EE 2255 Microelectronics

Lecture 4: PN Junction
diode
• Why PN junction?
• PN junction under different bias conditions
− equilibrium (VD= 0 V)
− reverse bias (VD< 0 V)
current as a − forward bias (VD> 0 V)
function of • I/V characteristics of PN junction
bias voltage
• Equivalent circuit model of PN diode
complicated physical structure
Reading: pp. 23-41 in the textbook

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 1/21

 Why PN Junction? (1/2)
• PN junction (diode) find applications in many electronic systems
− adaptors, rectifiers, switches, ..
• PN junction is the simplest semiconductor device, and serves as part
of transistors
C D
− BJTs, MOSFETs, …
B G B

E S

𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷
− +
When 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 > 0

doped by doped by
group V group III

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 2/21

 Why PN Junction? (2/2)
MOS
• Structures of BJT and MOSFET
first transistor: BJT-like device (1948) Metal Oxide Semiconductor

n-type Si

BJT cross section (NPN BJT) MOSFET cross section

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 3/21

 Analysis of PN Junction
• Analysis of PN junction is based on different bias conditions (to be
consistent with the practical situation in circuit applications)
− equilibrium (no bias) VD = 0
− reverse bias VD < 0
ID
− forward bias VD > 0 _
+
• How to use a pn junction (diode) for circuit design? VD

 convert the physical structure of pn junction to equivalent circuit model

VD = 0 VD < 0 VD > 0

can be used as a capacitor

in circuits

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 4/21

 PN Junction in Equilibrium
• What happens to a pn junction before applying an external voltage
15 18 −3
(VD= 0 V)? 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ≅ 𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷 (10 ~10 cm ) 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ≅ 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴

𝑒𝑒 − 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 ≅
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴
ℎ+

gradient of carrier
concentration

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU 5/21

 Evolution of Charge Concentration in a
PN Junction
• At t= 0, there are many free carriers in both n and p sides
• At t= t1, the electrons diffuse to p-side and the holes diffuse to n-side
− generate diffusion current
− positive and negative ions left in n and p sides, respectively
• At t= ∞, the immediate vicinity of junction is depleted of free carriers
− forms depletion region and reaches equilibrium condition
(no more current, why?) fixed ions in the depletion
region creates E-field

pull the
carriers
back

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 6/21

 Electric Field in a PN Junction
 𝑒𝑒 − ⟹  ℎ+ ⟹
• The fixed ions in depletion region
 ℎ+ ⟹  𝑒𝑒 − ⟹ result in an electric filed
− force electrons flowing from right
+ − to left and the opposite direction
electric
for the holes
field line  drift current
(one-on-
one)
• Under equilibrium, the total drift
current equals diffusion current. In
addition, equilibrium of each carrier
is required, where:

| I drift , p + I drift ,n |=| I diff , p + I diff ,n |,

| I drift , p |=| I diff , p |
If not, charge will
accumulate
| I drift ,n |=| I diff ,n | .

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 7/21

 Built-in Potential in a PN Junction (1/2)
• Electric field is the potential gradient
dV ⟹ 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
E=−
dx
• Based on the concept of diffusion current equals drift current
drift of ℎ+ diff. of ℎ+
dp dV dp x2 p p dp
µ p pE qD p ,
q=  −µ p p =D p .  − µ p ∫x dV = D p ∫p ,
dx dx dx 1 n p
build-in potential
D p kT p p = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ln 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
− p ln p .
V ( x2 ) − V ( x1 ) = =| V0 | ln . 𝑞𝑞 𝑛𝑛
µ p pn q pn 𝑝𝑝

+ −
+ −
+ −
+ −

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 8/21

 Built-in Potential in a PN Junction (2/2)
kT N A N D
Built-in potential
=  V0 ln 2 . 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝
q ni

• Determine the built-in potential

at room temperature (300 K) if
NA= 2×1016 cm-3 and ND= 4×1016
cm-3
In typical case
(NA, ND: 1015 ~ 1018 cm-3)
V0= 0.7 ~ 0.8 V

* V0 is insensitive to NA and ND (∵ in ln), if NA

or ND increased by 10X

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 9/21

 PN Junction under Reverse Bias (1/3)
• The external voltage enhances the built-in electric filed
 widen the depletion region
• The barrier for the carriers becomes higher, and there is almost
no current flow (this is why so called “reverse bias”)
only
leakage
* with VR applied current ID
_
⟹ the voltage across the depletion +
region ↑ VD

relatively small resistivity

(doped semiconductor)

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 10/21

 Junction Capacitance under Reverse
Bias (2/3)
• With the charges appear in the depletion region, the pn junction can
be viewed as a parallel-plate capacitor.

• A typical parallel-plate capacitor acts like two plates

metal plates
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
xn xp

⟹
𝜖𝜖
𝐶𝐶 ∝
𝑑𝑑
⟹

𝑊𝑊𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 11/21

 Junction Capacitance under Reverse
Bias (3/3)
• Based on the charge-equality condition reverse bias
in the depletion region
𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 � 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 = 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 � 𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷
xn N A
q ⋅ x p ⋅ A ⋅ N A = q ⋅ xn ⋅ A ⋅ N D  = when VR becomes
𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥2 xp ND
� 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = − � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 more negative
𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥1
2ε s 1 1
Wdep = xn + x p = ( + )(V0 - VR )
q N A ND
density
built-in
εs C j0 potential
 Cj = =
Wdep VR V0
1−
V0 Voltage-dependent capacitor

where ε si q N A N D 1 𝐶𝐶𝑗𝑗 : junction depletion cap.

=C j0 ,
2 N A + N D V0
⟹ 𝐶𝐶𝑗𝑗 ≅ 2𝐶𝐶𝑗𝑗𝑗 after diode turns on
when 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉D = 0 ⟹

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 12/21

 PN Junction under Forward Bias (1/2)
• On the contrary to the reverse-bias condition, the pn junction under
forward bias starts conducting current.
• The external voltage is applied opposite to the built-in field
 the barrier for carriers is lowered, and thus allows more diffusion
currents.
* 𝐸𝐸 (built-in) pulls the carriers 𝑊𝑊𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 when VF applied,
back, also creates a potential 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑉𝑉(𝑥𝑥2 ) ↓
barrier for diffusion current
⟹

𝐼𝐼𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 > 𝐼𝐼𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

⟹
V(x1) V(x2)

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 13/21

 PN Junction under Forward Bias (2/2)
• Derivation of I-V characteristics
p p ,e p p, f
kT pp pn,e
=| V0 | ln .  = V0
,  =pn, f
V0 − VF
.
q pn exp exp
VT VT

NA V ND V
∆pn= pn, f − pn,e ≈ (exp F − 1). Similarly, ∆n p ≈ (exp F − 1).
V VT V VT
exp 0 exp 0
VT VT

change of hole conc. in n-side increase free 𝑒𝑒 − in p-

due to diffusion side (diffusion)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
e 𝐼𝐼 ∝
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 14/21

 I/V Characteristics of PN Junction
• The diffusion current increases proportionally with ∆pn and ∆np

NA V ND V 𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹
I tot ∝ (exp F − 1) + (exp F − 1). 𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∝ exp −1
V VT V VT 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇
exp 0 exp 0
VT VT

• It can be proved that:

constant can be
neglected under
VF forward bias
=I tot I S (exp − 1),
VT

where
Dn
2
Dp
I S Aqn (
= i + ).
N A Ln N D L p

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 15/21

 Carrier Concentration Outside Depletion
Region
• What is the minority carrier concentration outside the depletion region?
− as the electrons enter the p side (or holes enter the n side), they
gradually recombine with the holes (or electrons)
total carriers remain
 constant across the diode
no gradient

⟹


diffusion

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 16/21

 Electrical Properties of a PN Diode
• Assuming the saturation current IS of a diode is 10-17 A, determine
the forward current under a forward bias of 1 V and 0.3 V, respectively.
How about the leakage current under a reverse bias of 5 V? What happens
if the reverse bias keeps increasing?
* under reverse bias
𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 = −𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 = 10−17 A

V0

* under a large reverse bias

𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 : breakdown voltage
⟹ VD provides a large
energy (𝐸𝐸 ↑)

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 17/21

 Equivalent Circuit Model of PN Diode (1/3)
• Device equivalent circuit models have different levels of complexity. It
cannot be avoided that the model with higher accuracy is more
complicated.
• Since the diode has an exponential I-V relation and a small turn-on
voltage
 an ideal diode can be approximated as an open circuit when
VD < 0 and a short circuit when VD > 0 𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷

 the simplest model of a PN diode (switch)
ideal switch 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷
Is 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

⟹
switch on

⟹
switch off

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 18/21

 Equivalent Circuit Model of PN Diode (2/3)

• PN diode model considers the turn-on voltage (constant-voltage model)
− If VD ≥ VD, on  diode is approximated as a constant voltage source
− If VD < VD, on  diode is approximated as an open circuit

simplified
real diode

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷

𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 = ln 2
𝑞𝑞 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 19/21

 Equivalent Circuit Model of PN Diode (3/3)

• PN diode model considers the exponential current dependence and the
parasitic junction capacitances (a more precise model for both DC and AC
operation) model used in SPICE
− the diode can be modeled by a voltage-controlled current source ID
− a variable capacitor CD is also included
* If 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 1 V + 0.1 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

+
𝐶𝐶𝑗𝑗𝑗 VD
𝐶𝐶𝑗𝑗 =

_
𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷
1−
𝑉𝑉0
open ckt at +
DC but 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷
will affect −
𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷
AC signal CD ID = 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 exp −1
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇

diode off diode on

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 20/21

 Error Introduced by Simplified Diode
Model in Circuit Analysis
• Consider the diode-resistor circuit shown below. Calculate IX for VX of
3 V and 1 V respectively using (a) exponential model with IS= 10-16 A
(b) a constant-voltage model with VD,on= 800 mV.
(a) exponential model (b) constant-voltage model

* Initial guess of VD could

be 0.8 V, 0.75 V is used
in textbook

EE2250 Microelectronics, S. Hsu, EE NTHU Lecture_4 21/21