Through the Eyes of Travellers Bhakti-Sufi Traditions An Imperial Capital Vijayanagara Peasants, Zamindars, and the State

1. Al-Biruni and the Kitab-ul-Hind 1. A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and 1. The Discovery of Hampi 1. Peasants and Agricultural Production
Background: Practices Rediscovery:Vijayanagara (Hampi) was Composition of Rural Society:Peasants
Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE), a Persian Pre-existing Traditions:Ancient Vedic rediscovered by Colin Mackenzie, a (raiyats) formed the majority of the rural
scholar, came to India with Mahmud of practices: Ritual sacrifices, yajnas. British officer, in 1800. population and engaged in agriculture.
Ghazni’s invasions. Local tribal deities and nature worship. Inscriptions, sketches, and oral Classified as khud-kashta (resident
Authored Kitab-ul-Hind (also known as Temple worship of deities like Vishnu, traditions played a key role in cultivators) and pahi-kashta (migratory
Tahqiq-i-Hind), an account of Indian Shiva, and Durga evolved. reconstructing its history. cultivators).
society, culture, and religion. Inclusivity:These traditions coexisted UNESCO World Heritage Site:Hampi, Agricultural Practices:Techniques
Key Observations: with Buddhist and Jain philosophies, recognized for its historical and included the use of iron ploughs,
Hinduism: Admired the Sanskritic reflecting a pluralistic society. architectural significance. irrigation canals, and Persian wheels.
tradition but found certain religious Tantric practices: Found in both 2. Rayas, Nayakas, and Sultans Rice, wheat, barley, and cash crops like
practices difficult to understand. Hinduism and Buddhism, emphasizing Vijayanagara Empire:Founded in 1336 cotton and sugarcane were cultivated.
Caste System: Highlighted social rituals and mysticism. by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama Crop Productivity:Depended on climatic
divisions and lack of intermingling due 2. Poems of Prayer: Early Traditions of dynasty. conditions and irrigation facilities.
to varna. Bhakti The empire had four dynasties: 2. The Village Community
Comparison: Compared Indian beliefs Bhakti Movement: Emerged as a Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu. Structure:Comprised peasants,
with those of Greeks and Muslims. response to caste-based exclusivity and Notable ruler: Krishnadeva Raya artisans, and village officials.
Methodology: elaborate rituals. (1509–1529), of the Tuluva dynasty, Headman (muqaddam/patel):
Adopted a scientific and objective Early Bhakti Traditions:Alvars (devotees expanded the empire and promoted art, Represented the village in dealings with
approach. of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of literature, and architecture. the state.
Relied on Sanskrit texts and dialogues Shiva) in Tamil Nadu (6th–9th century). Nayakas:Military chiefs who governed Panchayats: Local councils that
with Indian scholars. Composed Tamil devotional hymns and territories in exchange for military resolved disputes.
Acknowledged challenges in rejected caste discrimination. service. Collective Responsibilities:Villages
understanding a new culture. Philosophy:Advocated personal Played a critical role in maintaining local often shared resources like wells and
2. Ibn Battuta’s Rihla devotion (bhakti) to God over ritualistic administration. grazing lands.
Background: worship. Relations with Sultans:The empire had 3. Women in Agrarian Society
Ibn Battuta (1304–1369 CE), a Emphasized love, equality, and spiritual complex relationships with Deccan Role in Agriculture:Women worked in
Moroccan traveller, came to India surrender. Sultanates, involving both alliances and sowing, weeding, and harvesting crops.
during Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign. 3. The Virashaiva Tradition in conflicts. Patriarchal Structure:Limited property
Wrote Rihla (Travels), documenting his Karnataka 3. Vijayanagara: The Capital and Its rights but occasionally owned land
experiences in India and beyond. Founder: Basavanna (12th century), a Environs (stridhana).
Key Observations: Brahmin minister in the Kalachuri Geography:Situated along the Labour and Society:Women were also
Urban Life: Described the grandeur of kingdom. Tungabhadra River, the capital was involved in artisanal work like spinning
cities like Delhi, Daulatabad, and Teachings:Rejected Brahmanical protected by natural and man-made yarn.
Calicut. authority, idol worship, and caste defenses. Marginalized groups of women often
Muhammad bin Tughlaq: Praised the hierarchy. Surrounded by rugged granite hills and worked as wage laborers.
Sultan’s generosity but criticized his Promoted worship of Shiva in the form fortified walls.
eccentric policies (e.g., capital shifting). of Linga. Urban Layout:Planned city with distinct
Social Practices: Noted caste Virashaivas/Lingayats:Emphasized Royal and Sacred Centers.
distinctions, extravagant rituals, and equality, work ethic, and simple living. Well-connected roads, water reservoirs,
hospitality towards travellers. Rejected ideas of pollution and upheld and a network of bazaars.
Travel Challenges: Faced dangers like women’s equality in spiritual matters.
bandits and natural hardships.
Significance:
Provided a first-hand account of
14th-century India, including political
and social dynamics.

3. François Bernier: A Doctor with a 4. Religious Ferment in North India 4. The Royal Centre 4. Forests and Tribes
Difference Key Bhakti Saints:Kabir: Criticized both Palaces:Mahanavami Dibba: A massive Forest Resources:Provided timber,
Background: Hindu and Islamic orthodoxy, promoted platform for royal ceremonies, fruits, medicinal plants, and hunting
François Bernier (1620–1688 CE), a Nirguna bhakti (formless God). showcasing power and grandeur. grounds.
French doctor and traveller, spent 12 Ravidas and Dadu Dayal: Advocated Structures like the Lotus Mahal blended Essential for shipbuilding and military
years in Mughal India during social equality and spiritual devotion. Indo-Islamic architectural styles. needs.
Aurangzeb’s reign. Mirabai:A Rajput princess, devoted to Military Architecture:Fortifications and Tribal Communities:Lived in forests and
Wrote extensively about Indian society, Krishna. watchtowers provided security. had shifting cultivation practices (jhum).
economy, and polity in comparison to Her songs challenged social norms, Water reservoirs ensured a steady Often resisted Mughal policies of
Europe. especially those concerning women’s supply for residents and the army. taxation and deforestation.
Key Observations: roles. 5. The Sacred Centre 5. The Zamindars
Mughal Administration: Criticized the Philosophical Underpinnings:Saguna Key Temples:Virupaksha Temple: Role in Society:Acted as intermediaries
empire for despotic rule and absence of bhakti (with attributes) and Nirguna Dedicated to Lord Shiva, associated between the state and the peasants.
private property (zamindari system). bhakti (without attributes). with local traditions. Collected land revenue and maintained
Economic Stagnation: Claimed that 5. New Strands in the Fabric: Islamic Vittala Temple: Known for its iconic law and order.
over-taxation and lack of property rights Traditions stone chariot and musical pillars. Social Status:Wealthy and influential,
stifled growth. Islamic Practices:Core beliefs in Hazara Rama Temple: Decorated with often owning large estates.
Social Hierarchies: Noted the rigid monotheism (Tawhid), the Quran, and carvings depicting scenes from the Patronized temples, mosques, and local
caste system and inequality. the Hadiths. Ramayana. artisans.
Criticism of India: Rituals like prayer (namaz), fasting Pilgrimage Site:Sacred spots along the Resistance:Occasionally rebelled
Labeled India as "degenerate" and (roza), pilgrimage (hajj), and charity Tungabhadra River attracted devotees. against the state, especially during
lacking scientific progress compared to (zakat). Inscriptions reveal contributions from times of economic strain.
Europe. Impact on India:Interaction with local merchants, women, and rulers. 6. Land Revenue System
Promoted the idea of the Oriental traditions gave rise to new practices 6. Plotting Palaces, Temples, and Key Revenue Systems:Zabti: Revenue
Despotism narrative. and hybrid forms of worship (e.g., Bazaars assessment based on crop production
4. Making Sense of an Alien World: dargahs). Integration of Sacred and and land measurement (standardized
Al-Biruni and the Sanskritic Tradition 6. The Growth of Sufism Secular:Temples were not just religious by Akbar).
Challenges:Language barrier: Required Origins: Emerged in 8th century Arabia centers but also hubs of social and Ghalla-bakshi: Revenue was a share of
translation of Sanskrit texts into Arabic. as a reaction to materialism in Islamic economic activity. the actual produce.
Differences in religious worldviews. society. Royal ceremonies often took place in State Officials:Amil: Revenue officer
Analysis of Texts:Studied Vedas, Teachings:Emphasized love, temple complexes. responsible for collection.
Puranas, and Manusmriti. compassion, and devotion to Allah. Bazaars:Lined with shops selling luxury Qanungo: Maintained revenue records.
Critiqued Brahmanical dominance and Believed in the importance of a spiritual goods like spices, silks, and precious Revenue Importance:Land revenue
rigid caste distinctions. guide (Pir). stones. constituted the largest share of Mughal
Silsilas (Orders):Different Sufi orders Foreign travelers like Nicolo de Conti income.
were established, e.g., Chishti, Qadiri, and Abdur Razzaq described the Payment was often in cash,
Suhrawardi, Naqshbandi. prosperity of Vijayanagara. encouraging monetization of the
economy.
5. Ibn Battuta and the Excitement of the 7. The Chishtis in the Subcontinent 7. Questions in Search of Answers 7. The Flow of Silver
Unfamiliar Introduction:Brought to India by Khwaja Why Vijayanagara Flourished:Strategic Monetary Economy:Silver from the New
Curiosity: Fascinated by the diversity of Muinuddin Chishti (Ajmer). location near trade routes. World (Americas) flowed into India
cultures, climate, and landscape of Emphasized simplicity, service to Effective administration and military through European traders.
India. humanity, and devotion to Allah. strategies. Supported the Mughal economy and
Social Customs:Mentioned lavish Teachings:Langar: Free communal Decline:Battle of Talikota (1565): A encouraged cash transactions.
hospitality, marketplaces, and meals to all, symbolizing equality. coalition of Deccan Sultanates defeated Impact:Strengthened the Mughal
ceremonial practices. Importance of music (qawwalis) to Vijayanagara. currency system.
Documented slave markets and the role connect with the divine. The capital was plundered, leading to Facilitated growth in markets and trade.
of women in society. Famous Saints:Nizamuddin Auliya its decline. 8. The Ain-i Akbari of Abu’l Fazl Allami
His narrative highlights the contrast (Delhi) and Baba Farid (Punjab). Archaeological Findings:Findings Author:Written by Abu’l Fazl, one of
between familiar and unfamiliar 8. New Devotional Paths: Dialogue and provide insights into urban planning, Akbar’s Navratnas.
practices. Dissent in Northern India architecture, and daily life. Content:Part of the Akbarnama,
6. Bernier and the “Degenerate” East Sant Tradition:Saints like Kabir, Historiography:Historians rely on documenting Mughal administration and
Critical View:Described Mughal India as Ravidas, and Guru Nanak challenged archaeological evidence, inscriptions, agrarian society.
stagnant and backward compared to orthodox practices. and accounts of foreign travelers to Detailed accounts of crops, revenue
Europe. Emphasized universal brotherhood and reconstruct its history. systems, prices, and social structures.
Saw European systems of governance formless devotion (Nirguna bhakti). Significance:Provided insights into the
and private property as superior. Sikhism:Founded by Guru Nanak functioning of the Mughal empire.
Orientalist Perspective:Reinforced (1469–1539), emphasized equality and Helped in the centralization of the
Eurocentric ideas of the East being devotion to a formless God. empire’s agrarian administration.
despotic and lacking innovation. Compiled teachings in the Guru Granth
Impact:His writings influenced colonial Sahib.
attitudes toward India.

7. Women, Slaves, Sati, and Labourers 9. Reconstructing Histories of Religious

Women:Al-Biruni noted women’s Traditions
domestic roles but admired their Sources:Texts: Vedas, Puranas, Alvar
religious devotion. and Nayanar hymns, Sufi literature.
Ibn Battuta highlighted the practice of Architecture: Temples, mosques, and
Sati, where widows immolated dargahs.
themselves, and found it shocking. Inscriptions and Oral Traditions: Provide
Slavery:Ibn Battuta documented the details on patronage and local
prevalence of slavery in households, practices.
military, and markets. Challenges:Fragmented evidence and
Slaves performed both domestic and varying interpretations.
administrative roles. Difficulty in understanding composite
Labourers:François Bernier described traditions and evolving beliefs.
the exploitation of peasants under the
Mughal zamindari system.
Artisans and laborers faced hardships
due to over-taxation and lack of
autonomy.