Definitions-

Individual Differences- For Psychologists individual differences refer to distinctiveness and

variations in people’s characteristics and behaviour patterns. Variability is a fact of nature and
humans are no exception to this. They vary in physical characteristics like height, weight, eye
colour, hair colour etc. They vary along the psychological dimensions like they may be
intelligent or dull, dominant or submissive creative or not etc. The list of variations is endless.
All these different traits exist in varying degrees in an individual. Each one is unique as they
exemplify s typical combination of various traits.

Some psychologists say our behaviour is influenced by our personal traits others believe in

Situationism- This states that situations and circumstances in which one is placed influence
one’s behaviour. Situationist perspective views human behaviour relatively more as a result of
influence of external factors. For Eg- A person who is generally aggressive may behave in a
submissive manner in the presence of his/her boss.

Assessment- This is the first step in understanding a psychological attribute. Assessment refers
to the measurement of psychological attributes of individuals and their evaluation, often using
multiple methods in terms of certain standards of comparisons. Any attribute will be said to exist
in a person only if it can be measured using scientific procedures. Our assessment can be formal
or informal.

(i) Formal Assessment is objective, standardised and organised. Psychologists are

trained in making formal assessments of psychological attributes.
(ii) Informal assessment varies from case to case and from one assessor to another and
therefore is open to subjective interpretations.

Psychological Assessment uses systematic testing procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviours

and personal qualities of individuals.

DOMAINS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES

Intelligence is the global capacity to understand the world, think rationally and use the available
resources effectively when faced with challenges. (Intelligence tests provide a global measure of
a person’s general cognitive competence including their ability to do well in schools.)

Aptitude refers to an individual’s underlying potential for acquiring skills. [ Aptitude tests are
used to predict what an individual will be able to do if given proper environment and training]

Interest is an individual’s preference for engaging in one or more specific activities relative to
other.
Personality refers to relatively enduring characteristics of a person that make him or her distinct
from the other.

Values are enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour.

ASSESSMENT METHODS

Psychological Test is an objective and standardised measure of an individual’s mental and/or

behavioural characteristics. They have been developed to measure all the dimensions of
psychological attributes (intelligence, aptitude etc.) Used for clinical diagnosis, guidance,
personnel selection, placement and training.

Interview involves seeking information from a person on a one-to-one basis. Eg- Councillor-
client, Sales person- Person, Journalist- Interviewee, etc. 2 types- Structured and unstructured
Interview.

Case Study is an in-depth study of the individual in terms of his/her psychological attributes,
psychological history in the context of his/her psychosocial and physical environment.

Observation involves employing systematic, organised and objective procedures to record

behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real time... However the observer has little control
over the situation and the reports may suffer from subjective interpretations of the observer. 2
types- Participant and Non-participant observation. Eg- Mother-child interaction can be studied
using this.

Self- Report is a method in which a person provides factual information about himself/herself
and/or opinion, beliefs etc that s/he holds. Can be obtained by an interview, questionnaire,
psychological test or a personal diary.

INTELLIGENCE

Oxford Dictionary- Oxford dictionary explains intelligence as the power of perceiving,

learning, understanding and knowing. (PerceiveLearnUnderstandKn- PLUK)

Alfred Binet- Alfred Binet defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well and
reason well. (JudgeUnderstandReason- JUR)

Wechsler- Wechsler defined it as the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think
rationally, act purposefully and deal effectively with his/her environment. (TR, AP, DE)
 Theories of Intelligence

Psychometric Approach Information- Processing Approach

The Psychometric Approach considers intelligence Information processing approach describes the process
as an aggregate of abilities. It expresses the people use in intellectual reasoning and problem
individual’s performance in terms of a single index solving. The major focus of this approach is on how an
of cognitive abilities. intelligent person acts. It emphasises studying
cognitive functions underlying intelligent behaviour.
A. The Uni or One Factor Theory
- Alfred Binet was the first psychologist who A. Theory of Multiple Intelligences
tries to formalise the concept of intelligence Howard Gardner proposed this theory. According to him
in terms of mental operations. intelligence is not a single entity rather distinct types of
- He conceptualised intelligence as consisting intelligences exist. He studied extremely talented persons who had
shown exceptional abilities in their respective area-
of one similar set of abilities which can be
used for solving any or every problems in Linguistic – Skills used in the production and use of languages. It
an individual’s environment. is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express
oneself and understand others. People high on this are called “word
B. Two-Factor Theory smart” and they are sensitive to different shades of word meanings
- In 1927, Charles Spearman gave this. He and are articulate and can create linguistic images in their mind.
showed that intelligence consisted of a Eg- Poets and writers

general factor (g-factor) and some specific Logical- Mathematical- Skills involved in scientific thinking and
factors(s-factor). problem solving. People high on this can think logically and
critically. The engage in abstract reasoning and can manipulate
- The g-factor includes mental operations symbols and solve mathematical problems. Eg- Scientists and
which are primary and common to all Nobel Prize winners are strong in his component.
performances.
Spatial- Skills in forming visual images and patterns. It refers to
- In addition to this he said that there are the abilities involved in forming, using and transforming mental
some specific abilities contained in what he images. People high on this are pilots, sailors, sculptors, painter,
called the s-factor. architects, interior designers, surgeons.

- Excellent singers, architects may be high on Musical- Sensitivity to musical rhythms and patterns. The capacity
the g-factor but they have the s-factor to produce, create and manipulate musical patterns. People high on
this are sensitive to sounds and vibrations and in creating new
which allows them to excel in their patters of sounds.
domains.
C. Theory of Primary Mental Abilities Bodily- Kinaesthetic- using whole or portions of the body flexibly
and creatively. This consists of use of the whole body or portions
- Louis Thurstone states that intelligence of it for the display or construction of products and problem
consists of seven primary abilities each of solving. PHOTA are Athletes, dancers, actor’s surgeons
which is relatively independent of the other.
Interpersonal- Sensitivity to subtle aspects of others behaviours.
(i) Verbal Comprehension (grasping This is the skill of understanding the motives, feelings and
meaning of words, concepts and behaviour of other people so as to bond into a comfortable
relationship with other. Eg- Psychologists, cancellers, politician’s
ideas)
social workers and religious leaders.
 Intrapersonal- Awareness of one’s own feelings motives and
desires. This refers to knowledge of one’s own strengths and
(ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and limitations and using that to effectively relate with others. PHOTA
have finer sensibilities regarding their identity human existence and
accuracy in numerical and
meaning of life. Philosophers and spiritual leaders.
computational skills)
(iii) Spatial Relations (visual patterns Naturalistic- Sensitivity to the features of the natural world.
Complete awareness of our relationship with the natural worked.
and forms) Recognises beauty of different species, flora and fauna and making
(iv) Perceptual Speed (speed in subtle discriminations in the natural world. Eg- Hunters, farmer,
perceiving details) florists.

(v) Word Fluency (using words Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

fluently and flexibly)
Robert Sternberg 1988 said that intelligence is the ability to adapt,
(vi) Memory (accuracy to recall info) shape and select an environment to accomplish ones goals and
(vii) Inductive Reasoning (deriving those of society or culture. 3 Types
general rules from presented facts)
Componential- Or analytical intelligence is the analysis of
information for problem solving PHOTA think analytically and
D. Hierarchical Model of Intelligence critically and do well in school. 3 components-
- Arthur Jensen said intelligence consisted of a. Knowledge Acquisition component- learning/acquisition
abilities operating at 2 levels called Level I for ways of doing things
and Level II b. Meta/Higher order component- involves planning of what
to do and how to do it
- Level I is associative learning In which c. Performance- actually doing it
output is more or less similar to the input
( rote learning and memory) Experiential- or Creative intelligence which involves using past
experiences creatively to solve novel problems. (creative
- Level II called cognitive competence performance). People with this integrate experiences in original
involves higher-order skills as they ways to make new discoveries and inventions
transform the input to produce an effective Contextual- or practical intelligence. Ability to deal with
output environmental demands we face on a daily basis. People called-
E. Structure of intellect Model street smart, business sense. They can adapt to their environment,
select a more favourable environment or modify their environment
- J.P Guilford proposed this model which to fit their needs. Therefor they are successful
classifies intellectual traits among three
dimensions operations, contents and Planning, Attention-arousal and Simultaneous-successive
(PASS) Model of Intelligence.
products.
- Operations are what the respondent does By J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri and Kirby (1994). According to this
model intellectual activity involves three interdependent
like cognition, memory recording, memory functioning of 3 neurological systems called the functional units of
retention, divergent production, convergent brain.
production and evaluation.
- Attention/Arousal- State of attention and arousal helps
- Contents refer to the nature of the materials us in attending to stimuli and allows us to process
or info on which intellectual operations are information. An optimal level of arousal focuses our
performed. Like visual, auditory, symbolic, attention to the relevant aspects of a problem. Too much
or too little arousal interferes with attention.
semantic and behavioural. - Simultaneous and Successive processing- We can
- Products refer to the form in which integrate knowledge either simultaneously or
information is processed by the successively when we perceive the relations among
various concepts and integrate them into a meaningful
patter for comprehension. Egg- Raven’s progressive
matrices (RPM) test. Successive processing takes place
when you remember all info serially so that the recall of
one leads to the recall of another. Simultaneous
processing helps you in grasping the meaning and
relationship between the given abstract figures.
 respondent. They are classified into units, - Planning- After processing info, planning is activated. It
allows us to think of a possible course of action,
classes, relations, systems, implement it and reach a target and evaluate its
transformations, and implications. effectiveness. If the plan doesn’t work then we modify it
- Since this classification includes 6x5x6 to suit the requirements of the task to be accomplished.
- PASS processes operate on the knowledge base
categories therefore the model has 180 developed either formally or informally from the
cells. environment.
- Each is expected to have at least one
Jack Naglieri and JP Das also came up with the battery of tests
factor or ability but some cells may have called Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) made of verbal
more than one factor. and non verbal task to measure basic cognitive functioning for
5-18 year olds.
Intelligence test in India
SM Mohsin- Intelligence test in Hindi 1930s
CH Rice Binet’s test in Urdu and Punjabi
Mahalonobis Binets test in Bengali
Long and Mehta prepared a Mental Measurement Handbook which listed 103 test of intelligence in
India present in various lang
NLEPT at the NCERT has documented Indian tests.
Bhatia’s Battery of Performance Tests is quite popular

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LESS TECH DEVELOPED SOCIETIES AND TECH DEELEOPED SOCIETIES
LESS TECHNOLOGICALLY DEVELOPED SOCIETIES TECHNOLOGICALLY DEVELOPED SOCIETIES
Social and emotional skills are valued and used to Personal achievement, reasoning ability and
relate with people making good judgements represent intelligence
Quality and skills are regarded as the action of an Child rearing practices foster skills of
intelligent person generalization and abstraction, speed, minimal
movement and mental manifestation among
children. These societies promote technologically
intellegent behavior.
The Non- western cultures look for skills to relate In this society speed, manipulation and
to others and not manipulation and speed judgement is given max importance
Some non-western societies value self-reflection Here, people are well versed in skills of attention,
and collectivistic orientation as compared to observation analysis, performance, speed and
personal achievements and individual orientation achievement orientation.

Question- Explain Sternberg’s and Vygotskys notion of intelligence.

1. Sternberg’s notion of contextual or practical intelligence implies that intelligence is a product of

culture.
2. Ygotsky also believes that culture like individuals have life of their own, they grow and change and
in the process specify what will be the end product of successful intellectual development. According
to him while elementary mental functioning like crime attending to mothers voice, sensitivity to smell ,
walking and running are universal. The manner in which higher mental functions such as problem solving
and thinking are largely based on the individuals culture.
Q- What are the characteristics of an emotionally intelligent person

1. Perceptive and sensitive to your feelings and emotions

2. Perceptive and sensitive to various types of emotions in others by noting their body lang, voice
and tone and facial expressions
3. Relating your emotions to your thoughts so that you take into account while solving problems
and taking decisions
4. Understanding the powerful influence of the nature and intensity of your emotions
5. Controlling and regulating your emotions and its expressions while dealing with self and others
to achieve harmony and peace

Q Which of the components are related to intelligence in Indian context.

Indian notion- integral intelligence which places emphasis on connectivity with the social and world
environment. Indian thinkers view intelligence from a holistic perspective where equal attention is paid
to cognitive and non-cognitive processes and its integration.

Sanskrit Buddhi according to JP Das includes skills like mental effort, cognitive competitive and
knowledge etc. It is also the knowledge of ones own self based on conscience will and desire.
Motivational components besides a strong cognitive component.

Cognitive Capacity (sensitivity to context, understanding, discrimination, prob solving and effective
communication)
Social competence (respect for elders, commitment to elders, concern for needy)
Emotional competence (self-regulation, self-monitoring, honesty, politeness)
Entrepreneurial competence (commitment, persistence, patience, hard work, vigilance, goal-directed
behavior)

Q- Define emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence – it is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression and regulation of
emotions.
Salvoey and Mayer considered it as the ability to monitor one’s own and others emotions to discriminate
among them and to use information to guide one’s thinking and actions.

Q- What is the use of understanding emotional intelligence?

1. Programmes are aimed at improving student’s emotional intelligence and have seen a benefit in
the individuals’ academic achievements.
2. Emotional intelligence encourages cooperative behavior and reduces anti-social activities. These
programmes are very useful in preparing students to face the challenges of life outside the
classrooms.
 APTITUDE

Intelligence- People with similar intelligence differ widely in acquiring certain knowledge and
skill. Egg- classroom of smart children of similar IQ but people go to different children for help
in different subjects.

Interest- A person may have intelligence and aptitude but not interest and thus will not be
successful in that line. Aptitude and Interest- In order to be successful one must have both
aptitude and interest.

SPECIAL ABILITIES

1. 2 types of Aptitude test- Independent (specialised) test- Looks into a particular areas egg-
Clerical Apptitude Test, Mechanical Apptitude Tests, Typing Aptitude test etc.
Multiple(generalised)- in the form of test batteries which measure aptitude in varies
several separate but homogeneous areas. Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), Generalised
Aptitude Test battery (GATB) and the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
(ASVAB). DAT is the most commonly used in the educational setting and consists of 8
independent subtest-
(i) Verbal Reasoning
(ii) Abstract Reasoning
(iii) Numerical Reasoning
(iv) Mechanical Reasoning
(v) Clerical Speed and Acuracy
(vi) Spatial Relations
(vii) Spelling
(viii) Language
2. J.M Ojha made the Indian version of DAT. Several others have been made in India for
test on various fields.

CREATIVITY

Q- Explain creativity

1. Intelligence and creativity does not have much correlation, relationship

2. Understood in nonverbal and verbal behaviour
3. Can be seen in the self-chosen activities.
4. Opportunities should be provided to a person.

Q- Variations in potential for creativity.

1. Heredity-
2. Environment-
 Relationship between creativity and intelligence

1. Terman in the 1920s found that people with high IQ were not necessarily creative.
Creative ideas also did not have to come from high IQ people. This, a person could be
creative and intelligent but intelligence does not ensure creativity.
2. Relationship between intelligence and creativity is positive

Tests-

1. Creativity tests asses variations in terms of the potential for creativity in contrast to
intelligence
2. Creativity tests are open-ended and allow the person to think of different answers in
his/her experiences and go in different directions
3. There is freedom to use ones imagination and express it in original ways. Allows
divergent thinking and asses abilities to produce variety of ideas which was off beat
(originality)
4. Those who made creativity tests- Guildford, Torrance, Paramesh, Khatena, Wallach,
Kogan, Baqer Mehdi and Passi.

Intelligence tests use convergent thinking.