Electronics Hardware and IoT Engineer

Interview Questions and Answers

I-IoT Interview Questions and Answers :

Question 1:
What is the range for wireless communication protocols like LoRa, Wi-Fi, Zigbee, and Bluetooth?

Answer:
The long-range capabilities of wireless communication protocols depend on several factors, including the
type of technology used, the environment (urban, rural, or indoor), and regulatory limits on transmission
power.

1. LoRa (Long Range)

 Range: Up to 10-15 km in rural areas, 2-5 km in urban areas.

 Frequency Bands: Typically operates in sub-GHz ISM bands (e.g., 868 MHz in Europe, 915 MHz in the
US).
 Advantages: Very low power consumption, good for devices that need to transmit small amounts of
data infrequently.
2. Wi-Fi (Wi-Fi 6 and Wi-Fi 6E)
 Range: Typically 100–300 meters in open areas with Wi-Fi 6, but can be shorter depending on the

environment.
 Frequency Bands: Operates primarily in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands, with Wi-Fi 6E expanding to 6
GHz.
 Advantages: High data rates, excellent for local area networks.
3. Zigbee
 Range: Typically around 10-100 meters, but can be extended through mesh networking.

 Frequency Bands: 2.4 GHz globally, 868 MHz in Europe, and 915 MHz in the US.
  Advantages: Low power consumption, easy integration into mesh networks for extended range.

4.Bluetooth:

 Classic Bluetooth: Typically up to 100 meters (with Bluetooth 5.0), but often much less in real-world
scenarios.
 Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE): Can reach up to 200 meters with Bluetooth 5.0 in optimal conditions.

Question 2:
What is the primary advantage of using an RTOS in IoT?

Answer:
The primary advantage of using a Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) in IoT (Internet of Things) applications
is enhanced task management and determinism.

Question 3:
Which parameter determines the resolution of an ADC?

Answer:
The resolution of an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) is determined by the number of bits the ADC uses to
represent the input analog signal. The primary parameter that defines the resolution is the number of bits of
the ADC.

Question 4:
What is the typical memory name used for storing program instructions in microcontrollers?

Answer:
In microcontrollers, the type of memory typically used for storing program instructions is Flash memory.
. Flash Memory (Program Memory)
  Primary function: Flash memory is non-volatile memory used to store the program code (also known as
firmware) in microcontrollers.
 Characteristics:
o Non-volatile: Retains data even when power is removed.
o Writable: Flash memory can be written to and erased in blocks or sectors, which allows for
program updates (e.g., firmware upgrades).
o Size: Flash memory size in microcontrollers can vary from a few kilobytes (KB) to several
megabytes (MB), depending on the specific microcontroller.
 Example: In many microcontrollers, the program code (e.g., instructions for the CPU) is loaded into flash
memory, which is then accessed during runtime for execution.

Question 5:
An analog temperature sensor has a resolution of 10 mV/°C over a voltage range of 0-10 V. What is the
temperature resolution of the sensor in degrees Celsius?

Answer:
To find the temperature resolution of the sensor in degrees Celsius, we need to understand how the voltage
resolution of the sensor relates to temperature.
Here's the step-by-step process:
 The sensor has a resolution of 10 mV/°C, meaning for every 1°C change in temperature, the output

voltage changes by 10 mV.

 The voltage range is 0 to 10 V.
Step 1: Find the Voltage Resolution

The sensor’s voltage range is from 0 to 10 V. The resolution of the ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) that
reads this voltage will determine how finely the temperature can be measured.
Let’s assume the ADC has a resolution of 1 mV, which means the smallest change in voltage that the ADC
can detect is 1 mV.

Step 2: Convert Voltage Resolution to Temperature Resolution

Since the sensor provides 10 mV per °C, a 1 mV change in voltage corresponds to a change in temperature.
To convert the voltage resolution (1 mV) into temperature resolution in °C, we divide the voltage resolution
by the sensitivity of the sensor:

Thus, the sensor can measure temperatures over a range of 0°C to 1000°C.

Step 3: Calculate the temperature resolution

The temperature resolution of the sensor is 1°C when the voltage resolution of the ADC is 10 mV.
Question 6:
For an I2C bus operating at 400 kHz, what value of pull-up resistor should be used for a 3.3V microcontroller
to ensure proper communication?

Answer:
To ensure proper communication on an I2C bus operating at 400 kHz with a 3.3V microcontroller, you need
to choose the appropriate pull-up resistors for the SDA (data) and SCL (clock) lines.
The pull-up resistors ensure that the bus lines are properly biased to the high state when no device is
actively pulling them low.
General Guidelines:
For an I2C bus running at 400 kHz and a 3.3V supply, typical pull-up resistor values are in the range of 1 kΩ
to 10 kΩ. The actual value depends on factors like bus capacitance and length:
1. 1 kΩ to 4.7 kΩ: Commonly used for I2C communication at 400 kHz. This range is generally a good
balance between ensuring proper signal rise time and not overloading the output drivers.
2. 2.2 kΩ to 3.3 kΩ: This is typically a good choice for most 400 kHz I2C buses, ensuring fast rise times
while accommodating typical bus capacitance.
3. 2.2 kΩ to 4.7 kΩ is commonly chosen for I2C buses running at 400 kHz with a 3.3V supply, as this
provides fast rise times while keeping the current consumption reasonable.
Conclusion:
For a 3.3V microcontroller running an I2C bus at 400 kHz, a 2.2 kΩ to 4.7 kΩ pull-up resistor is typically used
on both the SDA and SCL lines.
Question 7:

An IOT device suddenly stops transmitting data. which of the following components is the least likely cause
of the issue?
Answer:
To determine which component is the least likely to cause an IoT device to stop transmitting data, let's
review some of the key components involved in data transmission and their potential failure modes. The
components could include:
1. Microcontroller (MCU)
2. Power Supply (Battery or Regulator)
3. Wireless Module (e.g., Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, LoRa, etc.)
4. Sensor (Data Source)
5. Antenna (for wireless communication)
6. Communication Interface (e.g., I2C, SPI, UART, etc.)

II-Electronics Hardware Interview Questions and Answers

Question 8:
When designing a power supply for an IoT device, which of the following factors is most important for
ensuring stable voltage?

Answer:

When designing a power supply for an IoT device, the most important factor for ensuring stable voltage is
typically the quality of the voltage regulation. The following are key factors that influence voltage stability,
with a focus on the most critical one:
 Types of regulation:
 o Linear Regulators: These provide stable output but are less efficient. They are often used when
the output needs to be very stable, and the input voltage is only slightly higher than the desired
output.
o Switching Regulators: These are more efficient and better suited for larger input voltage
differences, but they must be carefully designed to minimize noise and ripples.

Question 9:
In a multi-layer PCB design, what is the primary difference between blind vias and buried vias?

Answer:

In a multi-layer PCB design, the primary difference between blind vias and buried vias lies in how they
connect the various layers of the PCB.
1. Blind Vias
 Definition: A blind via is a via that connects an outer layer (either top or bottom) to one or more inner

layers of the PCB, but does not extend all the way through the board.
 Example: A blind via might connect the top layer to the second layer (inner layer 1) in a 4-layer PCB, but
it would not go all the way through to the bottom layer.
2. Buried Vias
 Definition: A buried via is a via that connects two or more inner layers of the PCB, but does not reach

the outer layers at all.

 Example: A buried via might connect the second inner layer (layer 2) with the third inner layer (layer 3)
in a 6-layer PCB, but it would not be visible or accessible from the top or bottom layers.
Summary of the Primary Differences:
 Blind Via Buried Via
Location Connects outer layer(s) to inner layers. Connects only inner layers (not visible from
outer layers).
Visibility Visible on outer layer(s). Not visible on outer layers.
Function Provides connection from outer layers to inner Provides connections between inner layers
layers. only.
Use Used for connecting an outer layer to one or Used for internal connections between
more inner layers. multiple inner layers.

Question 10:
When selecting a PCB material for high-frequency applications, which feature is most critical and why

Answer:
When selecting a PCB material for high-frequency applications, the most critical feature to consider is the
dielectric constant (Dk), also known as the relative permittivity. This is because the dielectric constant
directly impacts the signal integrity, impedance, and propagation speed of high-frequency signals on the
PCB.
Why is Dielectric Constant (Dk) Critical for High-Frequency Applications?
1. Signal Propagation Speed.
2. Impedance Control.
3. Minimizing Losses (Low Loss Tangent).
 Question 11
Describe the purpose of a decoupling capacitor in a PCB.
Answer:
Decoupling capacitors stabilize voltage and reduce noise by providing a lowimpedance path for high-
frequency components of the power supply.

Question 11
Discuss the impact of signal skew on the performance of DDR memory
interfaces.
Answer:
Signal skew can lead to timing misalignment in DDR memory interfaces, causing data
errors. Precise trace lengths, matched impedance, and careful routing address this
issue.

Question 13
What is the purpose of differential pair routing in USB interfaces?
Answer:
Differential pair routing in USB interfaces enhances noise immunity, reduces crosstalk,
and ensures reliable data transmission by maintaining a consistent impedance for the
signal pairs.