IMPACT OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY ON SOCIETY.

HUMAN ISSUES.
Job Displacement.

With the coming of the information age, many jobs have been replaced by
computers or automated machinery, such as robots. A few examples are
listed below.
- A large proportion of the manufacturing and assembly work is now
done by robots.
- Managers rarely have shorthand secretaries, but are expected to word
process their own letters.
- Bank notes are rarely hand counted, but are either weighed or counted
using machines.
- With the advancement in software, people who needed special skills
such as typesetting, for newspapers and publications, have been de-
skilled, since the software does all the layouts for them.
- Shop assistants no longer need to calculate the change that should be
given since the checkout computers does it.
- Payrolls are now automatically done using application programs. This
would previously have involved a number of people, depending on the
size of the organization, and several days to work to prepare.

Work Skills and Re- Training.

As can be seen from the previous section, as number of work skills are no
longer required, but at the same time, jobs have been created that require
new ICT (Information and Communications Technology) skills. New jobs
such as programming, network installation, network administration, web
design, etc have been created.

As a result of the deskilling/reskilling, retraining on a large scale is

required, other many people cannot be employed. This is a key issue that
the management of any organization must address to ensure that any
computerization efforts include retraining of staff to fulfill the changing job
requirements. This has in itself created a whole new industry of people
who are responsible for training the workforce for the information age.

Social Aspects for Employees and Employers.

Working from Home.

With the advancement in technologies, it is now possible for people to work
from home. The use of paper is diminishing, and most of the information is
stored on computers that can be accessed from home using
telecommunication links, e.g. dial-up access.

There are many advantages of employees working from home.

- One of the key advantages is reduction in pollution and congestion, as
a direct result of fewer people commuting to work.
 - Working from home also gives people the option of flex-time, giving
them the option of working long hours or part-time. Parents can work
during school times, or when children are asleep. It also allows those
with other personal responsibilities such as caring for aged parents, to
meet both their home and work obligations. Basically, it gives
individuals more control over their own time.
- There is no need for large offices that would accommodate all
employees, if people work from home, saving on costs.

There ere also some disadvantages of working from home.

- People who lack discipline may not do the work, or put in enough
hours, whereas others may overwork.
- Some employees gain a great deal of job satisfaction from being
praised for a job well done. Direct supervision disappears when people
work from home.
- Work quality may suffer if employees take the attitude “no one sees me
doing the job, so it doesn’t really matter”
- There are fewer opportunities for brainstorming with colleagues. This
may result in problem taking longer to resolve.

Job Security.
Due to the increase in automation and computer technology, there is a risk
that jobs may be lost. Robots take over jobs that were reserved for humans
and are doing those jobs much more quickly and efficiently. As employers
cannot predict the pace of technology changes, industries that are dominated
by use of information and communications technologies, may only offer short-
term contracts. Therefore, employees loose their sense of job security.

The pace of change, changes in supervision, and lack of job security make
many people feel increased stress. So while technological changes are
supposed to improve the quality of life of people, it sometimes makes things
worse.

Health and Safety.

There are a number of health issues which can arise from prolonged use of
computers.
- Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) where people suffer from strain of the
tendons and ligaments in the arms and shoulders. This may be
recognized as aching and stiffness of the arms and shoulders, or
tingling of the fingers.
Solution: This can be prevented by using keyboards with a good design
or having wrist supports.
- Back problems can be caused by poor posture when using computer
equipment.
Solution: This can be prevented by having adjustable screens (swivel
based), and adjustable chairs. Sometimes footrests and backrests may be
required.
- Eye strain which may be caused by badly positioned screens or glare
from the screen. Sunlight bouncing from windows or from overhead
lighting can cause the glare.
Solution: Use of adjustable screens, anti-glare screens, diffused lightning
and window blinds can prevent eyestrains.
- General fatigue and stress caused by prolonged periods of sitting in
front of the computer.
Solution: It is important to take breaks away from the computer to prevent
general health problem.

There are a number of safety issues that are related to the use of computers.
- It is important to use the right type of power sockets and not overload
the socket.
- Keep food and drink away from any electrical equipment.
- Computer generates a lot of heat and there is risk of fire. It is important
to have the right type of flooring, good ventilation and fire extinguishers
within easy reach.
- All wires should be neatly laid, and covered appropriately to prevent
people from tripping over them.

Breakthroughs:
Health Care:
- Expert systems which act as “intelligent assistants” to doctors, and are
programmed to suggest possible diagnoses, or present information in a
way that helps the doctor to make decisions on causes and treatment
of diseases.
- Patient monitoring systems which are commonly used in intensive care
units to monitor heart rates, breathing rates, blood pressure, etc, at
frequent intervals. These systems display the required information on a
digital display or produce it as paper output. Such systems make use of
microprocessors and are referred to as embedded systems.
- Medical imaging which is the study of human functions and anatomy by
means of pictorial information. Medical scanning technology uses
microprocessors to display and interpret the digitized information
gathered.
- Medical training is making use of computer simulation to show students
how to operate and carryout medical procedures.

Commerce and Industry:

Advances in information and Communication technology has changed the
way in which business operate. E-Commerce has changed the way in which
goods are sold. A large number of dot com companies have cropped up that
operates solely from the internet. Even supermarkets are selling goods and
arranging home delivery via the internet.

Banks have also changed the way they operate. Customers can now check
their balances, transfer money and carry out many other transactions over the
internet. Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs) dispense cash at the touch of a
button.

Computer Aided Design and Manufacture (CAD/CAM) has automated the

design and production processes in manufacturing industries. CAD software
allows designers to build very detailed models with accurate dimensions.
CAM systems can be used to control mechanical equipment, such as robots.
One of the industries that have made extensive use of robots is the car
manufacturing industry. Robots can also be used in laces that are hazardous
or inaccessible to human beings (e.g. space exploration)

Communications:
Broadband:
The major breakthrough in the communications industry has been the
improvements in bandwidth. Bandwidth is simply a measure of how much
data can be transferred within a given time unit. While fibre-optic lines marked
a dramatic increase in the backbone capacity of long-distance networks,
recent advances in dense wave multiplexers, digital subscriber line (DSL)
technology, and cable modems has changed the types of information that can
move across networks. The rapid growth of multimedia, video conferencing
and e-commerce applications has led to the growth of broadband.

Broadband is high-speed digital internet access including Digital Subscriber

Lines (DSL, T1/T3), or satellite internet connection. Digital Subscriber Line
(DSL) technology uses ordinary copper telephone wire to transmit data at
broadband speeds of up to 7+ Mbps. DSL is an “always-on” service, meaning
there is no need to dial-in to connect to the internet. Before DSL became
available, this link was achieved by using dial-up analogue modems with
speeds ranging up to 56 Kbps, ISDN with speeds up to 124 Kbps, and T1 or
Frame Relay connections with speeds up to 1.54 Mbps.

Web TV and Radio:

Computer and software companies have re-invented the concept of
interactive TV under the new name Internet-enabled TV. By using simple
devices to link the TV and the Internet, the Internet can now be accessed via
the TV set.

It is also possible to listen to the radio over the World Wide Web. Radio
stations can now broadcast via the WWW making it possible to listen to local
radios world wide.

COMPUTER CRIMES:
Viruses:
A computer virus is a program designed specifically to damage other
programs or cause irregular behavior. A virus is a computer code usually
designed to carry out three tasks.
- Attach itself to another program or file.
- Locate itself within a computer system in such a way as to make it
possible for it to destroy/amend programs and data files, by interfering with
the normal processes of the operating system.
- Spread itself from one computer system to another.
It is against the law to knowingly distribute or write a virus. There are many
different viruses which are often identified by name. Many viruses are spread
by e-mails, file attachments, Internet downloads or floppy disks. Viruses
spread very quickly through networks, and the effects can be global,
especially in the case of e-mail or internet based viruses.
Prevention against Viruses:
In today’s processing environment, which relies heavily on
telecommunications and software applications, it is impossible to guarantee
complete protection against a computer virus. Another factor that adds to the
impossibility of achieving absolute protection is that viruses, which may
originate outside of the organization, are often transmitted inadvertently by
people in the company who have legitimate access to computer systems.
Therefore, viruses and other security threats can only be solved by having the
right security policies in laces as well as the technical solution to backup the
policies

Technical Solution:
.Various anti-virus attacks may be achieved by the implementation of a
security policy designed to protect data held on PCs from a range of potential
threats, including viruses. Such a security policy should include the following
steps:

- All software and data files should have backups taken at regular
intervals.
- Users should be informed of the need for data security, and of the
potential threats to the integrity of their data.
- When opening e-mails, users should not open any messages from
unknown senders..
- File attachments should also be scanned before opening them.
- All purchased software should be carefully examined before use.
Load new software onto an isolated PC which contains no critical or
sensitive files.
- Procedures for evaluating new software should include tests for the
presence of virus code. Free copies of software should not be used.
- Always virus-check floppies when used to move files between
computers.

Hacking:;
Hacking is when an individual gets into a computer system to look at files
which are private, and to which the individual does not have authorized
access. When a person does this, it usually means that they have probably
logged onto a computer system as though they were someone else. Once
hackers break into a computer system, they may:
- Look at the data.
- Copy the data.
- Modify the data.

Usually a hacker has worked out the password and user identification of a
person who is authorized to use the computer system. There are programs
that can be downloaded from the internet to monitor systems to get the
passwords, or try out several passwords within seconds to get the correct
one. Data being transmitted via telephone or wireless can also be intercepted.
People who hack into computer systems do not always want to steal money
Usually computer hackers are either young computer enthusiasts who lack
into a system to prove that it an be done or disgruntled employees.

Protection against Hacking:

There are a number of ways in which unauthorized access of computer
systems can be prevented or stopped, such as:
- Logging off correctly from the computer when leaving the machine.
- Choosing passwords that are not obvious. Passwords should be
atleast 6 characters long, and a mixture of characters and numbers.
- Passwords should be kept private and not written down anywhere.
- Passwords should also be changed frequently.
- Data that is transmitted using the telecommunications network or
wireless communication should be encrypted.
- For highly sensitive data, such as military intelligence, password
protection is not enough. Other methods of authentication such as
finger prints, voice recognition, etc, may be used to authenticate users.

DATA PROTECTION AND LEGISLATION:

Computer Ethics:
Ethics are the moral principals and values that govern the actions and
decisions of an individual or group. They serve as guidelines on how to act
rightly and justly when faced with moral dilemmas. With the technological
advances in computing power, data storage/retrieval, and
telecommunications, the issues of ethics within the context of the Information
Society become a major concern. Some of these ethical issues are:

- Information Rights and Obligations- what information rights do

individuals and organizations have with regard to information that
pertains to themselves? What obligations do the individuals and
organizations have concerning this information?
- Property Rights- by the very intangible nature of digital information, it is
difficult to protect intellectual property rights in a digital society. How
can ownership be proved for a product that is intangible?
- Accountability and Control- who can and will be held accountable for
the harm done to individual and collective information and property
rights?
- System Quality- what standards of data and system quality should we
demand to protect individual rights and the safety of society?
- Quality of Life- what values should be preserved in information and
knowledge based society? What cultural values and practices are
supported by the new information and communications technology?

To address the above issues, there has been an increased demand for ICT
legislation, which is discussed in the next section.

ICT Legislation:
Computer crime is a growing industry, and a lot of money is lost every year
due to computer misuse or fraud. Some of the issues addressed by ICT
legislation are:
 - To protect the confidentiality of information kept about an individual.
- To provide legal backing so that it is possible to seek redress if rights
are violated.
- To minimize the effects of exposure to uncensored materials.
- To observe copyright for those who create original works.

In Kenya, the Copyright Act was amended in 1996to provide protection for
computer programs or software copyrights. In addition to copyright protection,
there is a lot of other legislation that is in force in other countries. A few
examples are listed below with a description of what the legislation entails.

Legislation Description.
Data Protection. A safeguard to protect data. It
basically ensures that holders of
personal data do not misuse that
data.
Computer misuse. To prevent misuse of both hardware
and software, including computer
viruses, hacking,etc.
Health and safety. An explanation of what employers
must do and what the equipment
must be like to ensure the health and
safety of employees.

Obscene Publications. To prevent obscene publications

being published and distributed
electronically.

Information and Privacy:

Computerized systems reduce people’s privacy by storing information about
them. Many government agencies have computer files databases with
information about individuals. For example, department of transport and
licensing board have data systems with many records including information on
pilots, aircraft and all motorists whose licenses have been withdrawn,
suspended or revoked. You may have also filled school admission forms, job
application forms, loan application forms, etc.

With all these government agencies, institutions, organizations and private

businesses compiling information about your personal matters, the issue of
privacy and confidentiality come into play. The term information privacy refers
to controlling personal and confidential information and controlling what, how
and when this information is communicated to other parties. Privacy of data
and information stored electronically has been a controversial issue since
computers first appeared. Once information is stored electronically, there is no
guarantee it will remain private or confidential.
Data is classified as personal, if it can be used in a way to identify an
individual. Some of he issues that need to be addressed to ensure data is
obtained and used correctly are:
- Personal data is obtained with the permission of the data subject.
- The processing of the data is necessary for legal reasons,
administration of justice, medical treatment, and so on.
- The personal data is held and used only for the specified and lawful
purpose.
- The personal data held should be just enough to fulfill the stated
purpose, and kept up-to-date (accurate).
- The personal data should not be kept longer than it is necessary to
fulfill the stated
- Purpose.
- The data must be kept secure against unauthorized access, alteration
or destruction whether intentional or accidental.

The data subjects should have the right to access the data that is being stored
about them and request for correction if the data is inaccurate. The data
subject should also have the right to prevent unauthorized processing of the
data or be inundated with marketing offers. If the data subject suffers damage
or in the case of sensitive data suffers distress, then they should have the
right to compensation.
Some examples of how data privacy can be violated are given below.

E-Commerce/Mailing Lists and Privacy:

When you carry out online transactions, subscribe to lists, online
magazines/newsletters, some of the information you provide may included
name, address and credit card details. Even after your payment has been
received by the company, your credit card number may still be retained as
part of your record in company’s computer systems. If anyone breaks into this
system, they can gain access to this information and misuse.

Privacy via the Telephone:

Many people set their telephone-recording machines to record incoming calls
while they are away. Some organizations use an automatic dial-up program to
call area residents. When the computer reaches your online telephone-
recording machine, the computerized message is recorded on the tape in your
machine. Upon returning, you listen to your messages and find several
lengthy sales messages describing various commercial products or services.
Many people perceive this form of marketing as an invasion of their privacy
and feel that there is need for legislation to regulate such marketing tactics.

Privacy of E-Mail:
Until recently, compute users have treated e-mail much as they would
telephones. They freely express their thoughts in an uncensored manner,
thinking their messages are private. Deleting messages doesn’t necessarily
mean that they are gone forever. Programmers know how to uncover this data
and are often hired to do just that. Also, some e-mail software makes backups
of messages and stores these files under a different file extension.
Some measures that can be taken to ensure e-mail privacy are given below:
- Know every place where e-mail messages could possibly be stored in
the computer
- Buy commercial software currently available that truly erases files.
- Find out about your institutions policy regarding the privacy of e-mail
messages.
- Keep in mind that information you provide in e-mail messages can be
used as evidence.

FUTURE TRENDS:
Evolution of Computer Architecture:
The evolution of computer architecture focuses on improving speed,
performance and efficiency. Two main areas of focus are on the bus interface
and the CPU.

Bus Architecture Development:

Several new bus interfaces are gaining acceptance for PC-based systems,
including Compact PC1, the Universal Serial Bus (USB), IEE 1394, Card Bus,
and Fibre Channel.

Compact PC1:
The compact PC1 bus is based on Peripheral Component Interconnect (PC1),
delivering 132-MB/s transfer rates via bus-mastered direct memory access
(DMA). It also offers eight slots for installing peripherals, a significant increase
over desktop PC1.

Universal Serial Bus:

The USB is the first of several new external computer buses designed to
replace the serial and parallel ports we use today. It offers several advantages
over the legacy ports it is designed to replace.

First, USB is a hot-pluggable plug-and-play bus, meaning that you just plug
the device into a port on your PC, and it is configured automatically.

No more opening the computer to add new hardware. You don’t even have to
turn off the computer.

Multiple devices can be connected to your PC via USB, and the bus supplies
power to these devices. USB is ideal for consumer peripherals and will be
used primarily for devices such as keyboards, mice, and joysticks.

IEEE 1394:
IEEE 1394 is a high-speed serial bus that sends information via packets. It
was developed as Fire wire by Apple Computer and became an IEEE
specification in 1995. Much like USB, the motivation behind IEEE 394 is to
consolidate and replace today’s proliferation of serial and parallel computer
interfaces.

Card Bus:
Card Bus is the extension of the Portable Computer Memory Card
International Association (PCMCIA), promising faster throughput rates by
leveraging off the PCI bus architecture. Card Bus adds DMA (Direct Memory
Access) capability while maintaining compability with existing PCMCIA cards.
Card Bus slots are already appearing on many new laptop computers and
windows 98 onwards operating-system support for this architecture.

Fibre Channel:
Fibre Channel is a serial interface that boasts 100-MB/s transfer rates. It is
emerging as a replacement for the Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
implementations for 1/O subsystems and mass storage. Ultimately, Fibre
Channel will be used for storage-area networking where multiple servers and
data-storage devices are linked on a private network.

Processor Developments:
The microprocessor operation comprises of four sequential stages, that is, the
steps required to execute a program.
1. Fetch
2. Decode
3. Executive
4. Write

The above stages make use of the RAM and the CPU registers. The first
processors that significantly improved the processing speed were the RISC
(Reduced Instruction Set Computer) processors. These processors had
simple instruction sets that required fewer CPU cycles to execute.

Future advances in computer architecture revolve around improving the

performance of the CPU and RAM. Some of the future advances are
discussed below:

Pipeline and Superscalar CPUs:

Both pipelines and superscalar execution are
in some sense both forms of parallel execution, that is, the four stages of
execution are performed in parallel. They both involve the simultaneous
processing of multiple instructions.

Pipelining allows the CPU to process multiple instructions at the same time.
For example, a four-stage pipeline gives the processor a “window” of four
instructions. This window slides along the code stream, moving forward by
one instruction each clock cycle, and allows the processor to “look at” and
work on all four of the instructions in its window. So unlike the traditional
simple processors (e.g. Intel 80xx series), pipelined processors “hold” and
operate on more than one instruction.

Both pipelined and superscalar executions are ways of enlarging the

processors “window” on the code stream. Because the code stream is always
sequential, enlarging the window means making it longer so that it
encompasses more sequentially ordered instructions. As the processor
enlarges the window via these two techniques, it gains the ability to hold and
to work on more instructions simultaneously.

As the window is widened on the code stream (increased parallelism), the

very sequential nature of that stream makes it harder and harder for the
processor to do useful work on all of those instructions at once. This is
because the code stream was “meant” to be serial (sequential), and the
results of many instructions often depend on the results of prior instructions.
In other words, the instructions that make up the code stream are
interdependent n complex ways that make it hard to rearrange them and get
the same results. The challenge is, therefore, to remove the bottle neck and
improve parallel performances of CPUs.

Simultaneous Multithreaded Processors (SMP):

In computer programming, a thread is used to store information required to
handle multiple concurrent users. One thread information is kept by storing it
in a special area and putting the address of that data area in a register.

Simultaneous multithreading is a processor design that combines hardware

multithreading with superscalar processors. Superscalar processors make it
possible to issue 16 to 32 instructions per cycle. Multiscalar processors divide
a program in a collection of tasks (or threads) that are distributed to a number
of parallel processing units under control of a single hardware sequencer.

Current research is focusing between hardware architecture and operating

systems, examining (1) the design and performance of SMT processors with
respect to their support for Operating System needs, and (2) the structure of
operating systems in light of capabilities of multithreaded processors.’

Chip Multiprocessor (CMP):

The concept of multiprocessor chips is to integrate two or more complete
processors on a single chip with every functional unit of a processor being
duplicated.

Recently announced commercial processors with CMP hardware.

- IBM Power 4 processor with 2 processor on a single die.
- Sun MAJC 5200 two processor on a die.

Intelligent RAM: (IRAM)

One of the biggest performance challenges in computer systems today is the
speed mismatch between microprocessors and memory. To address this
challenge processor designers now typically devote a large fraction of the
transistors and area of the chips to large.

It is predicted that over the next decade, processors and memory will be
merged onto a single chip. Not only will this narrow or altogether remove the
processor-memory performance gap, it will have the following additional
benefits.
- Provide an ideal building-block for parallel processing.
 - Better utilize the phenomenal number of transistors that can be placed
on a single chip.

The term “IRAM” stands for Intelligent RAM, since most of transistors on this
merged chip will be devoted to memory. A single gigabit IRAM should have an
internal memory bandwidth of nearly 1000 gigabits per second (32K bits in
50ns), a hundredfold increase over the fastest computers today. Hence the
fastest programs will keep most memory accesses within a single IRAM,
rewarding compact representations of code and data.

Raw Processors:
Raw Processors is a highly parallel architecture with hundreds of very simple
processors coupled to a small portion of the on-chip memory. Each processor,
or tile, also contains a small bank of configurable logic, allowing synthesis of
complex operations directly in configurable hardware. Unlike the others, this
architecture does not use a traditional instruction set architecture. Instead,
programs are compiled directly onto the Raw hardware, with all units told
explicitly what to do by the compiler. The compiler even schedules most of the
inter-processor communication. The real limitation to this architecture is the
efficacy of the compiler.

Artificial Intelligence:
The technology of making computers performs tasks that would require
intelligence if performed by a person is called artificial intelligence (AI).
Artificial Intelligence Systems take advantage of the speed at which
computers process data.

Expert Systems:
A computer application that captures much of the expertise experience,
decision rules and logic patterns used in the thought process of an expert in a
specific field is called an expert system. Medical diagnosis, investment
counseling, legal defaces, engine repair, credit card authorization for
customers, and petroleum explorations are just a few examples of fields using
expert systems application.

Conventional programming languages, such as FORTRAN and C, are

designed and optimized for the procedural manipulation of data (such as
numbers and arrays). Humans, however, often solve complex problems using
very abstract, symbolic approaches which are not well suited for
implementation in conventional languages.

One of the results of research in the area of artificial intelligence has been the
development of techniques which allow the modeling of information at higher
levels of abstraction. These techniques are embodied in languages or tools
which allow programs to be built that closely resemble human logic in their
implementation and are therefore easier to develop and maintain. These
programs, which emulate human expertise in well defined problem domains,
are called exert systems. The availability of expert system tools, such as
CLIPS, has greatly reduced the effort and cost involved in developing an exert
system.

Rule-based programming is one of the most commonly used techniques for

developing expert systems. In this programming paradigm, rules are used to
represent heuristics, or “rules of thumb” which specify a set of actions to be
performed for a given situation. A rule is composed of an if portion and a then
portion. The if portion of a rule is a series of patterns which specify the facts
(or data) which cause the rule to be applicable. The process of matching facts
to patterns is called pattern matching. The expert system tool provides a
mechanism, called the inference engine, which automatically matches facts
against patterns and determines which rules are applicable. The if portion of a
rule can actually be thought as the whenever changes are made to facts. The
then portion of a rule is the set of actions to be executed when the rule is
applicable.

The actions of applicable rules are executed when the inference engine is
instructed to begin execution. The inference engine selects a rule and then
the actions of the selected rule are executed (which may affect the list of
applicable rules by adding or removing facts). The inference engine then
selects another rule and executes its actions. This process continues until no
applicable rules remain.

For example, an expert system on financial planning is developed with the aid
of an expert financial planner. The rules that are coded into he program are
based on knowledge that the expert planner has and how they are used for
financial planning. Once the expert system has been given all the rules for
financial planning, it can simulate the actions of the human financial planner.
Instead of going to a professional financial planner, you can then do your own
financial planning by using the program. The program would ask several
questions about your objectives and financial status. Then based on the rules,
it can advise you on handling your finances to meet your goals, much like the
expert would.

Examples of expert systems are systems in financial planning (Applied Expert

Systems), sales (Sales Edge), insurance risk (Syntelligence), locomotive
diagnosis (General Electric), and Medical Diagnosis.

Natural Language Processing:

The goal of Natural Language Processing is to design and build a computer
system that will analyze, understand, and generate languages that humans
use naturally, so that eventually you can address your computer as though
you were addressing another person. “Understanding” language means,
among other things, knowing what concepts together in a meaningful way.
Natural Language eliminates the need for the user or programmer to learn
specific vocabulary, grammar, or syntax.

Natural language, that is easy for humans to learn and use, is hardest for a
computer to master. For example, it is easy for humans to easily understand a
sentence like “Flying planes can be dangerous”. Yet this sentence presents
some difficulties to a software program that lacks both the knowledge of the
world and experience with linguistic structures. The sentence could have
several meanings, such as: Is the pilot at risk, or is the danger to people on
the ground? Which of the many possible meanings of “plane” is relevant?
Depending on context, “plane” could refer to, among other things, an
aeroplane, a geometric object, or a woodworking tool.

Examples of NLP packages are Clout, Q&A, and Savvy Retriever (for use with
databases) and HAL (Human Access Language) for use with Lotus 1-2-3, etc.

Artificial Neural Networks:

Artificial Neural Networks are systems loosely modeled on the human brain.
Neural networks have a strong similarity to the biological brain and therefore a
great deal of the terminology is borrowed from neuroscience. Neural networks
are a form of multiprocessor computer system, with:
- Simple processing elements.
- A high degree of interconnection.
- Simple scalar message.
- Adaptive interaction between elements.

A biological neuron may have as many as 10,000 different inputs, and may
send its output to many other neurons. Neurons are wired up in a 3-
dimensional pattern. Real brains, however, are orders of magnitude more
complex than any artificial neural network.

Neural networks cannot do anything that cannot be done using traditional

computing techniques, but they can do some things which would otherwise be
very difficult. In particular, they can form a model from their training data (or
possibly input data) alone. This is particularly useful with sensory data, or with
data from a complex (e.g. chemical, manufacturing, or commercial) process.
There may be an algorithm, but it is not known, or has too many variables. It
is easier to let the network learn from examples:

Some of the applications of neural networks are in:

- Investment analysis- to attempt to predict the movement of stocks
currencies etc, from previous data. Here, the are replacing earlier
simpler linear models.
- Signature analysis- as a mechanism for comparing signatures made
(e.g. in a bank) with those stored.
- Process control- there is clearly applications to be made here: most
processes cannot be determined as computable algorithms.
- Monitoring- neural networks have been used to monitor:
(a) The state of aircraft engines by monitoring vibration levels and sound,
early warning of engine problems can be given.
(b) The state of diesel engines used in the rail industry.
- Marketing- networks have been used to improve marketing mail shots.
One technique is to run a test mail shot, and look at the pattern of
returns from this. This idea is to find a predictive mapping from the data
known about the clients to how they have responded. This mapping is
then use to direct further mail shots.
 Robotics:
The study, design and use of robots are called robotics. Robots were
originally used for jobs considered dangerous, demanding, monotonous,
or expensive for people to perform such as welding large car parts in
automobile plants, space exploration, etc. With the progress in other areas
of technology such as vision systems and physical sensory devices, robots
have become increasingly sophiscated. With these devices, robots can
navigate through warehouses or test the temperature and the solidity of
metals and other materials. The miniaturization of robots is leading
scientists to develop extremely sophiscated tasks for robots, such as
aiding in diagnostic surgery by entering the human body.

Robots do not require sick leave, health benefits, vacation pay or overtime,
so they present a great saving to corporations.

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN THE COMPUTING FIELD:

CAREERS:
Information processing is an important activity in any organization of any size.
A separate IT department usually has the responsibility of dealing with the IT
related issues or it may be outsourced.

Some of the issue that an IT department would be responsible for are:

- IT procurement (hardware, software, networking).
- Installation and maintainance of IT equipment.
- Network installation and maintainance.
- Identification of user requirements (systems analysis).
- Design and development of IT solution (programming).
- Database administration (database backup, performance, tuning, etc.)
- Web site design, development and maintainance.
- IT training.

There are also software houses that specialize in developing software

applications. These would have teams of analysts, software engineers,
rogrammers, system testers, etc.

The manufacturing of microprocessors, computers, networking equipment and

so on needs specialist skills as well, such as computer engineers, computer
scientists, etc.

To provide skilled people to perform the above tasks, there has been a
tremendous growth in IT training providers.

The above discussion shows that there are numerous career opportunities
within the ICT field, and some of the job functions are discussed in more detail
below.

Computer operator:
Computer operators oversee the operation of computer hardware systems,
ensuring that they are used as efficiently as possible. They may work with
mainframes, minicomputers, or networks of personal computers. Computer
operators must anticipate problems and take preventative action, as well as
solve problems that occur during operations. The duties of computer
operators vary with the size of the installation, the type equipment used, and
the policies of the employer.

Generally, operators control the console of either a main frame computer or a

group of minicomputers. Working from operating instructions prepared by
programmers, users, or operations managers, computer operators set
controls on the computer and on peripherals devices required to run a
particular job. Computer operators load equipment with tapes, disks, and
paper, as needed. While the computer is running-this may be 24 hours a day
for large installations- computer operators monitor the control console and
responde to operating and computer messages. Messages indicate the
individual specifications of each job being run. If an error message occurs,
operators must locate and solve the problem or terminate the program.

Operators also maintain log books or operating records, listing each job that is
run and events, such as machine malfunctions, that occur during their shift. In
addition, computer operators may help programmers and systems analysts
test and debug new programs.

As the trend toward networking computers accelerates, a growing number of

computer operators are working on personal computers (PCs) and
minicomputers. In many offices, and other work settings, PCs and
minicomputers are connected in networks, often referred to as local area
networks (LANs) or multi-user systems. Whereas users in the area operate
some of these computers, many require the services of full-time operators.
The tasks performed on PCs and minicomputers are very similar to those
performed on large computers.

As organizations continue to look for opportunities to increase productivity,

automation is expanding into additional areas of computer operations.
Sophiscated software, coupled with robotics, enables a computer to perform
many routine tasks formerly done by computer operators. Scheduling, loading
and downloading programs, mounting tapes, re-routing messages, and
running periodic reports can be done without the intervention of an operator.
Consequently, these improvements will change what computer operators do
in the future. As technology advances, the responsibilities of many computer
operators are shifting to areas such as network operation, user support, and
database maintainance.

Programmers:
Computer programmers write, test, and maintain the detailed instructions,
called programs that computers must follow to perform their functions. They
also conceive, design, and test logical structures for solving problems by
computer. Programs vary widely depending upon the type of information to be
accessed or generated. For example, the instructions involved in updating
financial records are very different from those required to duplicate conditions
on board an air craft for pilots training in a flight simulator. Although simple
programs can be written in a few hours, programs that use complex
mathematical formulas, whose solutions can only be approximated, or that
draw data from many existing systems may require years of work. In most
cases, several programmers work together as a team under a senior
programmers supervision.

Programmers write programs according too the specifications determined

primarily by computer software engineers and system analysts. After the
design process is complete, it is the job of the programmers to convert that
design into a logical series of instructions that the computer can follow. They
then code these instructions in a conventional programming language, such
as COBOL, an artificial intelligence language, such as Prolog, or one of the
most advanced object-oriented languages such as Java, C++, or Small talk.
Different programming languages are used depending on the purpose of the
program. Programmers generally know more than on programming language
and since many languages are similar, they often can learn new languages
relatively easily. In practice, programmers often are referred to by the
language they know, such as Java programmers, or the type of function they
perform or environment in which they work, such as database programmers,
mainframe programmers, or Internet programmers.

Programmers often are grouped into two broad types:

- Applications programmers write programs to handle a specific job,
such as a program to track inventory, within an organization. They may
also revise existing packaged software.
- Systems Programmers, on the other hand, write programs to maintain
and control computer systems software, such as operating systems,
networking systems, and database systems. These workers make
changes in the sets of instructions that determine how the network,
work stations, and central processing unit of the system handle the
various jobs they have been given and how they communicate with
peripheral equipment, such as terminals, printers, and disk drives.
Because of their knowledge of the entire computer system, systems
programmers often help applications programmers determine the
source of problems that may occur with their programs.

In some organizations, particularly small ones, workers commonly know as

programmer-analysts are responsible for both the systems analysts and the
actual programming work. Advanced programming languages and new
object-oriented programming capabilities are increasing the efficiency and
productivity of both programmers and users.

The transition from a mainframe environment to one that is primarily personal

computer (PC) based has blurred the once rigid distinction between the
programmer and the user. Increasingly, adept end-users are taking over many
of the tasks previously performed by programmers. For example, the growing
use of packaged software, like spreadsheet and database management
software packages, allows users to write single programs to access data and
perform calculations.
Software Engineers:
Computer software engineers often work as part of a team that designs new
hardware, software, and systems. A core team may comprise of engineering,
marketing, manufacturing and design people who work together until the
product is released. Computer software engineers apply the principles and
techniques of computer science, engineering, and mathematical analysis to
design, development, testing, and evaluation of the software and systems that
enable computers to perform their many applications.

Software engineers can be involved in the design and development of many

types of software including software for operation systems, network
distribution, and compilers, which convert programs for faster processing.
Software engineers must possess strong programming skills, but are more
concerned with developing algorithms, analyzing and solving programming
problems than with actually writing code.

Computer applications software engineers analyze users’ needs and design,

create, and modify general computer applications software or specialized
utility programs. Different programming languages are used, depending on
the purpose of the program. The programming languages most often used are
Visual Basic, C, C++, and Java, with FORTRAN and COBOL used less
commonly. Some software engineers develop both packaged systems and
systems software or create customized applications.

Computer systems software engineers co-ordinate the construction and

maintainance of a company’s computer system, and plan their future growth.
Working with a company, they co-ordinate each departments computer
needs, for example, ordering, inventory, billing, and payroll record-keeping,
and make suggestions about its technical direction. They also might set up
the company’s intranets, networks that link computers within the organization
and ease communication.

Systems software engineers work for companies that configure, implement,

and install complete computer systems. They may be members of the
marketing or sales staff, where they serve as the primary technical resource
for sales workers and customers. They also may be involved in product sales
and providing their customers with continuing technical support.

System Analyst:
Systems analyst solves computer problems and enables computer
technology to meet individual needs of an organization. They help an
organization realize the maximum benefit from its investment in equipment,
personnel, and business processes. This process may include planning and
developing new computer systems or devising ways to apply existing systems
resources to additional operations. Systems analysts may design new
systems including both hardware and software, or add a new software
application to harness more of the computers power. Most systems analysts
work with a specific type of system that varies with the type of organization
they work for, for example, business, accounting, or financial systems, or
scientific and engineering systems. Some systems analysts also are referred
to as systems developers or systems architects.

Analysts begin an assignment begin an assignment by discussing the

systems problem with managers and users to determine its exact nature.
They define the goals of the system and divide the solutions into individual
steps and separate procedures. Analysts use techniques such as structured
analysis, data modeling, information engineering, mathematical model
building, sampling, and so on. They specify the inputs to be accessed by the
system, design the processing steps, and format the output to meet the user’s
needs. They also may prepare cost-benefit and return-on-investment
analyses to help management decide whether implementing the proposed
system will be financially feasible.

When a system is accepted, analysts determine what computer hardware and

software will be needed to set it up. They co-ordinate tests and observe initial
use of the system to ensure it performs as planned. They prepare
specifications, work diagrams, and structure charts for computer programmers
to follow and then work with them to “debug”, or eliminate errors from, the
system. Analysts, who do more in-depth testing of products, may be reoffered
to as software quality assurance analysts. In addition to running tests, these
individuals diagnose problems, recommend solutions, and determine if
program requirements have been met.

Database Administrators:
Database Administrators work with database management systems software
and determine ways to organize and store data. They determine user
requirements, set up computer databases, test and co-ordinate changes. It is
the responsibility of an organizations database administrator to ensure
performance, understand the platform the database runs on, and add new
users. Because they may also design and implement system security,
database administrators often plan and co-ordinate security measures. With
the volume of sensitive data generated every second growing rapidly, data
integrity, backup, and keeping databases secure have become an
increasingly important aspect of the job for database administrators.

Network Administrator:
Network administrators are vital to the continued efficiency of computer
workstations, network servers, and desktop computers within organization. In
small-scale organizations, systems organizations, managers may also
function as local area network (LAN) administrators. In companies with a large
organizational structure, and hence a large computer network, the functions of
the network manager and the LAN administrator may be designated to
different personnel who are both part of management information’s systems
department. Among the designated tasks of LAN administrators are the
installation of new file servers and workstations, LAN troubleshooting, periodic
backups for servers and workstations, upgrade of existing software,
administration of file and network security, and management of electronic
mail.
System Administrator:
Systems administrators manage the effectiveness of information technology
systems, and arrange system maintainance and enhancements to meet user
requirements. Some of the tasks that a systems administrator would be
responsible for are:
- Consult with managerial, administrative and technical staff to determine
information needs, data flows and system definitions.
- Establish and control system access and security.
- Monitor systems to optimize performance, perform backups and initiate
recovery action in the case of system failures.
- Co-ordinate system updates.
- Provide assistance in testing new equipment and systems.
- Co-ordinate support work and training in system use and access.

Information Systems Managers:

Information systems and data processing manager’s plan, organize, direct
and control the activities of computerized information systems and electronic
data processing departments. Some of the tasks that Information systems
managers perform are:
- Develop and implement policies and procedures for electronic data
processing and computer systems operations and development.
- Meet with clients to discuss data processing or system requirements
and specifications.
- Analyze information system requirements and performance, and
develop and implement new modified systems.
- Control the budget and expenditures of the department or company.
- Recruit and supervise computer analysts, programmers and other
personnel, oversee their professional development and training.

Computer Technicians:
Computer systems consist of several components such as remote PCs,
terminals, tape and disk storage units, and so on. Systems vary in size from
desktop systems consisting of a micro computer, disk drive, and printer to
large mainframe systems that occupy entire floors of office buildings and may
have terminals in locations miles from the computer. Keeping all the
equipment in good working order is the job of a computer technician
(sometimes called field engineers or customer engineers).

When computer equipment breaks down, technicians locate the cause of

failures by running special diagnostic programs that pinpoint malfunctions.
Fixing the equipment may take just a few minutes because most repairs
merely involve the replacement of malfunctioning components. To correct an
electronic problem, for example, the technician would replace the circuit board
indicated as faulty by the diagnostic program.

Computer technicians also install new equipment. They lay cables, hook up
electrical connections between machines, thoroughly test the new equipment,
and correct any problems before the customer uses the machine.
At regular intervals, computer technicians service the equipment according to
manufactures recommended maintainance schedules. For example, they
routinely adjust, oil, and clean mechanical parts of printers and sorters.

There are also specialized computer technicians who maintain particular

brand or type of equipment or system, or in doing a certain type of repair. For
example, there are Compaq/HP Certified engineers, Microsoft Certified
Professionals, etc.

Computer Hardware Engineers:’

Computer hardware engineers’ research, design, develops, and test computer
hardware and supervises its manufacture and installation. Hardware refers to
computer chips, circuit boards, computer systems, and related equipment
such as keyboards, modems, and printers. The work of computer hardware
engineers is very similar to that of electronics engineers, but unlike electronics
engineers, computer hardware engineers work with computers and computer-
related equipment exclusively.

In addition to design and development, computer hardware engineers may

supervise the manufacturing and installation of computers and computer-
related equipment. The rapid advances in computer technology are largely a
result of the research, development, and design efforts of computer hardware
engineers.

Growth in embedded systems, a technology that uses computers to control

other devices such as appliances or cell phones, increases the demand for
computer hardware engineers.

Computer Scientists:
Computer scientists work as theorists, researchers, or inventors. Their jobs
are distinguished by the higher level of theoretical expertise and innovation
they apply to complex problems and the creation or application of new
technology. Those employed by academic institutions work in areas ranging
from complexity theory, to hardware, to programming language design. Some
work on multidisciplinary projects, such as developing and advancing uses of
virtual reality, in human-computer interaction, or in robotics. Their
counterparts in private industry work in areas such as applying theory,
developing specialized languages or information technologies, or designing
programming tools, knowledge-based systems, or even computer games.

Web Designers:
The growth of the Internet and expansion of the World Wide Web (the
graphical portion of the Internet) have generated a variety of occupations
related to design, development, and maintainance of Web sites and their
servers. Web designers, also called Internet developers or web developers,
are responsible for day-to-day site design and creation. Initially, web pages
were sites are more interactive, with graphics, animations and live links to
databases. The increase in e-commerce also provides more challenges to
web site creation. Depending on he type and scope of the web site, web
designers need a variety of skills such as graphics design, programming and
database knowledge.

Webmasters:
Webmasters are responsible for all technical aspects of a web site, including
performance issues such as seed of access, and for approving site context.
Webmasters must ensure that the web sites are available at all times. They
also need to provide statistics on the web site, such as how often the site is
accessed, the most frequently visited pages, keywords used to search the
sites, and so on. They would deal with registering the site with search engines
to increase the hit rates (number of times a site is visited).

Computer Trainers:
The people who provide training to end-users are generally referred to as
computer trainers. Usually computer trainers will be employed by IT training
providers who offer training in various application packages.

Today, most schools provide basic computer training as art of their

curriculum. Universities and colleges also provide numerous degree courses
in information technology. However to acquire training in specific areas such
as Unix administration, Oracle database administration, Microsoft Windows
networking, Dream weaver for web design, and so on, individuals go for short
courses. Computer trainers who provide such training are usually people who
have worked in the industry and have in-depth knowledge of the product.

There are also institutions that provide basic training on word processing,
spreadsheets and database management using packages such as MS-Office,
Lotus Smart suite, etc. Trainers who provide this type of training do not
require specialized skills, but need to be well versed with the packages.

Large organizations that have in-house developed applications may also have
IT trainers who are responsible for training end-users and writing user
documentation.

IDENTIFICATIONOF TERTIARY EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES:

On completion of secondary education, there are a number of options for
tertiary education. Tertiary education can be classified into higher or further
education. Higher education usually refers to university-level education, and
further education refers to job-oriented courses.

Tertiary education may be provided by state owned tertiary education

institutions or irately operated training institutions. State owned institutions are
bound by charters which set out the community obligations to be met. These
obligations usually include:
- Being responsive to a wide range of community needs.
- Continuing the community in their governing bodies.
- Providing a diversity of in depth information to meet government
reporting requirements including comprehensive annual reports.
Tertiary education institutions are colleges, polytechnics, Universities and
research institutions, and the opportunities they offer for further education
in the area of information and communications technology are discussed
below:

Colleges:
Colleges usually provide a variety of courses with a majority specializing
commercial software packages. They offer introductory course such as
micro computer basics, word processing, spreadsheets, database
packages, accounting packages, web design, and so on. They may also
offer more specialized courses such as operating systems administration,
networking, database management, and so on.

The courses are job-oriented with an emphasis on the practical aspects,

rather than theory. Colleges normally conduct internal examinations and
offer their own internal certification on completion of the courses. Colleges
may liase with major software developers and offer courses certified by the
developer, such as Microsoft Certified or Oracle Certified that are
examined by independent external bodies, such as the Information
Technology Standards Association (ITSA), Institute of Management
Information Systems (IMIS), National Computing Centre (NCC), City and
Guilds, and so on.

Colleges usually have no minimum entry requirements for their courses

except for diploma courses which will have a minimum entry requirement.
With the rapid changes in technology, colleges are well positioned to
provide the requisite combination of advanced training and education to
meet up with employers demand for a more highly skilled and
knowledgeable workforce.

Polytechnics:
Polytechnics offer degree courses which are usually theoretical in nature
and are designed to provide a good knowledge base. This enables the
graduate to apply the knowledge gained to different scenarios.

In present times, almost every university course has some element of

computing. Courses such as engineering, architecture, sciences and
mathematics will have a higher component of computing. Several
Universities now offer inter disciplinary programs that allow students to
specialize in more than one area, such as Business Administration and
Information Systems. There are also specialized courses in the ICT area,
such as Computer science, Software Engineering, Computer Systems,
Engineering, etc.

Universities will have minimum entry requirements depending on the

course. Some of the job functions that require University degrees are
Systems programmers, software engineers, systems analysts, information
systems managers and computer hardware engineers. Fresh graduates
usually command higher salaries than those with college certificates or
diplomas. However, due to the rapid advances in technology, graduates
frequently need to get job-specific training which is usually provided by
colleges or polytechnics.

Research Institutions:
Universities also provide opportunities for further specialized training
through postgraduate, masters and doctoral programmes. A doctorial (Ph.
D.) thesis must make a district and significant contribution to knowledge or
understanding in the area of study, and must afford evidence of originality
shown either by the discovery of new facts or by the exercise of
independent critical thinking. Universities have research facilities have
much to offer industry in both the local and national economics. Industry,
too, has realized that there is more to a university than a source of fresh
graduates. Higher education has the research knowledge and resources a
firm needs to compete effectively. Partnerships are developing between
academic researchers and companies in all fields of manufacturing and
commerce. Some of the breakthroughs in information and communications
technologies have been a result of research carried out for
masters/doctoral programmes

There are also a number of public sector research establishments offering

specialist research facilities and services. Large organizations may also
have their own research departments to develop new technologies.
However, organizations realize that using academic research institutions is
more economical, and it benefits both the research students and the
organization

END..

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