BASIC HYDRAULICS

CEC 312

HND I LECTURE NOTE

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 COURSE CONTENT

 Forces on Immersed Objects

 Basic Principles of Dimensional Analysis and Hydraulic Modelling

 Basic Phenomena in Non-Uniform Flow in Channels

 Understand the Uses and Selection of Pumps and Turbines

 Determination of Flows and Head of Nodes

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Similitude
Whenever it is necessary to perform tests on a model to obtain information that
cannot be obtained by analytical means alone, the rules of similitude must be
applied. Similitude is the theory and art of predicting prototype performance
from model observations.
Model Study: Present engineering practice makes use of model tests more
frequently than most people realize. For example, whenever a new airplane is
designed, tests are made not only on the general scale model but also on various
components of the plane. Numerous tests are made on individual wing sections
as well as on the engine pods and tail sections.
Models of automobiles and high-speed trains are also tested in wind tunnels to
predict the drag and flow patterns for the prototype. Information derived from
these model studies often indicates potential problems that can be corrected
before prototype is built, thereby saving considerable time and expense in
development of the prototype. Marine engineers make extensive tests on model
shop hulls to predict the drag of the ships.
Geometric similarity refers to linear dimensions. Two vessels of different sizes
are geometrically similar if the ratios of the corresponding dimensions on the
two scales are the same. If photographs of two vessels are completely super-
impossible, they are geometrically similar.
Dynamic similarity concerns forces and requires all force ratios for
corresponding positions to be equal in kinematically similar vessels.
The requirement for similitude of flow between model and prototype is that the
significant dimensionless parameters must be equal for model and prototype

Kinematic similarity refers to motion and requires geometric similarity and

the same ratio of velocities for the corresponding positions in the vessels.

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PUMPS AND TURBINES
Pumps move mainly incompressible fluids (like water) and fans move
compressible fluids (gases like air). There are many types of pumps. The main
ones are
• Rotodynamic pumps, which are the main ones of interest to us, use rotating
elements such as impellers or blades. The lower the head required and the
greater the flow required the more axial the pump or turbine should be for
efficient operation, hence for high heads a fast-rotating relatively small element
is used, while for low heads a larger fan-type of design is used.
• Centrifugal - fluid is spun around and ejected by centrifugal action. These are
the most common pumps used in industry,
• Positive displacement or force pumps – a set volume of fluid is physically
moved, often by a piston. These pumps are less common, and are used for thick
and viscous fluids under high pressure or where the delivery flow must be
precise,
• Others such as the Hydraulic Ram, suitable for remote locations, and the
Archimedean screw, which is useful for low heads.
Centrifugal Pumps
A centrifugal pump, in its simplest form, consists of an impeller rotating inside
a casing. The impeller imparts kinetic energy to the fluid. The velocity head,
which is created by moving fluid from the low-velocity centre to the high-
velocity edge of the impeller, is converted into a pressure head when the fluid
leaves the pump. In the volute of the centrifugal pump, the cross section of the
liquid path is greater than in the impeller, and in an ideal frictionless pump the
drop from the high velocity in the impeller to the lower velocity is converted
according to the energy equation, to an increased pressure. This is the source
of the discharge pressure of a centrifugal pump.
Advantages of centrifugal pumps:
• Simple to construct,
• Low cost,
• Fluid is delivered at uniform pressure without shocks or pulsations,
• The discharge line may be throttled (partly shut off) or completely closed
without damaging the pump,
• Able to handle liquids with large amounts of solids,
• Can be coupled directly to motor drives,
• There are no valves involved in the pump operation, and

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A typical centrifugal Pump
• Lower maintenance costs than other types of pumps.
Disadvantages of centrifugal pumps:
• Cannot be operated at high heads,
• Subject to air binding and usually must be primed (the supply line must be
filled with water),
• The maximum efficiency for a pump holds over a fairly narrow range of
conditions, and
• Do not handle highly-viscous fluids efficiently.
Pump manufacturers often produce graphs, for fixed pump size and fixed
operating speed. Changing the size of the pump L or the operating speed of
rotation N changes the conditions for optimum operation. The desired size of
pump and operating speed can be inferred from similitude. There are many
different factors which determine the actual performance characteristics of a
pump. For this reason, it is best to use the actual experimental performance of
the pump for determining the size that is required. The performance
characteristics of a pump can be measured in-house, or they can be obtained
from the pump manufacturer.
The performance characteristics of pumps and fans are most often presented in
a graphic form called ’characteristic curves’. These curves describe
characteristics of available head (pressure) and efficiency and power
consumption, from zero to maximum flow. A family of performance curves can
exist for various impeller diameters.
The performance curves which are supplied by the pump manufacturer will
typically show plots of:
• Developed head (pressure) vs discharge (flow rate),
• Efficiency vs discharge, and
• Power vs discharge, for various pump speeds. These plots are typically given
for water, but for low viscosity fluids the plots will not change much.

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Simple pump line showing how negative pressures arise in the suction line.

Water turbines
Turbines are used to extract energy from water – the reverse of pumps. A
typical hydro-electric power station will have several, each directly coupled to
an electric generator There are three main types, the Pelton wheel,
which is an impulse turbine, and the Francis turbine and the axial flow Kaplan
turbine, both of which are reaction turbines. Below are presented three
photographs of turbines and of one pump in the Michell Hydraulics Laboratory
at Melbourne University, with thanks to Ms Pam Doughty,Webmaster of the
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department and Mr Joska Shepherd,
Technician in Charge of the Laboratory.
Reaction turbines
Francis turbines: In reaction turbines, such as the Francis turbine in (a) and (b)
of Table 11-1, the fluid first passes around the snail-shell like volute around the
periphery of the turbine (see (a)), and then through a ring of stationary guide
vanes or wicket gate (see (b)) in which only part of the head is converted into
kinetic energy. The guide vanes discharge onto the runner along the whole of
its periphery such that the fluid entering the runner has pressure as well as

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kinetic energy. The pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy in the
runner (the passage running full). In fact, the situation looks very similar to the
centrifugal pump vanes shown in Figure 11-9, but where everything runs in
reverse. Examples are most of the power stations in the Kiewa scheme in
Victoria, or the Snowy Mountains scheme.

Axial-flow or Kaplan turbines: Another common type of reaction turbine

which is used in lower-head installations, is the Kaplan or axial-flow turbine,
which looks rather like a large air-fan with wide blades, but which also acts in
reverse. These are typically used in power stations which are in dams across a
river, such as at Yarrawonga on the Murray River or stations on the Derwent
River in Tasmania.

Impulse turbines
In impulse turbines, such as the Pelton wheel, as in entry (c) in Table 11-1, the
total head available is first converted into kinetic energy in one or more nozzles
operating at atmospheric pressure. The jet(s) of water strike ”buckets” of
elliptical shape attached to the periphery of a rotating wheel. The jet of water
strikes the bucket, is split symmetrically so that there is no extra thrust along
the axis of the wheel, and is deflected back roughly in the direction whence it
came, thereby imparting momentum to the bucket and the wheel. The total
head available at the nozzle is equal to the gross head less losses in the pipeline
leading to the nozzle. These are used for high-head installations.
Since a Pelton wheel which drives an electrical generator should rotate at
constant speed, the only way to control it and increase or decrease load when
required is to control the d
(spear) valve in the nozzle. The water will still emerge at the same speed, but
the power provided will be different.
For cases of sudden load removal, because it is not possible to close the valve
quickly without causing high pressure surges in the penstock or supply line,
deflector plates are used so that the jet of water can be quickly deflected from
the wheel but without causing damaging transients in the supply line.
Gradually the needle valve will move to the new position and the deflector
returns to its original position, not interfering with the flow.

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The Froude Number for Rectangular Channels
The Froude Number for flow in an open channel is defined as: Fr = V/(gy)1/2,
where V, y, and g are the average velocity, depth of flow, and acceleration due
to gravity respectively. Fr, is a dimensionless parameter used in a variety of
ways with open channel flow.
The equation below is obtained by substituting q = Q/b = VA/b = V(yb)/b = Vy,
into equation (5) and simplifying.
V2/gyc = 1 or V/(gyc)1/2 =1 or Frc = 1
This equation shows that the Froude number is equal to one at critical flow
conditions. Knowing that y > yc for subcritical flow, the Froude number must
be less than 1 for subcritical flow. Similarly, since y < yc for supercritical flow,
the
Froude number must be greater than one for supercritical flow. Summarizing:
Fr < 1 for subcritical flow
Fr = 1 for critical flow
Fr > 1 for supercritical flow
TERMINOLOGY: A bottom slope less than the critical slope for a given channel
is called a mild slope and a slope greater than critical is called a steep slope.

THE HYDRAULIC JUMP

Rapidly varied flow (RVF) & Hydraulic jump (or Standing waves)
If the depth of flow in a channel changes abruptly over a small length of the
channel, the flow is said to be RVF. In RVF conditions, standing waves or

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 eddies are formed which causes loss of energy & the flow changes from
supercritical stage to subcritical stage of “Hydraulic Jump” in which rise of
water takes place.it can be defined as rise in the level of water when the water
transforms its super critical form into the sub critical one i.e. from unstable state
to the stable one. This phenomenon can be observed on spillways of the dam.
As it's the nature of water to gain its stability after it is being unstable. The place
where hydraulic jump occurs, a lot of energy is dissipated in the form of heat
energy. We can say that hydraulic jump is dissipator of extra energy of water.
This phenomenon is usually used in spillways of the dam to reduce the erosive
power of super critical flow. Otherwise it will affect the dam structure.

Effect of Hydraulic Jump

It is very common in the field of hydraulics to use hydraulic jump. It is used to
perform different functions. Some of the effects of the hydraulic jump are as
under:
 Actually the hydraulic jump usually acts as the energy dissipator. It clears the
surplus energy of water.
 Due to the hydraulic jump, many noticeable able disturbances are created in
the flowing water like eddies, reverse flow.
 Usually when the hydraulic jump takes place, the considerable amount of air
is trapped in the water. That air can be helpful in removing the wastes in the
streams that are causing pollution.
 Hydraulic jump also make the work of different hydraulic structures, effective
like weirs, notches and flumes etc.
Applications of Hydraulic Jump:
1. Usually hydraulic jump reverses the flow of water. This phenomenon
can be used to mix chemicals for water purification.
2. Hydraulic jump usually maintains the high water level on the
downstream side. This high water level can be used for irrigation purposes.
3. Hydraulic jump can be used to remove the air from water supply and
sewage lines to prevent the air locking.
4. It prevents the scouring action on the downstream side of the dam
structure.

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Types of hydraulic jump:
The hydraulic jump is a phenomenon that occurs where there is an abrupt
transition from supercritical to subcritical stage of flow. The most important
factor that affects the hydraulic jump is the initial Froude number (Fr1).

FORCES ON IMMERSED OBJECTS

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BASIC PHENOMENA IN NON-UNIFORM FLOW IN
CHANNELS

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 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DIMENSIONAL
ANALYSIS AND HYDRAULIC MODELLING

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 UNDERSTAND THE USES AND
SELECTION OF PUMPS AND TURBINES

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