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 Index
Experiments

Sr. Title of the Experiment Date Remark

No.
1 To determine resistivity of two / three wires by
plotting a graph for potential difference versus
current.

2 To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor

using a metre bridge.

3 To verify the laws of combination (series) of

resistances using a metre bridge.

4 To determine resistance of a galvanometer by

half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit.

5 To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting

graphs between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v.

6 To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given

prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence
and angle of deviation.

7 To determine the refractive index of a glass slab

using a traveling microscope.

8 To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction

diode in forward and reverse bias.
 Index
Activities

Sr. Title of the Experiment Date Remark

No.

Section A

1 To measure resistance, voltage (AC/DC), current

(AC) and check continuity of a given circuit using
multimeter.

2 To assemble a household circuit comprising three

bulbs, three (on/off) switches, a
fuse and a power source.

3 To assemble the components of a given electrical

circuit.

Section B

4 To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a

capacitor from a mixed collection of
such items.

5 Use of multimeter to see the unidirectional flow of

current in case of a diode and an
LED and check whether a given electronic
component (e.g., diode) is in working
order.
6 To study the effect of intensity of light (by varying
distance of the source) on an LDR.

Experiment – 1
Aim:
To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential
difference versus current.

Apparatus/ Material Required:

A wire of unknown resistance Battery Voltmeter Milliammeter Rheostat Plug key Connecting
wires Piece of sandpaper
Circuit Diagram:

Theory:
According to Ohm’s law, the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference across its ends, provided the physical state (pressure, temperature,
and dimensions) of the conductor remains unchanged.
If I is the current flowing through the conductor and V is the potential difference across its end,
then
V∝I
and hence
V = RI
Where R is the constant of proportionality and is termed as the electrical resistance of the
conductor. ResistanceR depends on the dimensions and material of the conductor.
The relationship between the resistance of a material and its length and area of the
cross-section is given by the formula R=ρl / A’ Where ρ is the specific resistance or resistivity
and is a characteristic of the material of the wire.

Observations:
Range of ammeters = 0 mA to 250 mA
The Least count of ammeter = 5 mA
Range of voltmeter = 0 V to 10 V
The Least count of voltmeter = 0.2 V

Length of the given wire, l = 100 cm = 1m

Name of the material of the wire: Nichrome
Standard value of resistivity of the wire = 1. 10 x 10-6 Ω𝑚 to 1.5 x 10-6 Ω𝑚
Diameter of the wire = 0.060 cm

Observation table:

Sr. No. Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading Resistance (Ω)

(V) (A)

1 0.4 100 x 10-3 4

2 0.6 150 x 10-3 4

3 0.8 200 x 10-3 4

4 1.0 250 x 10-3 4

5 1.2 300 x 10-3 4

Graph :

−3
(150−0)×10 −3
Slope = (0.6−0)
= 250 × 10

Calculations :
1) Radius of the wire = 0.030 cm = 0.030 x 10-2 m
2
Area of cross section of the wire = π𝑅 =3. 14 x (0.030 x10-2 )2
= 0.0028 x 10-4 m2

1 1
2) Resistance of wire (R) = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
= −3 = 4Ω
250×10

−4
𝑅𝐴 4×0.0028× 10
3) Resistivity of the given wire ρ = 𝑙
= 1
= 0.0112 x 10-4 = 1.12 x 10-6 Ω𝑚

Result:
1) The potential difference across the wire varies linearly with the current.
 2) The resistivity of the given wire =1.12 x 10-6 Ω𝑚

Precautions:
1) Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
2) The connections should be neat, clean & tight.

Source of Error:
1) Rheostat may have high resistance.
2) The instrument screws may be loose. .

Experiment – 2
Aim:
To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using a metre bridge

Apparatus/ Material Required:

A meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a laclanche cell, a jockey,
a oneway key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, meter scale, set square, connecting wires and
sandpaper.
Circuit Diagram:
Theory:
A metre bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone’s bridge
If the galvanometer of meter bridge shows up zero deflection
The unknown resistance X is given by,
(100−𝑙)
𝑋=𝑅 𝑙
Where, R = known resistance . X = Unknown resistance ,
l= length of meter bridge wire from zero and upto balance point (in cm)
Because, for a wire of uniform cross-sectional area, resistance is proportional to length.

Observation table:

Sr. Resistance from resistance Length AD = l Length DC = Unknown

No. box (R) Ω (cm) 100-l (cm) Resistance
(100−𝑙)
𝑋=𝑅 𝑙 (Ω)

1 2 41 59 2.87

2 4 60 40 2.66

3 6 69 31 2.69

4 8 76 24 2.52

Calculations :
2.87+2.66+2.69+2.52
1) Unknown Resistance of wire (X) = 4
= 2. 68Ω

Result:
Value of unknown resistance = 2.68 Ω

Precautions:
1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.
2. Jockey should be moved gently over the metre bridge wire.
3. The plug in the key (K1 ) should be inserted only at the time of taking observations.

Source of Error:
1. The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
2. Effect of end resistances due to copper strips, connecting screws, may affect the
measurement.

Experiment – 3
Aim:
To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge.

Apparatus/ Material Required:

A meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a laclanche cell, a jockey,
a oneway key, two resistance wires, a screw gauge, meter scale, set square, connecting wires
and sandpaper.
Circuit Diagram:

Theory:
A metre bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone’s bridge
If the galvanometer of meter bridge shows up zero deflection
The unknown resistance X is given by,
(100−𝑙)
𝑋=𝑅 𝑙
Where, R = known resistance . X = Unknown resistance ,
l= length of meter bridge wire from zero and upto balance point (in cm)
Because, for a wire of uniform cross-sectional area, resistance is proportional to length.
Observation table:

Resista Ob. Resistance Length AD Length Unknown Mean

nce coil No. from = l (cm) DC = 100-l Resistance resistance
resistance (cm) 𝑟=𝑅 𝑙
(100−𝑙)

box (R) Ω
(Ω)

r1 only 1 6 37.4 62.6 10.04 10.01

2 7 41.2 58.8 9.99

3 8 44.4 55.6 10.01

r2 only 1 1 28.5 71.5 2.50 2.82

2 2 42 58 2.76

3 3 48.4 51.6 3.19

Series 1 10 42.5 57.5 13.53 13.41

combin
ation of 2 11 45.1 54.9 13.39
r1 and
r2 3 12 47.6 52.4 13.31

Calculations :
13.53+13.39+13.31
1) Experimental value of series combination = 3
= 13. 41 Ω
2) Theoretical value of series combination rs = r1+r2 = 10.01+2.82 = 12.83 Ω

Result:
Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical values of rs are same. Hence the
law of resistance in series i.e. rs = r1 + r2 is verified

Precautions:
1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.
2. Jockey should be moved gently over the metre bridge wire.
3. The plug in the key (K1 ) should be inserted only at the time of taking observations.

Source of Error:
1. The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
2. Effect of end resistances due to copper strips, connecting screws, may affect the
measurement.
 Experiment – 4
Aim:
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find
its figure of merit.

Apparatus:
A galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery, a rheostat, two resistance boxes (10,000
and 500 ), two one-way keys, a screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting wires
and a piece of sandpaper.

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:
Galvanometer is a sensitive device used to detect very low current. Its working is based on the
principle that a coil placed in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque when an electric
current is set up in it. The deflection of the coil is determined by a pointer attached to it, moving
on the scale.
When a coil carrying current I is placed in a radial magnetic field, the coil experiences a
deflection θ which is related to I as I = k θ where k is a constant of proportionality and is termed
as figure of merit of the galvanometer

Formulae :
(i) The resistant of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method
𝑅𝑆
𝐺= 𝑅−𝑆
Where R: resistance connected in series with the galvanometer S: shunt resistance
 𝐸
(ii) Figure of merit: 𝑘 = (𝑅+𝐺)θ
Where E : emf of the cell : deflection produced with resistance R.

Observations :
Emf of the battery E = 3 V
Number of divisions on full scale of galvanometer = 30

Observation Table:

Sr. Resistanc Deflection in Shunt Half Galvanometer Figure of merit

No. e (R) Ω galvanometer (θ) Resistanc Deflection Resistance 𝑘=
𝐸
e (S) (Ω) in 𝑅𝑆 (𝑅+𝐺)θ
𝐺= 𝑅−𝑆
galvanom
eter (θ/2)

1 6000 28 160 14 164 1. 73 × 10

−5

2 7000 21 152 10.5 155 1. 99 × 10

−5

3 8000 19 145 9.5 147 1. 93 × 10

−5

4 9000 12 141 6 143 2. 73 × 10

−5

Calculations:
i) Mean 𝐺 = 152Ω
−5
i) Mean 𝑘 = 2. 09 × 10 .A/div

Result:
(i) Resistance of Galvanometer by half – deflection method: 𝐺 = 152Ω

−5
(ii) Figure of merit, 𝑘 = 2. 09 × 10 .A/div

Precautions:
(i) All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
(ii) The emf of cell or battery should be constant.
(iii) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the
circuit. Otherwise for small resistance, an excessive current will flow through the
galvanometer or ammeter & damage them.
 Sources of error: (i) Plug of the resistant boxes may not be clean.
(ii) The screws of the instruments may be loose.
(iii) The emf of the battery may not be constant.

Experiment – 5
Aim:

To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or
between 1/u and 1/v.

Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens, lens holder, two
optical needles, a knitting needles & a half-meter scale.

Ray Diagram:

Theory:
The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is:
1 1 1
𝑓
= 𝑣
− 𝑢
Where, f = focal length of convex lens. u = distance of object needle from lens.
v = distance of image needle from lens.
 Note: According to sign-convention, u has negative value and v has positive value for
convex les. Hence, f comes positive.

Procedure:
1. Mount object needle, lens and image needle uprights on the optical bench.
2. Tip of the object needle, image needle and optical centre of lens must be in straight
line parallel to optical bench.
3. Place the object needle on left side of lens so as to get its inverted image of it.
4. Now place image needle on right side of lens and remove the parallax between
image of object and image needle.
5. Note down the position of object needle, lens and image needle in table.
6. For more reading move object needle slightly and again remove parallax between
image of object needle and image needle keeping lens position fixed and note down the
positions of object needle, image needle and lens.
7. In this way take at least five readings.

Observations:
1. Actual length of knitting needle, x= 4 cm.
2. Observed distance between object needle & the lens y = 18.7 cm.
3. Observed distance between image needle & the lens z = 34.6 cm.
4. Index correction for u = x – y = 0 cm
5. Index correction for v = x – z = 0 cm
6. Rough focal length of convex lens = 10.6 cm

Observation table:
Sr. Position of Object Distance Image distance 1/u 1/v f
No. =uv/u-v

Object Lens Image Observed Corrected Observed Correct /cm /cm cm

needle (L) cm needle cm value (u) cm ed (v)
(O) cm (I) cm cm cm

1 0 18.7 53.3 18.7 18.7 34.6 34.6 0.057 0.02 12.1

2 0 27.8 55.4 27.8 27.8 27.6 27.6 0.035 0.035 12.8

3 0 18 42 18 18 24 24 0.055 0.041 10.2

4 0 22.7 48.9 22.7 22.7 26.2 26.2 0.044 0.038 12.1

5 0 15 47 15 15 32 32 0.066 0.031 10.02

Result:
i) The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from: (u-v) graph = 10.1cm
ii) The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from: (1/u-1/v) graph = 10.2
cm

Precautions:
 (i) Tips of object & image needles should be at the same height as the centre of the
lens.
(ii) Parallax should be removed from tip-to-tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30
cm. away from the needle.
(iii) The image & the object needles should not be interchanged for different sets of
observations.

Sources of error:
1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

Experiment – 6

Aim: (i) To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph
between angle of incidence & angle of deviation.

Apparatus: Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half
metre scale, office pins, graph paper & protector.

Diagram:

Observatina table:
Precautions:
(i) The angle of incidence should be between 30o – 60o .
(ii) The pins should be fixed vertical.
(iii) The distance between the two pins should not be less than 8 cm.
Sources of Error:
(i) Pin pricks may be thick.
(ii) Measurement of angles maybe wrong

Experiment – 7
Aim:
To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

Apparatus/ Material Required:

A travelling microscope, a glass slab, lycopodium powder/chalk dust and a paper.

RayDiagram:
Observations:
Least Count (LC) of the travelling microscope = 0.001 cm

Observation table:

Sr. Travelling No. of Main scale Vernier scale Total reading (x+y)
No microscop observatio reading x reading y (cm) cm
. e focused ns (cm)
on ink dot

1 Piece of 1. 5.87 0.013 5.883

paper (R1) 2. 5,75 0.007 5.757
3. 5.75 0.025 5.775

2 With glass 1. 6.45 0.005 6.455

slab placed 2. 6.4 0.022 6.422
on ink dot 3. 6.4 0.011 6.411
 (R2)

3 Particle 1. 7.6 0.005 7.605

sprinkled on 2. 7.65 0.005 7.655
the glass 3. 7.85 0.045 7.395
slab (R3)

Calculations :

1) Real depth of the ink dot marked on the piece of paper = R3-R1 = 1) 1.722
2) 1.898
3) 1.62

2) Apparent depth of the inkdot marked on the piece of paper = R3-R2 = 1) 1.15
2) 1.233
3) 0.984
3) The refractive index of glass slab = 1) 1.49
2) 1.53
3) 1.64

Result:
1) The refractive index of a glass slab using travelling microscope = 1.55
Precautions:
1. The screws used in focussing the microscope should be moved in only one direction to avoid
back-lash error.
2. Once the microscope is focused for the first reading i.e., a1 , the focusing arrangement in the
lens system should not be changed/altered for subsequent readings namely for a2 and a3 .
3. The glass slab should be placed on a horizontal surface.
4. Use hand lens/magnifying glass to read the vernier scale to avoid error in finding vernier
coinciding division

Source of Error:
1. Position of the microscope may not be normal to the surface of the glass slab.
2. If the layer of lycopodium powder/chalk dust spread on the glass slab is thick, it will not
actually represent the top of the glass slab and thus produce error in the result.
 Experiment – 8
Aim:
To draw the I - V characteristic curves of a p-n junction in forward bias and
reverse bias.

Apparatus/ Material Required:

A p-n junction diode (OA-79 or 1N4007), a resistor of value (3Ω, 1/2W), one variable voltage
power supply (0-12V), voltmeter (0-12V), milliammeter (0-200 mA), a plug key, connecting
wires, sand paper and a microammeter (0-200 µA).

Circuit Diagram:

1. Forward bias: When an external voltage is applied to a p-n junction diode in such a way that
the p-side is at a higher potential with respect to the n-side, it is said to be forward biased.
2. Threshold voltage or “Cut-in” voltage: When the p-side is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery and the voltage is increased, initially a negligible current flows till the
applied voltage crosses a certain value. After, a characteristic voltage, the diode current
increases significantly (exponentially), even for a very small increase in the diode bias voltage.
This voltage is called the threshold voltage or cut-in-voltage of the diode.
3. Reverse bias: When the n-region of a p-n junction diode is at a higher potential with respect
to the p-region, it is said to be reverse biased. In reverse bias, the p-side of the p-n junction
diode is connected to the negative of the battery.
4. Reverse saturation current: As the applied voltage is increased in the reverse biased
condition, starting from zero value, the current increases, but soon becomes constant. This
current is very small (a few microamperes). It is called the reverse saturation current.

Observations:
1. For forward biasing
(i) Range of the voltmeter = 0 V to 1 V
(ii) Least count of the voltmeter scale =0.02 V
(iii) Range of the milliammeter = 0 mA to 100 mA
(iv) Least count of the milliammeter scale = 2 mA
2. For reverse biasing
(i) Range of the voltmeter = 0 V to25 V
(ii) Least count of the voltmeter scale = 0.5 V
(iii) Range of the microammeter = 0 µA to 100 µA
(iv) Least count the microammeter = 2 µA
Observation table:

Sr. No. Forward Biasing Reverse Biasing

Voltmeter reading Milliammeter Voltmeter reading Microammeter

(V) reading (mA) (V) reading ( µA)

1 0.0 0 1 0

2 0.1 0 2 2

3 0.2 0 3 4

4 0.3 0 4 6

5 0.4 0 5 8

6 0.5 0 6 10

7 0.6 8 7 12

8 0.7 22 8 14

9 0.8 42 9 14

10 0.9 60 10 16
Result:
1) The value of cut-in voltage for the given diode is ... V.
2) The reverse saturation current for the given diode is...µA.
Precautions:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Key should be used when the circuit is being used.
3. Beyond breakdown, forward bias voltage should not be applied.
4. Beyond breakdown, reverse bias voltage should not be applied.

Source of Error:
Faulty junction diode might be supplied.

Activity-1
Aim:
To measure resistance, voltage (dc/ac), current (dc) and check continuity of a
given circuit using a multimeter.

Apparatus/ Material Required:

A multimeter with its test leads, a resistance box, a key, a cell, a stepdown transformer of 6 V
output voltage, a rheostat, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
For measurement of resistance:
1.set the multimeter in resistance measuring mode.
2.Connect the red and black probes to the multimeter.
3. Connect open end of the red probe directly to the black probe and adjust the zero adjustment
knob to read zero ohm on the resistance scale (extreme right).
4. Separate the two metallic ends of the test probes and connect the resistance box with the
multimeter as shown in Fig.
Insert a resistor of known resistance R in the circuit by taking out the corresponding resistor key
from the resistance box and read multimeter reading RM for the value of resistance of the
resistor used in the circuit. Repeat this step for four more resistors.
6. Carefully observe the reading
For measurement of dc voltage:
1.select the suitable position of the function switch (ac/dc) and then select the highest range
available.
2.Ensure that the test probes are inserted/ connected in sockets with proper polarity. It is a
convention to use red probe for positive and black probe for negative polarity. 8. Connect the
multimeter in the circuit as shown in Fig.
3. Set the multimeter to measure the dc voltage. Select a suitable range. For example, if a cell
of 1.5V emf (say) is used in the circuit, keep the range at 2.5V.
4. To measure the emf of the cell, connect the positive terminal of the multimeter to the positive
terminal of the cell and negative terminal to negative terminal of the cell, through a plug key K.
Do not insert any resistor of resistance R in the circuit from the resistance box. Insert the key in
the plug K of the circuit and read the multimeter reading. (A continuous flow of current in the
circuit will heat the connecting wires). Record your observations.Then open the key K.
5. Now insert a resistance R of known value (10 Ω say) by taking out the resistance key from
the resistance box in the circuit. Insert the key in the plug K.
6. Read the multimeter reading for measuring the potential difference across the two ends of the
resistor. Do you find any change in the reading as observed in step 10 when there was no
resistance in the circuit

Observations:

1) Table for measurement of resistances:

Resis Name of colour of rings Resistance Resistanc Differenc

tance according to e e (ohm)
used colour measured
coding by
(ohm) multimeter
(ohm)

X1 Brown Black Brown Golden 100 98.5 1.5

X2 Brown Red Red Golden 1200 1168 32

X3 Orange Orange Brown Golden 330 325 5

2) Table for measurement of voltage:

Name of Ob. No. Value of the voltage Value of voltage Difference

the between terminals measured by (volt)
source of (volt) multimeter (volt)
emf

Dc 1 3 2.89 0.11
source

2 6 5.99 0.01

3 9 8.87 0.13

Ac 1 6 6.7 0.7
source
 2 8 9.0 1

Result:
1) Within the experimental error limit, the value of the carbon resistor calculated by color
coding and measured with the help of the multimeter is same.
2) Voltage measured by the multimeter is same as the value of the voltage marked on
dc/ac source.
Precautions:
1) Read the instructions before using the multimeter so that it may not get damaged.
2) Pass the alternating current for minimum possible time.
3) In measuring dc vlotage/current, polarity probe leads should be connected to the proper
polarity.
Sources of error:
1) When we measure resistance using analog multimeter, zero adjustment may not be
accurate.
2) Selection of function switch may be inappropriate.
3) The scale used in reading if voltage/current may not be proper.

Activity-2
Activity-3
Activity-4
Activity-5
 Activity-6
Aim:
To study the effect of intensity of light by varying the distance of the source on an
LDR

Apparatus/ Material Required:

A multimeter, LDR, an intense light source, a meter scale, a pair of plastic pipes which can slide
into each other
Circuit Diagram:
Theory:
A LDR is prepared from cadmium sulphide. Its working is based on the fact that
the resistance of the certain semiconductors decreases as the intensity of the
light falling on it increases. It is also found that the resistance of light deoendent
resistor increases with increase in the distance between the LDR and the source
of the light.

Procedure:
1. Take two plastic pipes of slightly different diameters so that one of the pipe can
slide into the other.
2. Mount LDR and a bulb with one end of each pipe and the other end should
remain open.
3. Arrange all the components of the apparatus according to circuit diagram.
4. Measure and record the resistance of LDR when no light fall on it.
5. Switch on the bulb and direct its light towards the LDR.
6. Vary the distance in between bulb and the LDR by sliding the pipes. Note down
the distance and the corresponding resistance of LDR using the multimeter.
7. Draw a curve between the distance and the resistance.
Observations:
Resistance of LDR when no light fall on it =..........

Observation Table:

Sr. No. Distance between the Resistance of LDR (Ω)

bulb and LDR (cm)
1 10 1.2

2 20 1.5

3 30 1.8

4 40 2.2

5 50 2.6

6 60 3.0

Plot a graph between distance and resistance.

Conclusion:
The resistance of LDR increases with increase in distance from the source of
light.