SUPER BUG:
Ananda Mohan Chakrabarthy, an Indian born American scientist created a
recombinant Multi Plasmid Hydrocarbon Degrading Psuedomonas putida .
This recombinant strain was cloned with Octane, Xylene, Camphor, Naphthalene, 2,
4-D, 2,4,5-T (weedicides) and chlorobenzene degrading plasmid genes. These strains
are applied to clean oil spills in an efficient manner.
In USA, before 1980 Me forms were not permitted to claim patent. But, in 1988, Dr. A.
M. Chakrabarthy was the first scientist to get a US biopatent for creating Oil Eating
Bug.
BIOPIRACY (Biocolonialism/biological theft)
**Biopiracy is the term used to refer to the use of bio-resources by multinational
companies and other organisations without proper authorisation from the countries
and people concerned without compensatory payment.
Most of the industrialized nations are rich financially but poor in biodiversity and
traditional knowledge.
In contrast the developing and the underdeveloped world are rich in biodiversity and
traditional knowledge related to bio-resources.
Traditional knowledge related to bio-resources can be exploited to develop modern
applications and can also be used to save time, effort and expenditure during their
commercialization.
There has been growing realization of the injustice, inadequate compensation and
benefit sharing between developed and developing countries.
Therefore, some nations are developing laws to prevent such unauthorized
exploitation of their bio-resources and traditional knowledge.