Sudipto Ganguly & Moupriya Das

CATALYSIS
Contents:-
i. General principles and properties of catalysts
ii. Homogeneous catalysis (catalytic steps and
examples) & heterogeneous catalysis (catalytic
steps and examples) and their industrial
applications
iii. Deactivation or Regeneration of catalyst
iv. Phase transfer catalysts
v. Application of zeolites as catalysts
 INTRODUCTION:
Catalysis is the process of increasing the speed or otherwise changing chemical
reaction with the help of a catalyst. Catalyst are defined as substance that
participate in a chemical reaction but are not change or consumed. Instead
they provide a new mechanism for a reaction to occur which has a lower
activation energy than that of the reaction without the catalyst. Catalysts come
in a multiple of form, varying from atoms and molecules to large structure such
as zeolite or enzymes. In addition they may be employed in various
surroundings: liquids, gases or at the surface of solids.

Catalyst- Catalysts are the substances which when present in a chemical

reaction accelerate its speed and it recovered unchanged in amount and
characteristic when the reaction is over.
➢Example-
Concentrated sulphuric acid is used as a catalyst in esterification of alcohol
and carboxylic acid.

❖Positive Catalysts –

Catalysts which increase the rate of a chemical reaction are positive catalysts.
It increases the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy barriers
such that a large number of reaction molecules are converted into products,
thereby the percentage of yield of products increases.

➢Example-
In the preparation of NH, by Haber's process, iron acts as a positive catalyst
and increases the yield of ammonia in spite of less reaction of nitrogen.
 ❖Negative Catalysts –

Catalysts which decrease the rate of reaction are negative catalysts. It

decreases the rate of reaction by increasing the activation energy barrier
which decreases the number of reactant molecules to transform into
products and hence the rate of reaction decreases.

➢Example-
Decomposition of Hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen is retarded by
using acetanilide, which acts as a negative catalyst to decrease the rate of
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.

❑GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CATALYSIS:

A catalyst accelerates a chemical reaction. It does so by forming bonds with

the reacting molecules, and by allowing these to react to a product, which
detaches from the catalyst, and leaves it unaltered such that it is available for
the next reaction. In fact, we can describe the catalytic reaction as a cyclic
event in which the catalyst participates and is recovered in its original form at
the end of the cycle.
To see how the catalyst accelerates the reaction, we need to look at the
potential energy diagram in Fig.1. which compares the non-catalytic and the
catalytic reaction. For the non-catalytic reaction, the figure is simply the
familiar way to visualize the Arrhenius equation: the reaction proceeds when
A and B collide with sufficient energy to overcome the activation barrier in
Fig.1.
The catalytic reaction starts by bonding of the reactants A and B to the
catalyst, in a spontaneous reaction. Hence, the formation of this complex is
exothermic, and the free energy is lowered. There then follows the reaction
between A and B while they are bound to the catalyst. This step is associated
with an activation energy; however, it is significantly lower than that for the
uncatalyzed reaction. Finally, the product P separates from the catalyst in an
endothermic step.
Figure 1 shows a comparison of energy profiles of a reaction in the absence
and presence of a catalyst.
 Fig: 1. Comparison of energy profiles with and without catalyst present.

CHARACTERISTICS / PROPERTIES OF CATALYSIS:

1. Catalyst can't start the reaction. It can only increase or accelerate the chemical
reaction, so we can say that catalyst activates the rate of reaction but cannot
initiate it.

2. A catalyst remains unchanged in mass and chemical composition at the end of

the reaction.

3. Small quantities of catalyst are sufficient for catalysis.

4. Catalyst may undergo physical changes but not chemical.

5. The maximum catalytic activity is at optimum temperature.

(Activity- catalyst has an ability to
increase the rate of reaction. This ability of catalyst is known as the Activity of
catalyst.)

6. Catalysts are highly specific in its action.

(They have an ability to direct the
reaction to yield a particular product. The reaction with same reactants but
different catalyst may yield different products. This is termed as the Selectivity of
catalyst.

Catalyst are highly selective in nature .They can accelerate a particular reaction
while inhibit another reaction. Hence, we can say a particular catalyst can
catalyse one particular reaction only.
 Forexample,
Reaction of hydrogen and carbon monoxide yields methane when nickel is used
as a catalyst, but if zinc oxide used as a catalyst then methanol are formed, but
if chromium oxide is used as a catalyst then methanal are formed.)

❑TYPES OF CATALYSTS:
Common types of catalysts include enzymes, acid-base catalysts,
heterogeneous (or surface) catalysts and homogeneous catalysts. There are
two main types of catalysts used for catalysis:
i) Heterogeneous catalysts
ii) Homogeneous catalysts
A heterogeneous catalyst acts in a different phase to its reactants, whereas a
homogeneous catalyst functions in the same phase as its reactants.

Most heterogeneous catalysts are solids that act within gaseous or

liquid reactants. It has active sites on its surface onto which the reactants are
adsorbed and then interact with the catalysts. This interaction improves the
reactivity of the molecules.

Homogeneous catalysts functions in essentially the same way as

heterogeneous catalysts, the major difference is they are in the same phase
as the reactant. Homogeneous catalysis refers to reactions in which the
catalysts are in solution with at least one of the reactants, whereas
heterogeneous catalysis refers to reaction in which the catalysts are present
in a different phase, usually as a solid, than the reactants.

Although transition metals are most widely used as catalysts, there are some
small organic molecules that exhibit catalytic properties. This is known as
organocatalysis and uses homogeneous catalysis principles.
1. Homogenous Catalysis:-

Homogeneous catalysis, by definition, refers to a catalytic system in

which the substrates for a reaction and the catalyst components are brought
together in one phase, i.e. all molecules are in the gas phase or more
commonly, in the liquid phase.
Homogeneous catalysts are those which exist in the same phase (gas or
liquid) as the reactants.

➢ Example-

• Hydrolysis of sugar in the presence of sulphuric acid.

Some more of the commercially important reactions that employ

Homogneous Catalysis:
➢Advantages:

1. High Reactivity: Homogeneous catalysts are typically well-mixed with

the reactants, allowing for efficient interactions and high reactivity,
leading to faster reaction rates.

2. Selectivity: They can be designed to be highly selective, promoting

specific reaction pathways while avoiding unwanted side reactions,
thus increasing the yield of the desired product.

3. Lower Activation Energy: Homogeneous catalysts can lower the

activation energy of a reaction, making it energetically easier for the
reactants to undergo the desired transformation.

➢Disadvantages:

1. Catalyst Separation and Recovery: One of the major challenges in

homogeneous catalysis is the separation and recovery of the catalyst
from the reaction mixture. In many cases, this can be a costly and time-
consuming process, especially if the catalyst is sensitive or requires
complex purification techniques.

2. Catalyst Deactivation: Homogeneous catalysts can be susceptible to

deactivation over time due to various factors, such as poisoning by
impurities, side reactions, or decomposition. This can limit the
catalyst's lifespan and necessitate frequent replacement.

3. Environmental Concerns: Some homogeneous catalysts are based on

metals that can be toxic or environmentally harmful. The disposal of
catalysts containing heavy metals can raise environmental and
regulatory concerns.
➢Catalytic Steps-

a) Activation of Catalyst: The catalyst, often in a different oxidation state

or form, is initially activated. This activation step may involve ligand
exchange, reduction, or other chemical transformations to convert the
catalyst into its active form.
b) Substrate Binding: The reactant molecules, also known as substrates,
bind to the active sites of the catalyst. This binding can occur through
coordination or other interactions, allowing the reactants to approach
each other in a favourable orientation.
c) Transition State Formation: The binding of substrates to the catalyst's
active sites facilitates the formation of a transition state. This is the
highest energy point along the reaction pathway and represents the
point of maximum instability, where the reactants are in the process of
being transformed into products.
d) Facilitating Reaction: The catalyst lowers the activation energy required
for the reaction to proceed by stabilizing the transition state. This allows
the reaction to occur more readily and at a faster rate than it would in
the absence of the catalyst. The catalyst may provide an alternative
reaction pathway with a lower activation energy.
e) Product Formation: As the transition state stabilizes due to the catalytic
influence, the reactants proceed to form products. The catalyst is not
consumed during the reaction and is free to participate in subsequent
reaction cycles.
f) Product Desorption: Once the reaction is complete, the products detach
from the catalyst's active sites. This step allows the catalyst to be
available for another catalytic cycle.
g) Catalyst Regeneration: If the catalyst has undergone changes during the
reaction, it might need to be regenerated back to its active form for
further catalytic cycles. Regeneration could involve reoxidation, ligand
exchange, or other chemical processes.
h) Byproduct Formation: In some cases, side reactions might occur, leading
to the formation of byproducts. Managing these side reactions and
minimizing their impact on the desired reaction pathway is a
consideration in homogeneous catalysis.
➢ Mechanism:-

An example of ester hydrolysis is the acid-catalyzed decomposition of

methyl acetate to form acetic acid and methanol. The reaction
mechanism is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Mechanism of acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of methyl

acetate to form acetic acid and methanol.
 2. Heterogeneous Catalysis:-
Heterogeneous catalysis, by definition, refers to a catalytic system in
which the phase of catalysts differs from that of the reactants or products.
Heterogeneous catalysts are those which are not in the same phase as the
reactants. Typically, heterogeneous catalysis involves the use of solid catalysts
placed in a liquid reaction mixture.
➢ Example-
•Reaction of hydrogen and nitrogen in the presence of finely divided iron to form
ammonia in Haber’s process.

Some more of the commercially important reactions that employ

Heterogneous Catalysis:
➢Advantages:

1. Catalyst Separation and Recycling: Heterogeneous catalysts are typically

solid materials that can be easily separated from the reaction mixture,
facilitating catalyst recycling and reducing waste. This feature is highly
advantageous for cost-effective and environmentally friendly processes.

2. Catalyst Stability: Heterogeneous catalysts are often more stable than their
homogeneous counterparts, especially at high temperatures and pressures.
They are less prone to deactivation, making them suitable for long-term
industrial applications.

3. Wide Applicability: Heterogeneous catalysis can be applied to a wide range

of reactions and substrates, making it versatile for various chemical
transformations, including the synthesis of chemicals, fuels, and
pharmaceuticals.

➢Disadvantages:

1. Limited Selectivity: While heterogeneous catalysts can provide some control

over selectivity, they may have limitations in achieving high levels of
selectivity compared to homogeneous catalysis. This is particularly true for
complex reactions with multiple reaction pathways.

2. Catalyst Deactivation: Over time, heterogeneous catalysts can suffer from

deactivation due to various factors, including fouling, coking, sintering
(agglomeration of catalyst particles), and poisoning. Catalyst regeneration or
replacement can be costly and time-consuming.

3. Complex Catalyst Preparation: The synthesis and preparation of

heterogeneous catalysts can be complex and may involve high-temperature
treatments, specialized equipment, and multiple steps, which can increase
production costs.
➢Catalytic Steps-

a) Adsorption of Reactants: Gaseous or liquid reactant molecules adsorb

onto the surface of the solid catalyst. This adsorption step involves weak
interactions such as Van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding, or chemical
bonding between the reactants and the active sites of the catalyst.
b) Surface Diffusion: Once adsorbed, the reactants may diffuse on the
surface of the catalyst to find suitable active sites for the reaction to
occur. This step is important for bringing the reactants into close
proximity to each other and to the active sites.
c) Activation of Reactants: The reactants on the catalyst surface undergo
chemical transformations, often involving the breaking or formation of
chemical bonds. These transformations lead to the formation of
intermediate species, which are more reactive than the initial reactants.
d) Transition State Formation: Similar to homogeneous catalysis, the
activated reactants on the catalyst surface come together to form a
transition state with higher energy. This transition state represents the
highest energy point along the reaction pathway.
e) Catalytic Reaction: The transition state breaks down, and new bonds are
formed between the reactants to produce products. The catalyst
facilitates this process by providing an alternative reaction pathway with
lower activation energy, allowing the reaction to proceed more easily.
f) Desorption of Products: The products formed on the catalyst surface
desorb from the active sites. This step frees up the active sites for further
catalytic cycles and prevents excessive product accumulation on the
catalyst surface.
g) Catalyst Regeneration: Over time, catalyst surfaces can become
deactivated due to the accumulation of reaction products or other
factors. Catalyst regeneration involves restoring the catalyst's active sites
by removing accumulated materials or reactivating the surface through
processes such as oxidation or reduction.
h) Byproduct Formation: Just like in homogeneous catalysis, side reactions
might occur on the catalyst surface, leading to the formation of
byproducts. Managing these side reactions is important for maintaining
high selectivity in heterogeneous catalysis.
➢ Mechanism-

Figure 2. There are four steps in the catalytic hydrogenation of ethene on

a nickel surface, C2H4(g) + H2(g) ⟶ C2H6(g). (a) Hydrogen is adsorbed on
the surface, breaking the H–H bonds and forming Ni–H bonds. (b) Ethene is
adsorbed on the surface, breaking the π bond and forming Ni–C bonds. (c)
H atoms diffuse across the surface and form new C–H bonds when they
reach ethene molecules. (d) The saturated carbon atoms in C2H6 molecules
can no longer bond to the surface so the ethane molecules escape from the
surface.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of the reaction pathes in homogeneous &

heterogeneous catalysis
❑INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS :
• Industrial applications of Homogeneous catalyst :

Homogeneous catalysts are used in various industrial applications to

facilitate chemical reactions. They are in the same phase as the reactants and
can improve reaction rates and selectivity. Some examples include:

1. Petrochemical Industry: Homogeneous catalysts are used in processes like

hydroformylation and oxidation to produce valuable chemicals used in plastics,
detergents, and other products.
2. Pharmaceutical Industry: Catalytic processes with homogeneous catalysts are crucial for
synthesizing complex drug molecules efficiently and selectively.
3. Environmental Applications: Homogeneous catalysts play a role in emission control, such
as in catalytic converters, helping to convert harmful exhaust gases into less harmful
compounds.
4. Fine Chemicals Production: The production of specialty chemicals like flavours,
fragrances, and agrochemicals often involves the use of homogeneous catalysts.
5. Polymerization: Homogeneous catalysts are used in the polymerization of plastics and
elastomers, allowing for better control over molecular weight and properties.
6. Hydrogenation and Dehydrogenation: Catalysts are used to facilitate reactions involving
hydrogen, like hydrogenation of vegetable oils and dehydrogenation of hydrocarbons.
7. Organic Synthesis: Homogeneous catalysts are employed in various synthetic processes,
like the Heck reaction or Suzuki coupling, to create new carbon-carbon bonds.
8. Fuel Production: Catalytic cracking and reforming processes in the petroleum industry
involve the use of homogeneous catalysts to produce gasoline and other fuels.
9. Clean Energy Production: Homogeneous catalysts are explored for applications in fuel
cells and other renewable energy technologies.

▪Industrial applications of Heterogeneous catalyst :

As we have seen, heterogeneous catalytic reactions provide a number of benefits
over homogeneous catalytic reactions. As a result, heterogeneous catalysis is a
key component of many significant industrial processes. The following fields
make extensive use of heterogeneous catalysts:
1. Organic and Inorganic Chemical Synthesis: The synthesis of organic and inorganic
compounds makes extensive use of heterogeneous catalysts. It is crucial because it makes it
possible to manufacture products selectively and at a faster, larger scale. One of the most
notable examples is the Haber-Bosch process for ammonia synthesis. This method uses a metal
catalyst to convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) through a reaction with
hydrogen (H2) at high temperatures and pressures. In fact, the heterogeneous catalyst allows
for the hydrogenation of N2, which is very reactive. Similarly, the hydrogenation of carbon
monoxide to methanol is of major industrial importance. Other examples of large-scale
chemical synthesis using heterogeneous catalysts are the Contact process for sulphuric acid
synthesis, Ziegler-Natta polymerization, the Ostwald process for nitric acid synthesis, and so on.
Generally, metal catalysts are used in these reactions.
2. Energy production: Metal catalysis is commonly employed in energy production
processes. It is critical in the use of fossil fuels like petroleum, coal, and natural gas. For
instance, in the processing of crude oil, heterogeneous catalyst helps to create high yields
and high-quality products including gasoline, diesel, kerosene, heating oil, aromatic
compounds, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Let us examine how heterogeneous
catalysts help in the refining process.

Crude oil is a complex combination of hydrocarbons. In addition, it has small amounts of

sulphur and nitrogen-containing organic compounds. As a result, proper processing is
necessary for these crude oils. Fractional distillation helps to separate components with
distinct boiling point ranges. The naphtha fractions are then processed with
hydrodesulphurization (HDS) and hydrodenitrogenation (HDN) catalysts. It assists in
removing impurities such as SO2 and NOx precursors. Along with that, reforming,
cracking, and hydro-cracking are carried out to generate high-grade fuels.
These oil conversion methods rely largely on metals, metal oxides, zeolites, and metal
sulphide catalysts. Generally, molybdenum sulphide catalysts help in HDS and HDN.
Whereas, catalytic cracking uses zeolites to break down large hydrocarbon molecules
into branched or cyclic hydrocarbons and alkenes. Moreover, catalytic reforming helps
noble metals to boost isomerisation and cyclisation processes without markedly varying
the molecular weight of the naphtha fraction.

3. Environment Protection: At present, environmental catalysis is often applied in

several major commercial sectors. It promotes environmental protection and a higher
standard of living. Major uses of these catalysts in environmental protection are;
reducing nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions from stationary sources (power plants, boilers,
etc.), processing oil to produce cleaner fuels with low sulphur and nitrogen content,
destroying pesticides, dioxins, and furan, controlling the emissions of volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), and so on. Furthermore, environmental catalysts have recently
found usage in lowering water pollution, oxidizing organic particulates, reducing ozone
pollution in urban areas, and improving interior air quality. Finally, they are becoming
highly significant in polluted soil decontamination.
❑Deactivation or Regeneration of catalysts:-
Catalyst deactivation is a common issue in many industrial processes, as
catalysts can lose their activity over time due to various factors, such as
fouling, poisoning, sintering, and thermal degradation. Deactivation leads to
reduced catalytic efficiency and increased production costs. To address this,
catalysts can often be regenerated, restoring their activity and extending their
useful life. Here's an overview of catalyst deactivation and regeneration:

➢Catalyst Deactivation Mechanisms:

1. Fouling: This occurs when unwanted substances in the feedstock, such as coke,
heavy hydrocarbons, or impurities, accumulate on the catalyst's active sites,
blocking them and reducing catalytic activity.
2. Poisoning: Catalysts can be poisoned by substances that adsorb strongly to the
catalyst surface, rendering it inactive. Common catalyst poisons include sulfur
compounds, heavy metals, and various impurities.
3. Sintering: Over time, catalyst particles may agglomerate or sinter, reducing the
overall surface area available for catalysis. This reduces catalytic activity.
4. Thermal Degradation: High temperatures in some processes can cause the
catalyst to undergo structural changes or break down, diminishing its activity.

➢Catalyst Regeneration Techniques:

1. Thermal Regeneration: This involves heating the catalyst to a high temperature
to burn off coke or other deposits. In some cases, a controlled oxidation or
reduction process can be employed to remove fouling or poisons. After
regeneration, the catalyst is typically returned to the reactor.
2. Chemical Regeneration: Specific chemicals can be used to dissolve or remove
fouling or poisons from the catalyst surface. For instance, acids or bases may be
used to remove coke deposits or adsorbed impurities.
3. Reactivation: In some cases, catalysts can be reactivated by reimpregnating
them with the active component. For example, a deactivated hydrotreating
catalyst can be rejuvenated by reintroducing the active metal (e.g.,
molybdenum or nickel) through impregnation.
4. Physical Cleaning: Mechanical methods like ultrasonic cleaning or high-
pressure fluid jets can be used to physically dislodge fouling or deposits from
the catalyst surface.
5. Rejuvenation Additives: In certain cases, additives can be incorporated into the
process to help mitigate deactivation. For example, promoters or stabilizers
may be added to a catalyst to enhance its resistance to poisoning or sintering.
 6. Catalyst Replacement: In some situations, catalyst deactivation may be
irreversible or regeneration may not be economically viable. In such cases,
the catalyst may need to be replaced.

The choice of regeneration method depends on several factors, including the

type of deactivation, the specific catalyst, and the economics of the process.
Catalyst regeneration can be a cost-effective way to extend the life of catalysts
and maintain the efficiency of industrial processes while minimizing waste and
environmental impact. However, the effectiveness of regeneration varies
depending on the nature and extent of catalyst deactivation.

❑PHASE TRANSFER CATALYST:-

Phase transfer catalyst is a catalyst that facilities the migration of reactant for
one phase to another phase when reaction occurs. It is special form of
heterogeneous catalyst where catalyst functions like a detergents from
solubilising salts into the organic phase. Phase transfer catalysts are useful in
green chemistry.
Phase transfer catalysts speed up the process, get more output and remove the
need for more costly solvents. PTC helps the ionic salts to be soluble in organic
state, otherwise they are only soluble in aqueous state.

➢Example-
There are mainly two types of PTC’s where PTC for anions reactant are
Quaternary ammonium salts and PTC for cations are Crown ether.
 Typical phase-transfer catalysts are quaternary ammonium salts, crown ethers,
and phosphonium compounds etc. Commercially important catalysts include
benzyltriethyl-ammonium chloride, methyltricapryl-ammonium chloride,
methyltributyl-ammonium chloride, and methyltrioctyl-ammonium chloride.
For example, the nucleophilic substitution reaction of an aqueous sodium
cyanide solution with an ethereal solution of 1-bromooctane does not readily
occur. The I-bromooctane is poorly soluble in the aqueous cyanide solution, and
the sodium cyanide does not dissolve well in the ether. Upon the addition of
small amounts of hexadecyltributylphosphonium bromide, a rapid reaction
ensues to give nonyl nitrile:

By the quaternary phosphonium cation, cyanide ions are "ferried" from the
aqueous phase into the organic phase.
Subsequent work demonstrated that many such reactions can be performed
rapidly at around room temperature using catalysts such as tetra-n-
butylammonium bromide and methyltrioctylammonium chloride in
benzene/water systems

➢General Advantages of PTC:

i. Elimination of organic solvents.
ii. Use of simple and inexpensive reactants.
iii. High yield and purity of products.
iv. Simplicity of the procedure.
v. Highly scalable.
vi. Low energy consumption and low investment cost.
vii. Minimal industrial waste.
➢Disadvantages of PTC:

i. Sometimes difficult separation of the product from catalyst.

ii. Rapid decomposition of some of the most commonly used PTC
catalysts at elevated temperatures.
iii. Toxicity of some catalysts, necessitating expensive catalysts.
❑Application of Zeolites as Catalysts:-
➢Definition-
Zeolites are naturally occurring or synthetically produced crystalline
aluminosilicate minerals with a unique porous structure, having a wide range
of industrial and scientific applications.
They are known as “molecular sieves”, and mainly consists of Si, Al, O, and
metals including Ti, Sn, Zn, and so on.
➢General formula-
Generally, zeolites have a general formula [(SiO2)(AlO2)x]M x/n n+ · w H2O. M is
a cation with positive charge equal to n. It is usually a group I or II metal ion.
Due to their porous structure zeolites can accommodate a wide variety of
cations, such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and others.
➢Example-
Some of the more common mineral zeolites are analcime, chabazite,
clinoptilolite, heulandites, natrolite, phillipsite and stilbite.
The mineral formula of a natrolite: Na2Al2Si3O10.2H2O

➢Applications-
Their unique structure and properties make them valuable in catalysis for
several reasons:
I. Shape-Selective Catalysis: Zeolites have a porous structure with uniform-sized
pores and channels. These pores can act as molecular sieves, allowing only
certain molecules to enter. This shape selectivity is particularly valuable in
catalyzing reactions where reactant size and shape matter. For example, zeolites
can be used in cracking hydrocarbons in the petroleum industry to produce
valuable products like gasoline and diesel.
II. Acid-Base Catalysis: Zeolites can be tailored to exhibit specific acid or base
properties, depending on their composition and the exchangeable cations
present. This makes them versatile catalysts for a wide range of reactions,
including isomerization, alkylation, and dehydration reactions. Zeolite catalysts are
commonly used in petrochemical processes like the production of ethylene and
propylene.
III. Dehydration and Dehydrogenation: Zeolites are excellent catalysts for
dehydration and dehydrogenation reactions, which involve the removal of water or
hydrogen atoms from organic compounds. These reactions are important in the
production of chemicals like ethylene, propylene, and aromatics.
IV. Catalytic Cracking: Zeolites are crucial in the fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)
process used in petroleum refining. They help break down heavy hydrocarbons
into lighter, more valuable products like gasoline and diesel fuel. Zeolite catalysts in
FCC units have a significant impact on the overall efficiency and yield of these
processes.
V. Selective Hydrogenation: Zeolites can be employed for selective hydrogenation
reactions, where specific double bonds in molecules are hydrogenated while
leaving others untouched. This is important in the food industry for the
hydrogenation of edible oils to produce margarine and other products.
VI. Environmental Applications: Zeolites are used in catalytic converters to reduce
emissions from vehicles. They help convert harmful pollutants like carbon
monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and hydrocarbons into less harmful
substances like carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen, and water.
VII. Biomass Conversion: Zeolites can be utilized in biomass conversion processes,
such as the conversion of biomass-derived compounds into biofuels or valuable
chemicals. They can help improve the efficiency and selectivity of these conversion
processes.
VIII. Water Purification: Zeolites can serve as catalysts in water treatment
processes, facilitating the removal of contaminants like ammonia and heavy metals
from water sources.

In summary, zeolites find widespread application as catalysts due to their unique

structural and chemical properties, making them valuable in various industries,
including petrochemicals, environmental protection, and renewable energy
production. Researchers continue to explore new ways to tailor zeolite properties
for specific catalytic applications, making them an important area of study in the
field of catalysis.
❑REFERENCE:-

1)Industrial Chemistry- BK Sharma

2)OpenAI
https://chat.openai.com
chatGPT
3)Inorganic Materials of Industrial
Importance- VISHAL publishing co.