ACHARIYA

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE and affiliated to Pondicherry University)
AN ISO 9001:2008 CERTIFIED INSTITUTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CSE

BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

LAB MANUAL
 ACHARIYA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE and affiliated to Pondicherry University)
AN ISO 9001:2008 CERTIFIED INSTITUTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING

LAB MANUAL
STAFF NAME : Mr. N. SUDHAGAR (AP / ECE)

SUBJECT & CODE : BASIC ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING LAB &

CSEL102 YEAR / SEMESTER : I / I

DEPARTMENT : CSE

STAFF SIGNATURE HOD

BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Experiment No: 1

Measurement of different signal parameters using oscilloscope

Aim:

1. Study of CRO and to find the Amplitude and Frequency using CRO.
2. To measure the Unknown Frequency & Phase difference using CRO.
Components and Equipments Required: Cathode-ray oscilloscope, Function Generator (2),
Decade Resistance Box (DRB), Capacitor, CRO Probes and Bread Board.
Theory:

An outline explanation of how an oscilloscope works can be given using the block
diagram shown below.

Fig. 1: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Like a television screen, the screen of an oscilloscope consists of a Cathode Ray Tube.
Although the size and shape are different, the operating principle is the same. Inside the tube is
a vacuum. The electron beam emitted by the heated cathode at the rear end of the tube is
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accelerated and focused by one or more anodes, and strikes the front of the tube, producing a
bright spot on the phosphorescent screen.

The electron beam is bent, or deflected, by voltages applied to two sets of plates fixed in
the tube. The horizontal deflection plates or X-plates produce side to side movement. As you
can see, they are linked to a system block called the time base. This produces a saw tooth
waveform. During the rising phase of the saw tooth, the spot is driven at a uniform rate from left
to right across the front of the screen. During the falling phase, the electron beam returns rapidly
from right ot left, but the spot is 'blanked out' so that nothing appears on the screen. In this way,
the time base generates the X-axis of the V/t graph.

The slope of the rising phase varies with the frequency of the saw tooth and can be
adjusted, using the TIME/DIV control, to change the scale of the X-axis. Dividing the
oscilloscope screen into squares allows the horizontal scale to be expressed in seconds,
milliseconds or microseconds per division (s/DIV, ms/DIV, µs/DIV). Alternatively, if the
squares are 1 cm apart, the scale may be given as s/cm, ms/cm or µs/cm.

The signal to be displayed is connected to the input. The AC/DC switch is usually kept
in the DC position (switch closed) so that there is a direct connection to the Y-amplifier. In the
AC position (switch open) a capacitor is placed in the signal path. The capacitor blocks DC
signals but allows AC signals to pass.

The Y-amplifier is linked in turn to a pair of Y-plates so that it provides the Y-axis of
the the V/t graph. The overall gain of the Y-amplifier can be adjusted, using the VOLTS/DIV
control, so that the resulting display is neither too small nor too large, but fits the screen and can
be seen clearly. The vertical scale is usually given in V/DIV or mV/DIV.

The trigger circuit is used to delay the time base waveform so that the same section of
the input signal is displayed on the screen each time the spot moves across. The effect of this is
to give a stable picture on the oscilloscope screen, making it easier to measure and interpret the
signal.

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Changing the scales of the X-axis and Y-axis allows many different signals to be
displayed. Sometimes, it is also useful to be able to change the positions of the axes. This is
possible using the X-POS and Y-POS controls. For example, with no signal applied, the normal
trace is a straight line across the centre of the screen. Adjusting Y-POS allows the zero level on
the Y-axis to be changed, moving the whole trace up or down on the screen to give an effective
display of signals like pulse waveforms which do not alternate between positive and negative
values.

Fig. 2: Front View of Oscilloscope

Screen: Usually displays a V/t graph, with voltage V on the vertical axis and time t on the
horizontal axis. The scales of both axes can be changed to display a huge variety of signals.

Fig. 3: Screen display of Oscilloscope

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On/Off Switch: Pushed in to switch the oscilloscope on. The green LED illuminates.
X-Y Control: Normally in the OUT position.
When the X-Y button is pressed IN, the oscilloscope does not display a V/t graph.
Instead, the vertical axis is controlled by the input signal to CH II. This allows the oscilloscope
to be used to display a V/V voltage/voltage graph.

The X-Y control is used when you want to display component characteristic curves, or
Lissajous figures. (Links to these topics will be added later.)

TV-Separation: Oscilloscopes are often used to investigate waveforms inside television

systems. This control allows the display to be synchronized with the television system so that
the signals from different points can be compared.

Time / Div: Allows the horizontal scale of the V/t graph to be changed.

Fig. 4: Time division, Intensity, focus, X-Y mode knobs

With more experience of using the oscilloscope, you will develop a clear understanding
of the functions of the important trigger controls and be able to use them effectively.

Intensity and Focus: Adjusting the INTENSITY control changes the brightness of the
oscilloscope display. The FOCUS should be set to produce a bright clear trace.

If required, TR can be adjusted using a small screwdriver so that the oscilloscope trace is
exactly horizontal when no signal is connected.

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X-POS: Allows the whole V/t graph to be moved from side to side on the oscilloscope screen.

This is useful when you want to use the grid in front of the screen to make
measurements, for example, to measure the period of a waveform.

Y-POS I and Y-POS II: These controls allow the corresponding trace to be moved up or
down, changing the position representing 0 V on the oscilloscope screen.

To investigate an alternating signal, you adjust Y-POS so that the 0 V level is close to
the centre of the screen. For a pulse waveform, it is more useful to have 0 V close to the bottom
of the screen. Y-POS I and Y-POS II allow the 0 V levels of the two traces to be adjusted
independently.

Invert: When the INVERT button is pressed IN, the corresponding signal is turned upside
down, or inverted, on the oscilloscope screen. This feature is sometimes useful when comparing
signals.

CH I And CH II Inputs: Signals are connected to the BNC input sockets using BNC
plugs.

Fig. 5: Voltage division, Channels, AC, DC and GND knobs

The smaller socket next to the BNC input socket provides an additional 0 V, GROUND
or EARTH connection.

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Volts / Div: Adjust the vertical scale of the V/t graph. The vertical scales for CH I and CH II
can be adjusted independently.

DC/AC/GND Slide Switches: In the DC position, the signal input is connected directly to
the Y-amplifier of the corresponding channel, CH I or CH II. In the AC position, a capacitor is
connected into the signal pathway so that DC voltages are blocked and only changing AC
signals are displayed.

In the GND position, the input of the Y-amplifier is connected to 0 V. This allows you to check
the position of 0 V on the oscilloscope screen. The DC position of these switches is correct for most
signals.

Trace Selection Switches: The settings of these switches control which traces appear on the
oscilloscope screen.

Measurement of Amplitude & Frequency:

Fig. 6: Measurement of Amplitude & Frequency

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Model waveforms:

Fig. 7: Sinusoidal waveform

A) Measurement of Amplitude:
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the diagram shown above.
2. Put the CRO on a single channel mode and bring the CRO into operation by
adjusting the trace of the beam to a normal brightness and into a thin line.
3. Now apply the sinusoidal wave of different amplitudes by using the LEVEL and
COARSE buttons of the function generator.
4. Note on the vertical scale the peak to peak amplitude (Vpp).

Observations:

S. No. No. of Vertical Voltage/ Division Vp-p=X*Y Vm=Vp-p/2

Divisions(X) (Y)

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B) Measurement of Frequency:
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the diagram shown above.
2. Put the CRO on a single channel mode and bring the CRO into operation by
adjusting the trace of the beam to a normal brightness and into a thin line.
3. Now apply the sinusoidal wave of different frequencies by using the LEVEL and
COARSE buttons of the function generator.
4. Note down the horizontal scale period (T) in second by observing difference
between the two successive peaks of the waveform.
Observations:

S. No. No. of Horizontal Time/Division T=X*Y f=1/T

(Y)
Divisions(X)

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C) Measurement of Unknown Frequency:

Fig. 8: Measurement of Unknown Frequency

Procedure:
1. Connect the unknown frequency to the vertical (Y) deflection plates (CH -1) and the
known frequency to the horizontal (X) deflection plates (Ch-2) from two function
generators as shown in the figure.
2. Press X- Y mode button on the CRO and obtain the LISSAJOUS PATTERN. The
lissajous pattern is obtained when two sinusoidal signals of different frequencies are
applied to the X and Y deflection plates of the CRO. If the two frequencies are equal, we
get a circle or ellipse.
3. Note down Nx (Number of touching points on X- axis), Ny ( Number of touching points
on Y – axis), Fx ( Frequency of known signal).
4. If the LISSAJOUS pattern obtained is not clear to note the readings, Vary the
known frequency such that a clear lissajous pattern is obtained.
5. The unknown frequency Fy is given by Fy = (Nx * Fx) / (Ny)

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Observations:

S. No. Known frequency Nx Ny Unknown frequency

(fx) fy=( Nx. fx)/ Ny

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D) Measurement of Phase Difference:

Fig. 9: Measurement of Phase Difference

Procedure:
1. Connect the RC phase shift network as shown above in the circuit diagram.
2. Obtain a sinusoidal signal of 5V (Pk- Pk) at 1 KHz from the function generator.
3. Connect the signal from the function generator to the input of the RC phase shift
network and the same signal to the CH-1 of the CRO.
4. Connect the output of the Phase shift network to the CH-2 of the CRO.
5. Press X- Y mode button.
6. The pattern obtained on the screen will be an ellipse.
-1
7. The phase difference between the two signals (θ) is given by θ = sin (B/A).
8. By varying the different values of the resistances from DRB, frequencies, note the
values of B and A and hence find θ.

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Observations:

-1 -1
S. No. f R C θ = tan 1/wRC) B A θ = sin B/A)
( (

Results:

1. Working of CRO is studied. Amplitude and Frequency a signal is found using CRO.
2. Unknown Frequency & Phase difference are measured using CRO.

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BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Experiment No: 2

V - I Characteristics of ordinary PN Junction Diode

Aim:

1. To plot V-I Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction Diodes.

2. To find cut-in voltage for Silicon P-N Junction diodes.
3. To find static and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse biased conditions.

Components:

Name Quantity
Diodes 1N4007(Si) 1
Resistor 1K 1

Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

Bread board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
Digital Ammeter 0-200µA/200mA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

Silicon Diode 1N 4007:

Max Forward Current = 1A Max Reverse Current = 5.0µA Max Forward

Voltage = 0.8V Max Reverse Voltage = 1000V

Max Power Dissipation = 30mW

Temperature = -65 to 200° C

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Theory:

Donor impurities (pentavalent) are introduced into one-side and acceptor impurities into
the other side of a single crystal of an intrinsic semiconductor to form a p-n diode with a
junction called depletion region (this region is depleted off the charge carriers). This region
gives rise to a potential barrier called Cut-in Voltage. This is the voltage across the diode at
which it starts conducting. The P-N junction can conduct beyond this potential.

The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input
supply is connected to anode (P-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is connected the
cathode. Then diode is said to be forward biased. In this condition the height of the potential
barrier at the junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage. Both the
holes from p-side and electrons from n-side cross the junction simultaneously and constitute a
forward current from n-side (injected minority current – due to holes crossing the junction and
entering P- side of the diode). Assuming current flowing through the diode to be very large, the
diode can be approximated as short- circuited switch.

If –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and +ve terminal of the
input supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. In this
condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier
at the junction. Both the holes on P-side and electrons on N-side tend to move away from the
junction there by increasing the depleted region. However the process cannot continue
indefinitely, thus a small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode.
This current is negligible hence the diode can be approximated as an open circuited switch.

The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by the following equations

I = IO (e VD
η VT
− 1)

Where I = current flowing in the diode, I0 = reverse saturation current VD = Voltage applied to
the diode

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VT = volt- equivalent of temperature = k T/q = T/ 11,600 = 26mV (@ room temp)
= 1(for Ge) and 2 (for Si)

It is observed that Ge diodes has smaller cut-in-voltage when compared to Si diode. The
reverse saturation current in Ge diode is larger in magnitude when compared to silicon diode.

Theoretically the dynamic resistance of a diode is determined using the following

equation:

Dynamic Resistance:
𝜂 𝑉𝑇
𝑅𝐷 =
I

Circuit Diagrams:

Fig. 1: Forward Bias Condition

Fig. 2: Reverse Bias Condition

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Procedure:

Forward Bias Condition:

1. Connect the components as shown in the Fig.1.

2. Vary the supply voltage such that the voltage across the Silicon diode varies from 0 to
0.6 V in steps of 0.1 V and in steps of 0.02 V from 0.6 to 0.76 V. In each step record
the current flowing through the diode as I.
3. Repeat the above steps for Germanium diode too but with the exception that the
voltage across the diode should be varied in steps of 0.01 V from 0.1 to 0.3 V in step-2.

Reverse Bias Condition:

1. Connect the diode in the reverse bias as shown in the Fig.2.

2. Vary the supply voltage such that the voltage across the diode varies from 0 to 10V in
steps of 1 V. Record the current flowing through the diode in each step.
3. Repeat the above steps for Germanium diode too and record the current in each step.
4. Now plot a graph between the voltage across the diode and the current flowing through
the diode in forward and reverse bias, for Silicon and Germanium diodes on separate
graph sheets. This graph is called the V-I characteristics of the diodes.
5. Calculate the static and dynamic resistance of each diode in forward and reverse bias
using the following formulae.

Static resistance, R = V/I

Dynamic resistance, r = ∆V/∆I

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Observations:

(a) Forward & Reverse bias characteristics of Silicon diode

Forward Bias Condition: Reverse Bias Condition:

S. No. Forward Forward S. No. Reverse Revers

Voltage Current Voltage e
across the through the across the Current the
diode diode diode through
diode
Vd (Volt) Id (mA)
VR (Volt) IR (µA)

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Graphs:

1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the
graph sheet.
2. Now mark +ve X-axis as Vf, -ve X-axis as VR, +ve Y-axis as If and –ve Y-axis as IR.
3. Mark the readings tabulated for Si forward biased condition in first Quadrant and
Si reverse biased condition in third Quadrant.
4. Repeat the same procedure for plotting the Germanium characteristics.

Calculations from Graph:

Static forward Resistance

Static Reverse Resistance

Dynamic Forward Resistance

Dynamic Reverse Resistance

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Precautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode. This may lead
to damaging of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.

Results:

Cut in voltage = V

Static Forward Resistance =

Dynamic Forward Resistance =

Static Reverse Resistance =

Dynamic Reverse Resistance =

V-I Characteristics of Silicon & Germanium P-N Junction Diodes are studied.

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Viva Questions

1. What are trivalent and pentavalent impurities?

Ans: Doping is the process of adding impurity atoms to intrinsic silicon or germanium to
improve the conductivity of the semiconductor.
Commonly Used Doping Elements
Trivalent Impurities to make p-Type: Aluminum (Al), Gallium (Ga), Boron(B) and Indium (In).
Pentavalent Impurities to make n-type: Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) and
Bismuth (Bi).

2. How PN junction diode does acts as a switch?

Ans: Apply voltage in one direction; it acts like an open circuit. Reverse the polarity of the
voltage and it acts like a short circuit.
3. Diode current equation?

Ans:

4. What is the value of Vt at room temperature?

Ans: 25mV

5. What is cut-in-voltage?

Ans: The forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly is
called as the cut-in voltage. It is generally 0.7V for a Silicon diode and 0.3V for a germanium
diode.

6. Dynamic resistance

expression? Ans:
𝜂 𝑉𝑇
= I

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Experiment No.:3

Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

Aim: To plot V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode.

Components:

Name Quantity
Zener Diodes 1N4735A/ FZ 5.1 1
Resistor 1K 1

Equipments:

Name Range Quantity

Bread board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
Digital Ammeter 200mA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

Breakdown Voltage = 5.1V

Power dissipation = 0.75W

Max Forward Current = 1A

Theory: Zener diode is a heavily doped Silicon diode. An ideal P-N junction diode does not
conduct in reverse biased condition. A Zener diode conducts excellently even in reverse biased
condition. These diodes operate at a precise value of voltage called break down voltage. A Zener
diode when forward biased behaves like an ordinary P-N junction diode. A Zener diode when
reverse biased can undergo avalanche break down or zener break down.

Avalanche Break down:

If both p-side and n-side of the diode are lightly doped, depletion region at the junction
widens. Application of a very large electric field at the junction increases the kinetic energy of
the charge carriers which collides with the adjacent atoms and generates charge carriers by

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breaking the bond, they in-turn collides with other atoms by creating new charge carriers, this
process is cumulative which results in the generation of large current resulting in Avalanche
Breakdown.

Zener Break down:

If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped, depletion region at the junction
reduces, it leads to the development of strong electric field and application of even a small
voltage at the junction may rupture covalent bond and generate large number of charge carriers.
Such sudden increase in the number of charge carriers results in Zener break down.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: Forward Bias Condition

Fig. 2: Reverse Bias Condition

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Procedure:

Forward Bias Condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1.

2. Vary VF gradually from 0 to 0.6 V in steps of 0.1 V and in steps of 0.02 V from 0.6 to
0.76 V. In each step record the current flowing through the diode as IF.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.

Reverse Bias Condition:

1. Connect the Zener diode in reverse bias as shown in the fig.2. Vary the voltage across the
diode in steps of 1V from 0 V to 6 V and in steps 0.1 V till its breakdown voltage is
reached. In each step note the current flowing through the diode
2. Plot a graph between V and I. This graph will be called the V-I characteristics of Zener
diode. From the graph find out the breakdown voltage for the diode.

Observations:

Forward Bias Condition: Reverse Bias Condition:

Forward Voltage Forward Current Reverse Voltage Reverse Current

S. No. across the diode through the diode S. No. across the diode through the diode
VF (volts) IF (mA) VR (volts) IR (mA)

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Graph:

1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the graph
sheet.
2. Now mark +ve X-axis as VF, -ve X-axis as VR, +ve Y-axis as IF and –ve Y-axis as IR.
3. Mark the readings tabulated for forward biased condition in first Quadrant and reverse
biased condition in third Quadrant.

Fig. 3: V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

Calculations from Graph:

Precautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode. This may lead to
damaging of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.

Results:

1. The Zener Diode Characteristics have been studied.

2. The breakdown voltage of Zener diode in reverse bias was found to be =

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Viva Questions

1. What is the difference between p-n Junction diode and zener diode?

Ans: A zener is designed to operate stably in reverse breakdown, which is designed to be at a

low voltage, between 3 volts and 200 volts. The breakdown voltage is specified as a voltage with
a tolerance, such as 10 volts ±5%, which means the breakdown voltage (or operating voltage)
will be between 9.5 volts and 10.5 volts. A signal diode or rectifier will have a high reverse
breakdown, from 50 to 2000 volts, and is NOT designed to operate in the breakdown region. So
exceeding the reverse voltage may result in the device being damaged. In addition, the
breakdown voltage is specified as a minimum only. Forward characteristics are similar to both,
although the zener's forward characteristics is usually not specified, as the zener will never be
used in that region. A signal diode or rectifier has the forward voltage specified as a max voltage
at one or more current levels.

2. What is break down voltage?

Ans: The breakdown voltage of a diode is the minimum reverse voltage to make the diode
conduct in reverse.

3. What are the applications of Zener diode?

Ans: Zener diodes are widely used as voltage references and as shunt regulators to regulate the
voltage across small circuits.

4. What is cut-in-voltage ?

Ans: The forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly, is
called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage. It is generally 0.6v for a Silicon diode.

5. What is voltage regulator?

Ans: A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable dc voltage independent of
the load current, temperature and ac line voltage variations.

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Experiment No: 4

Input and Output Characteristics of BJT

Aim: To plot the Characteristics of a BJT in Common Emitter Configuration.

Components:

Name Quantity
Transistor BC 107 1
Resistor 1K 1

Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

Bread Board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 2
Digital Ammeter 0-200mA/0-200µA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 2
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

For Transistor BC 107:

• Max Collector Current= 0.1A

• Vceo max= 50V
• VEB0 = 6V
• VCB0 = 50V
• Collector power dissipation = 500mW
• Temperature Range = -65 to +150 0C
• hfe = 110 - 220

Theory:

A BJT is called as Bipolar Junction Transistor and it is a three terminal active device
which has emitter, base and collector as its terminals. It is called as a bipolar device because the
flow of current through it is due to two types of carriers i.e., majority and minority carriers.

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A transistor can be in any of the three configurations viz, Common base, Common
emitter and Common Collector.

The relation between 𝜶 , β , γ of CB, CE, CC are

𝜷
𝜶= 𝜶 𝟏
𝟏+𝜷 𝜷 = 𝜸 =𝟏+ 𝜷=
𝟏−𝜶 𝟏−𝜶

In CE configuration base will be input node and collector will be the output node .Here
emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output and hence the name common emitter
configuration.

The collector current is given as

𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽 𝐼𝐵 + (1 + 𝛽)𝐼𝐶𝑂

Where 𝐼𝐶𝑂 is called as reverse saturation current

A transistor in CE configuration is used widely as an amplifier. While plotting the

characteristics of a transistor the input voltage and output current are expressed as a function of
input current and output voltage.

i. e, VBE = f ( IB, VCE ) and

IC = f ( IB, VCE )

Transistor characteristics are of two types.

Input characteristics:- Input characteristics are obtained between the input current and input
voltage at constant output voltage. It is plotted between V BE and IB at constant VCE in CE
configuration

Output characteristics:- Output characteristics are obtained between the output voltage and
output current at constant input current. It is plotted between V CE and IC at constant IB in CE
configuration

The different regions of operation of the BJT are

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Emitter Junction Collector Junction Region Application

RB RB CUTT OFF OFF SWITCH

FB FB SATURATION ON SWITCH

FB RB ACTIVE AMPLIFIER

RB FB REVERSE ACTIVE ATTENUATOR

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: Input Characteristics

Fig. 2: Output Characteristics

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Pin assignment of Transistor:

Procedure:

Input Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in fig.(1). Adjust all the knobs of the power supply to their
minimum positions before switching the supply on.
2) Adjust the VCE to 0 V by adjusting the supply VCC.
3) Vary the supply voltage VBB so that VBE varies in steps of 0.1 V from 0 to 0.5 V and then in
steps of 0.02 V from 0.5 to 0.7 V. In each step note the value of base current IB.
4) Adjust VCE to 1, 2V and repeat step-3 for each value of VCE.
5) Plot a graph between VBE and IB for different values of VCE. These curves are called input
characteristic

Output Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. (2). All the knobs of the power supply must be at the
minimum position before the supply is switched on.
2) Adjust the base current IB to 20 µA by adjusting the supply VBB.
3) Vary the supply voltage VCC so that the voltage V CE varies in steps of 0.2 V from 0 to 2 V and
then in steps of 1 V from 2 to 10 V. In each step the base current should be adjusted to the present
value and the collector current IC should be recorded.
4) Adjust the base current at 40, 60 µA and repeat step-3 for each value of IB.
5) Plot a graph between the output voltage V CE and output current IC for different values of the input
current IB. These curves are called the output characteristics.

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Observations:
Input Characteristics

VCE = 0V VCE = 2V

VBE(V) IB(µA) VBE(V) IB(µA)

Output Characteristics

IB = 20µA IB = 40µA IB = 60µA

VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA)

Graph:

Fig. 3: Input Characteristics

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Fig. 4: Output Characteristics

Precautions:

1. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may
lead to damage the transistor.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit
connections as per the circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.

Results:

Input and output Characteristics of a BJT in Common Emitter Configuration are studied.

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Viva Questions

1. What is transistor?

Ans: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a
portmanteau of the term "transfer resistor".

2. Write the relation between α, β and γ?

𝛽
Ans: 𝛼 = 𝛼 1
1+𝛽 𝛽 = 𝛾 =1+ 𝛽=
1−𝛼 1 −𝛼

3. What is the range of α ?

Ans: The important parameter is the common-base current gain, . The common-base current
gain is approximately the gain of current from emitter to collector in the forward-active region.
This ratio usually has a value close to unity; between 0.98 and 0.998.

4. Why is α is less than unity?

Ans: It is less than unity due to recombination of charge carriers as they cross the base region.

5. Input and output impedance equations for CB configuration?

Ans: hib=VEB/IE,1/hob=VCB/IC

6. Can we replace transistor by two back to back connected diodes?

Ans: No, because the doping levels of emitter (heavily doped), base(lightly doped) and
collector(doping level greater than base and less than emitter) terminals are different from p and
n terminals in diode.

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7. For amplification CE is preferred, why?

Ans: Because amplification factor beta is usually ranges from 20-500 hence this configuration
gives appreciable current gain as well as voltage gain at its output on the other hand in the
Common Collector configuration has very high input resistance(~750K ) & very low output
resistance(~25 ) so the voltage gain is always less than one & its most important application is
for impedance matching for driving from low impedance load to high impedance source

8. To operate a transistor as amplifier, emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is
reverse biased, why?

Ans: Voltage is directly proportional to Resistance. Forward bias resistance is very less
compared to reverse bias. In amplifier input forward biased and output reverse biased so voltage
at output increases with reverse bias resistance.

9. Which transistor configuration provides a phase reversal between the input and output signals?

Ans: Common emitter configuration (180 DEG)

10. What is the range if β?

Ans: β usually ranges from 20-500.

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Experiment No: 5

Input and Output Characteristics of FET

Aim:

1. To study Drain Characteristics and Transfer Characteristics of a Junction

Field Effect Transistor (FET).
2. To measure drain resistance, trans-conductance and amplification factor.
Components:

Name Quantity
JFET BFW 11 1
Resistor 1M 1

Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

Bread Board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
Digital Ammeter 0-200mA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 2
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

For FET BFW11:

Gate Source Voltage VGS = -30V

Forward Gain Current IGF = 10mA

Maximum Power Dissipation PD = 300mW

Pin assignment of FET:

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Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: Characteristics of FET

Theory:

A JFET is called as Junction Field effect transistor. It is a unipolar device because the
flow of current through it is due to one type of carriers i.e., majority carriers where as a BJT is a
Bi - Polar device, It has 3 terminals Gate, Source and Drain. A JFET can be used in any of the
three configurations viz, Common Source, Common Gate and Common Drain. The input gate to
source junction should always be operated in reverse bias, hence input resistance Ri = ∞, IG ≈ 0.

Pinch off voltage VP is defined as the gate to source reverse bias voltage at which the
output drain current becomes zero.

In CS configuration Gate is used as input node and Drain as the output node. A JFET in
CS configuration is used widely as an amplifier. A JFET amplifier is preferred over a BJT
amplifier when the demand is for smaller gain, high input resistance and low output resistance.
Any FET operation is governed by the following equation.

The drain current equation and trans-conductance is given as

𝐼 = 𝐼 𝑉𝐺𝑆
2
(1 − , 𝑔
𝐼𝐼
𝜕 𝐼𝐷 2 √
𝐷 𝐷𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑃
) �=
𝜕𝑉𝐺𝑆= |𝑣𝑝 | 𝐷 𝐷𝑆𝑆
�

Where 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 is called as Drain to Source Saturation current & Vp is called as the Pinch off voltage

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BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Procedure:

Transfer Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown. All the knobs of the power supply must be at the minimum
position before the supply is switched on.
2) Adjust the output voltage VDS to 4V by adjusting the supply VDD.
3) Vary the supply voltage VGG so that the voltage VGS varies in steps of -0.25 V from 0 V
onwards. In each step note the drain current I D. This should be continued till ID becomes
zero.
4) Repeat above step for VDS = 8 V.
5) Plot a graph between the input voltage VGS and output current ID for output voltage VDS in
the second quadrant. This curve is called the transfer characteristics.
Drain Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in figure. Adjust all the knobs of the power supply to
their minimum positions before switching the supply on.
2) Adjust the input voltage VGS to 0 V by adjusting the supply VGG.
3) Vary the supply voltage VDD so that VDS varies in steps of 0.5 V from 0 to 4 V and then
in steps of 1 V from 4 to 10 V. In each step note the value of drain current ID.
4) Adjust VGS to -1 and -2 V and repeat step-3 for each value of VGS.
5) Plot a graph between VDS and ID for different values of VGS. These curves are called drain
characteristics.
6) Mark the various regions in the drain characteristics graph and calculate the drain
resistance.

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Observations:

Transfer Characteristics
VDS = 4V VDS = 6V
VGS(V) ID(mA) VGS(V) ID(mA)

Drain Characteristics
VGS = 0V VGS = -1V VGS = -2V
VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA)

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Graph:

Transfer Characteristics Drain Characteristics

1. Plot the drain characteristics by taking VDS on X-axis and ID on Y-axis at a constant VGS.
2. Plot the transfer characteristics by taking VGS on X-axis and taking ID on Y-axis at
constant VDS.

Calculations from Graph:

1. Drain Resistance (rd): It is given by the relation of small change in drain to source
voltage ( VDS) to the corresponding change in Drain Current ( ID) for a constant gate
to source voltage ( VGS), when the JFET is operating in pinch-off region.
2. Trans Conductance (gm): Ratio of small change in drain current ( ID) to the
corresponding change in gate to source voltage ( VGS) for a constant VDS.

gm at constant VDS (from transfer characteristics).

The value of gm is expressed in mho’s ( ) or Siemens (s).

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3. Amplification factor (µ): It is given by the ratio of small change in drain to source
voltage ( VDS) to the corresponding change in gate to source voltage ( VGS) for a
constant drain current (ID).

Precautions:

1. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the FET. This may lead
to damage the FET.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the Source, Drain and Gate terminals of the transistor.

Results:

1. Drain Characteristics and Transfer Characteristics of a Field Effect (FET) Transistor are studied.
2. Drain resistance, trans-conductance and amplification factor are measured.

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Viva Questions

1. Why FET is called a Unipolar device?

Ans: FETs are unipolar transistors as they involve single-carrier-type operation.

2. What are the advantages of FET?

Ans: The main advantage of the FET is its high input resistance, on the order of 100 MΩ or
more. Thus, it is a voltage-controlled device, and shows a high degree of isolation between input
and output. It is a unipolar device, depending only upon majority current flow. It is less noisy.
and is thus found in FM tuners and in low-noise amplifiers for VHF and satellite receivers. It is
relatively immune to radiation. It exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current and hence
makes an excellent signal chopper. It typically has better thermal stability than a bipolar junction
transistor (BJT)

3. What is trans-conductance?

Ans: Trans-conductance is an expression of the performance of a bipolar transistor or field-effect

transistor (FET). In general, the larger the trans-conductance figure for a device, the greater the
gain (amplification) it is capable of delivering, when all other factors are held constant. The
symbol for trans-conductance is gm. The unit is Siemens, the same unit that is used for direct-
current (DC) conductance.

4. What are the disadvantages of FET?

Ans: It has a relatively low gain-bandwidth product compared to a BJT. The MOSFET has a
drawback of being very susceptible to overload voltages, thus requiring special handling during
installation.The fragile insulating layer of the MOSFET between the gate and channel makes it
vulnerable to electrostatic damage during handling. This is not usually a problem after the device
has been installed in a properly designed circuit.

5. Relation between µ, gm and rd?

Ans: µ = gm * rd

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Experiment No: 6

Full Wave Rectifier With and without Filter

Aim: (i) To study the operation of Half wave and Full wave rectifier without filter

(ii) To find its:

1. Ripple Factor
2. Efficiency
3. Percentage Regulation

Components:

Name Quantity
Diodes 1N4007(Si) 2
Resistor 1K 1

Equipments:

Name Range Quantity

CRO (0-20)MHz 1
CRO probes 2
Digital Ammeter, Voltmeter [0-200µA/200mA], [0-20V] 1
Transformer 220V/9V, 50Hz 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

Silicon Diode 1N4007:

Max. Forward Current = 1A

Max. Reverse Current = 5.0µA

Max. Forward Voltage = 0.8V

Max. Reverse Voltage = 1000V

Max. Power Dissipation =

30mW Temperature = -65 to

200° C

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Theory:

A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating DC signal or a

signal that is a combination of AC and DC components.

A half wave rectifier makes use of single diode to carry out this conversion. It is named
so as the conversion occurs for half input signal cycle. During the positive half cycle, the diode is
forward biased and it conducts and hence a current flows through the load resistor. During the
negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it is equivalent to an open circuit, hence the
current through the load resistance is zero. Thus the diode conducts only for one half cycle and
results in a half wave rectified output.

A full wave rectifier makes use of a two diodes to carry out this conversion. It is named
so as the conversion occurs for complete input signal cycle. The full-wave rectifier consists of a
center-tap transformer, which results in equal voltages above and below the center-tap. During
the positive half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of D1 while a negative voltage
appears at the anode of D2. Due to this diode D1 is forward biased it results in a current Id1
through the load R. During the negative half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of D2
and hence it is forward biased. Resulting in a current Id2 through the load at the same instant a
negative voltage appears at the anode of D1 thus reverse biasing it and hence it doesn’t conduct.

Ripple Factor:

Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components to the
average DC value. It is denoted by the symbol ‘γ’.
𝑉𝐴𝐶 𝑉𝐴𝐶
𝛾 = = 1.21 𝛾 = = 0.48
𝐻𝑊𝑅 𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝐹𝑊𝑅 𝑉𝐷𝐶

Rectification Factor:

The ratio of output DC power to input AC power is defined as efficiency.

(𝑉 )2
𝜂=
𝐷𝐶 (𝑉𝐴𝐶 )2 𝜂𝐻𝑊𝑅 = 40.6% 𝜂𝐹𝑊𝑅 = 81%

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Percentage of Regulation:

It is a measure of the variation of AC output voltage as a function of DC output voltage.

Percentage of regulation = %
VNL = Voltage across load resistance, when minimum current flows through it.

VFL = Voltage across load resistance, when maximum current flows through.

For an ideal rectifier, the percentage regulation is 0 percent. The percentage of regulation is very
small for a practical half wave and full wave rectifier.

Peak- Inverse – Voltage (PIV):

It is the maximum voltage that has to be with stood by a diode when it is reverse

biased PIVHWR = Vm PIVFWR = 2Vm

Comparison of Half-wave and Full-wave rectifier

S. No. Particulars Type of Rectifier

Full-Wave
1. No. of diodes 2
2. Maximum Rectification 81.2%
Efficiency
3. Vd.c (no load) 2𝑉𝑚
𝜋
4. Ripple Factor 0.48
5. Peak Inverse Voltage 2Vm
6. Output Frequency 2f
7. Transformer Utilization Factor 0.693

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Circuit Diagram:

Full Wave Rectifier (without filter):

Fig. 2: Circuit diagram of Full wave rectifier

Full Wave Rectifier (with π-section filter):

Fig. 2: Full wave rectifier with π-section filter

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Procedure:

PART-I: Full wave rectifier without filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.2.

2. Repeat the above steps 2-6
3. Plot different graphs for wave forms and calculate ripple factor

PART-II: Full wave rectifier with 𝜋 -section filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.2.

2. Repeat the above steps 2-6
3. Plot different graphs for wave forms and calculate ripple factor

Observations:
Full wave rectifier without Filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance
Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
(RL) 𝑉𝑎𝑐
γ= 𝑉𝑑𝑐 p-p(v) (Hz) p-p(v) (Hz)

Calculations:

1. Ripple Factor = 𝛾𝐻𝑊𝑅 𝑉𝐴𝐶

= 𝑉𝐷𝐶

2. Percentage Regulation = 𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿

𝑉𝐹𝐿 × 100

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BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB
Full wave rectifier with pi-Section filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance
Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
(RL) 𝑉𝑎𝑐
γ= 𝑉𝑑𝑐 p-p(v) (Hz) p-p(v) (Hz)

Calculations:

1. Ripple factor :

𝑉𝑎𝑐
𝐻𝑊𝑅𝐿−𝑆𝐸𝐶𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁 =
𝑉𝑑𝑐

𝑉𝑎𝑐
𝐹𝑊𝑅𝜋−𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑉𝑑𝑐

𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐷𝐶𝐹𝐿
2. Percentage Regulation = × 100 %
𝑉𝐷𝐶𝐹𝐿

Expected Waveforms:

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BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Results:

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Viva Questions

1. What is a rectifier?

Ans: A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification.

2. What is a ripple factor?

Ans: Ripple factor can be defined as the variation of the amplitude of DC (Direct current) due to
improper filtering of AC power supply. it can be measured by RF = vrms / vdc

3. What is efficiency?

Ans: Rectifier efficiency is the ratio of the DC output power to the AC input power.

4. What is PIV?

Ans: The peak inverse voltage is either the specified maximum voltage that a diode rectifier can
block, or, alternatively, the maximum that a rectifier needs to block in a given application.

5. What are the applications of rectifier?

Ans: The primary application of rectifiers is to derive DC power from an AC supply. Virtually
all electronic devices require DC, so rectifiers are used inside the power supplies of virtually all
electronic equipment. Rectifiers are also used for detection of amplitude modulated radio signals.
rectifiers are used to supply polarized voltage for welding.

6. Give some rectifications technologies?

Ans: Synchronous rectifier, Vibrator, Motor-generator set, Electrolytic ,Mercury arc, and Argon
gas electron tube.

7. What is the efficiency of bridge

rectifier? Ans: 81 %

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BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB
8. What is filter?
Ans: Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions,
specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal.
9. IV center tapped
FWR? Ans: 2Vm.
10. In filters capacitor is always connected in parallel, why?
Ans: Capacitor allows AC and blocks DC signal, in rectifier for converting AC to DC, capacitor
placed in parallel with output, where output is capacitor blocked voltage. If capacitance value
increases its capacity also increases which increases efficiency of rectifier.

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Experiment No: 7

Realization of basic gates using Universal Logic Gates

Aim: To verify the truth tables of various logic Gates.

Components and Equipments required: Digital IC trainer kit, IC’s (7400, 7402, 7404, 7408,
7432 & 7486) & connecting wires.

Theory:

Digital circuits are implemented using logic gates. The basic logical operations are performed by
NOT, AND, OR gates.

NAND, NOR (the complements of AND, OR gates respectively) are the universal gates as any
logic can be implemented using only NAND or only NOR.

NOT .gate complements the input.

AND gate gives logic 1 as output only if all of its inputs are at logic 1.

OR gate gives logic 0 as output only if all of its inputs are at logic 0.

NAND gate gives logic 0 as output only if all of its inputs are at logic

1. NOR gate gives logic 1 as output only if all of its inputs are at logic

0. Ex-OR gate gives logic 1 output if the two inputs are dissimilar.

Truth Tables & IC Diagrams:

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT, MJCET 54

BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

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BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Procedure:

1. Connect the IC’s on the trainer kit.

2. Connect Vcc = 5V & GND to pin 14 & 7 respectively.
3. Apply inputs to the logic gates from switches block of the trainer kit.
4. Verify output of the logic gates at LED indicators of the trainer kit.
5. Repeat the steps 3 & 4 for all the gates present in the IC.

Results: The truth tables of various logic Gates are verified.

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Experiment 8
Design of inverting, non-inverting amplifiers and voltage follower circuit using OPAMP 741.
Aim:
To determine the gain of inverting & non-inverting using operational amplifier 741 and test the
operation.
Equipments and apparatus required:

Sl. No Apparatus required Model Range Quantity

1 Cathode ray oscilloscope Analog (0-30)MHz 1 no
2 Function generator Analog (0-30)MHz 1 no
3 Power chords Flexible 3 core cable 1Ø,230V/6A 2 no’s
4 Probe Coaxial cable 2 no’s
5 Dual Power Supply Digital (+15/0/-15)V 1 no
6 Operational-Amplifier LM741 ±15V,−55°Cto+125°C 1 no
7 Resistors Linear type (100 Ω to 100K) 2 no’s
8 Hookup wire Single Strand With standing 30V,1A As required
9 Bread Board 1 no

Theory:
Inverting Amplifier:
Itisthemostwidelyusedofalltheop-ampcircuits.TheoutputvoltageVo isfedbacktotheinverting
inputterminalthroughtheRf –R1 networkwhereRf isthefeedbackresistor. InputsignalVi isappliedtothe inverting input terminal
through R1 and non-inverting terminal of op- amp is grounded. The gain of the inverting amplifier is given by,
ACL = Vo / Vi = - Rf / R1
Thenegativesignindicatesaphaseshiftof180o betweenVi andVo.ThevalueofR1 shouldbekeptlargetoavoid loading effect.
Non-Inverting Amplifier:
Ifthesignalisappliedtothenon-invertinginputterminalandfeedbackisgiventotheinvertinginput terminal, the circuit
amplifies without inverting the input signal. Such a circuit is called non-inverting amplifier.
Itisalsoanegativefeedbacksystemasoutputisbeingfed backtotheinvertinginputterminal.Thegainofthe non-inverting
amplifier is given by,
ACL = V0 / Vi = 1+ Rf / R1
Thegaincanbeadjustedtounity(or)more,byproperselectionofresistorsRf andR1.Comparedtoinverting amplifier, the input resistance
of the non-inverting amplifier is extremely large as the op-amp draws negligible current from the signal source.
Voltage Follower
Theinputandoutputaresameinmagnitudeandpolarityiscalledvoltagefollower Theoutput V0

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 BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB
en by V = 1 × V
is giv 0 i
Where, the gain of amplifier is AV = 1.

Model Graph:
Model Graph:
Inverting Amplifier:
Non-Inverting Amplifier:
V V
O I

T T

Tabulation:
Inverting Amplifier: VIN=..........V

No. of Div Volt/Div Total Volt No. of Div Time/Div Total Time
Wave Form
(V) (V) (V) (ms) (ms) (ms)

Input Wave
Output Wave

Tabulation:
Non Inverting Amplifier: VIN=..........V

No. of Div Volt/Div Total Volt No. of Div Time/Div Total Time
Wave Form
(V) (V) (V) (ms) (ms) (ms)

Input Wave
Output Wave

‘
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Formula Used:

1.
2.

3.
Precautions:
1) Powerswitch should be kept in offposition at the timeofstarting.
2) Connection must be neat and tight.
3) PolarityofCRO&FGshouldbeconnectedcorrectlyinorderavoidthedamagetoit.
4) CourseandFineadjustmentknobsinRPSshouldbekeptatminimumpositionatthetimeofstarting.
Procedure:

• Thecircuit connections aregivenasperthecircuitdiagram.

• The power supply is switched ON.
• TheamplitudeandtimeperiodoftheinputandoutputwaveformsarenotedfromCRO.
• Thegraph is plotted forthevalueswhichwillbetakenfromthe CRO.

Design Procedure:

Inverting Amplifier:

V o / V i = - Rf / Ri

Gain=(Vo /Vi)=-2 Put Ri =5KΩ

-2 = -Rf /5 Rf

= 10KΩ.

Non-Inverting Amplifier:

Vo / Vi = 1+Rf / Ri

Gain (Vo / Vi ) = 3 , for Ri = 5KΩ.

3=1+Rf /5K Rf

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=10KΩ.

Outcome:

Students able to design and calculate gain of op-amp using IC 741 in different modes.

Result:

Thus Basic Op-amp Circuits like the inverting, non-inverting using operational amplifier 741 were designed

andtested. Theoretical gain: p1ractical gain:

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Experiment No: 9

Op-Amp based differentiator and Integrator

Aim: To study the Operational amplifier as A Integrator & Differentiator.

Components and Equipments required:

IC741, Regulated DC power supply (2), Resistors (10 k  (4), 1k  (2)), Capacitors (0.01 µF
(2)), Multimeter, Signal generator, CRO, CRO probes, Bread board and connecting wires.

Theory: The Operational amplifier (Op-amp) is a high gain, direct coupled, differential amplifier
with high input resistance & low output resistance. It is named so as it can be used to perform a
number of mathematical operations, like addition, subtraction, comparison, integration &
differentiation etc.

A circuit in which the output voltage is sum of the inputs is called an adder.
A circuit in which the output voltage is difference between the inputs is called a subtractor.
A circuit which compares an input with a reference voltage is called a comparator.
A circuit in which the output voltage is the integral of the input is called an integrator.
A circuit in which the output voltage is the derivative of the input is called a differentiator.

Part-1: Integrator & Differentiator

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 BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB
Procedure:

1. Connect the circuits as shown in Fig. 5 & Fig. 6.

2. Apply a square wave of 3 kHz frequency from Function generator, as input to the
Integrator. Observe the output waveform.
3. Apply a triangular wave of 3 kHz frequency from Function generator, as input to the
Differentiator. Observe the output waveform.
4. Draw the input & output waveforms for above circuits on a graph sheet.
Expected Waveforms:

Results: The Operational amplifier is studied as Integrator & Differentiator, and their outputs are
verified.

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Experiment No: 10
Op-Amp based adder and subtractor
Aim: To study the Operational amplifier as Adder, Subtractor, Comparator, I

Components and Equipments required: IC741, Regulated DC power supply (2), Resistors (10

k  (4), 1k  (2)), Capacitors (0.01 µF (2)), Multimeter, Signal generator, CRO, CRO probes,
Bread board and connecting wires.

Theory: The Operational amplifier (Op-amp) is a high gain, direct coupled, differential amplifier
with high input resistance & low output resistance. It is named so as it can be used to perform a
number of mathematical operations, like addition, subtraction, comparison, integration &
differentiation etc.

A circuit in which the output voltage is sum of the inputs is called an adder.
A circuit in which the output voltage is difference between the inputs is called a subtractor.
A circuit which compares an input with a reference voltage is called a comparator.
A circuit in which the output voltage is the integral of the input is called an integrator.
A circuit in which the output voltage is the derivative of the input is called a differentiator.
Part-1: Adder, Subtractor & Comparator

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BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuits as shown in Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 3 & Fig. 4.

2. Apply the inputs from a regulated power supply.
3. Measure the output voltage using a multimeter.
4. Repeat the above steps for different values of inputs.
Observations:

Results: The Operational amplifier is studied as Adder, Subtractor, Comparator and their outputs are
verified.

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Experiment No: 11 & 12 Construction of

simple Adder & Multiplexer

Aim: To verify the truth tables of Half Adder, Full Adder & 8X1 MUX.

Components and Equipments required: Digital IC trainer kit, IC’s (7400 (3), & 74151) &
connecting wires.

Theory:

Half Adder is a combinational circuit which adds the two binary inputs (A & B) to produce sum
(S = A Ex-or B) & carry (cy = A.B).

Full Adder is a combinational circuit which adds the three binary inputs (A, B & C) to produce
sum (sum = A Ex-or B Ex-or C) & carry (cy = A.B+B.C+C.A).

Multiplexer is a combinational circuit in which an input data line is connected to the output
through select lines.

Truth Tables & Circuit Diagrams:

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BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Part-1: Half Adder, Full Adder.

Procedure:

1) Connect the 7400 IC’s on the trainer kit.

2) Make the connections as per the circuit diagrams.
3) Connect Vcc = 5V & GND to pin 14 & 7 respectively.
4) Apply inputs from switches block of the trainer kit.
5) Verify output at LED indicators of the trainer kit.

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Part-2: 8X1 Multiplexer.

Procedure:

1) Connect the 74151 IC on the trainer kit.

2) Connect Vcc = 5V & GND to the respective pins.
3) Apply the select line inputs & the data lines from switches block of the trainer kit.
4) Verify output at LED indicators of the trainer kit.

Results: The truth tables of Half Adder, Full Adder & 8X1 MUX are verified.

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