CHAPTER 1

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Organic Electronic Memory
Devices
BIN ZHANGa,b, YU CHEN*b, KOON-GEE NEOHa,
AND EN-TANG KANG*a
a
Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, National
University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge, 119260, Singapore; bKey Lab for
Advanced Materials, Institute of Applied Chemistry, East China University
of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai 200237, China
*E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

1.1 Introduction
As the performance of digital gadgets for information technology advances,
the complexity of data storage devices increases correspondingly. Conven-
tional memory devices are implemented on semiconductor-based integrated
circuits, such as transistors and capacitors. In order to achieve greater den-
sity of data storage and faster access to information, more components are
deliberately packed onto a single chip. The feature size of transistors has
decreased from 130 nm in the year 2000 to 32 nm at present.1,2 Silicon-based
semiconductor devices become less stable below 22 nm, and the reliability
to store and read individual bits of information will be substantially reduced
by severe “cross-talk” issues. Moreover, power consumption and unwanted
heat generation are also of increasing concern, and the fidelity of address-
ing the memory units diminishes correspondingly. Therefore, the current

RSC Polymer Chemistry Series No. 18

Electrical Memory Materials and Devices
Edited by Wen-Chang Chen
© The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org

1
2 Chapter 1
state-of-the-art memory technologies are no longer capable of fulfilling the
requirements for information storage of the near future.3
Regarding the aspiration for new data storage technologies, ferroelectric
random access memory (FeRAM),4 magnetoresistive random access memory
(MRAM),5 phase change memory (PCM),6 and organic/polymer memory have
appeared on the scene of the information technology industry.7–9 Instead of
information storage and retrieval by encoding “0” and “1” as the amount of

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stored charge in the current silicon-based memory devices, the new technol-
ogies are based on electrical bistability of materials arising from changes in
certain intrinsic properties, such as magnetism, polarity, phase, conforma-
tion and conductivity, in response to the applied electric field. The advan-
tages of organic and polymer electronic memory include good processability,
molecular design through chemical synthesis, simplicity of device structure,
miniaturized dimensions, good scalability, low-cost potential, low-power
operation, multiple state properties, 3D stacking capability and large capac-
ity for data storage.10–16
Extensive studies toward new organic/polymeric materials and device
structures have been carried out to demonstrate their unique memory per-
formances.17–22 This chapter provides an introduction to the basic concepts
and history of electronic memory, followed by a brief description of the struc-
tures and switching mechanisms of electrical memory devices classified as
transistors, capacitors and resistors. Then, the progress of organic-based
memory materials and devices is systematically summarized and discussed.
Lastly, the challenges posed to the development of novel organic electrical
memory devices are summarized.

1.2 Basic Concepts of Electronic Memory

The basic goal of a memory device is to provide a means for storing and access-
ing binary digital data sequences of “1’s” and “0’s”, as one of the core func-
tions (primary storage) of modern computers. An electronic memory device
is a form of semiconductor storage which is fast in response and compact
in size, and can be read and written when coupled with a central processing
unit (CPU, a processor). In conventional silicon-based electronic memory,
data are stored based on the amount of charge stored in the memory cells.
Organic/polymer electronic memory stores data in an entirely different way,
for instance, based on different electrical conductivity states (ON and OFF
states) in response to an applied electric field. Organic/polymer electronic
memory is likely to be an alternative or at least a supplementary technology
to conventional semiconductor electronic memory.
According to the storage type of the device, electronic memory can be
divided into two primary categories: volatile and non-volatile memory. Vol-
atile memory eventually loses the stored information unless it is provided
with a constant power supply or refreshed periodically with a pulse. The
most widely used form of primary storage today is volatile memory. As shown
in Figure 1.1, electronic memory can be further divided into sub-categories,
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 3

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Figure 1.1 
Classification of electronic memory devices. Reproduced with permis-
sion from ref. 22, © 2008 Elsevier Ltd.

as read only memory (ROM), hybrid memory, and random access memory
(RAM). ROM is factory programmable only; data is physically encoded in the
circuit and cannot be programmed after fabrication. Hybrid memory allows
data to be read and re-written at any time. RAM requires the stored informa-
tion to be periodically read and re-written, or refreshed, otherwise the data
will be lost. Among these types of electronic memory, write-once read-many-
times (WORM) memory,7 hybrid non-volatile and rewritable (flash) memory,8
static random access memory (SRAM) and dynamic random access memory
(DRAM) are the most widely reported polymer memory devices.23,24
A WORM memory device can be used to store archival standards, data-
bases and other massive data where information has to be reliably preserved
for a long period of time. Conventional CD-Rs, DVD±Rs or programmable-
read-only-memory (PROM) devices are examples of WORM memory. Flash
memory is another type of non-volatile electronic memory. Different from
WORM memory, its stored state can be electrically reprogrammed and it has
the ability to write, read, erase and retain the stored state. Thus it is mutable
or rewritable in nature. Due to its non-volatility, no power is needed to main-
tain the information stored in flash memory. DRAM is a type of volatile
random access memory that stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor
within an integrated circuit. Since real-world capacitors have charge-leaking
tendencies, the stored data eventually fade unless the device is refreshed
periodically. Because of this periodical refresh requirement, it is a volatile
and dynamic memory. The volatility, ultrafast data access time and struc-
tural simplicity hold great promise for high density and fast responding per-
formance, making DRAM memory the main memory for most computers.
SRAM is another type of volatile memory. The term “static” differentiates it
from “dynamic” RAM (DRAM) which must be periodically refreshed. SRAM
exhibits data remanence, but it is still volatile and the stored data are eventu-
ally lost when the memory remains in the power-off state. SRAM is faster and
more reliable than the more common DRAM. Due to its high cost, SRAM is
often used only as a memory cache.
4 Chapter 1
Parameters of importance to the performance of a memory cell include
switching (write and erase) time, ON/OFF current ratio (or memory window),
read cycles, and retention ability. The switching time influences the rate
of writing and accessing the stored information, the ON/OFF current ratio
defines the control of the misreading rate during device operation, with a
higher value being essential for the device to function with minimal misread-
ing error, while the number of read cycles and retention ability are related to

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the stability and reliability of the memory devices. For practical applications,
other factors, such as power consumption and cost, structural simplicity and
packing density, as well as mechanical stiffness and flexibility, are of equal
importance when designing and fabricating new memory devices.

1.3 
History of Organic/Polymer Electronic
Memory Devices
Different forms of storage, based on various natural phenomena, have been
reported since the 1940s. A computer system usually contains several kinds
of storage, each with an individual purpose. In the 1960s, there was a great
interest in the electrical properties of amorphous semiconductors and disor-
dered structures, arising from their unusual electrical properties which also
make them promising materials for device applications.25,26
In 1968, Gregor observed bistable negative resistance in polymer mate-
rials and noted that a Pb/polydivinylbenzene/Pb bistable electrical switch-
ing device is capable of acting as an information storage device.27 In 1969,
Szymansk et al. reported bistable electrical conductivity phenomena in
thin tetracene films sandwiched between metal electrodes.28 In 1970, Sliva
et al. reported that devices based on Saran® wrap, phthalocyanines and
polystyrene all exhibited bistable switching behavior.29 Subsequently, Segui
et al. demonstrated reproducible bistable switching in polymer thin films
prepared by glow-discharge polymerization.30 Inspired by these pioneering
studies, a wide variety of organic and polymer materials have been explored
for threshold and memory switching effects.31–33 Many of the observed elec-
trical memory effects were due to the formation of filamentary conduction
paths, and the performance was not satisfactory for practical applications.
Memory switching effects in polymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene, polyeth-
ylmethacrylate and polybutylmethacrylate films were ascribed to field-con-
trolled polymer chain ordering and disordering.34 Memory switching effects
in poly(N-vinylcarbazole) (PVK) thin films were attributed to trapping–detrap-
ping processes associated with impurities in PVK.35
Studies of the transition behavior of some ferroelectric polymers began
in the 1980s.36–38 Thin films of ferroelectric materials can be repeatedly
switched between two stable ferroelectric polarization states, and are capa-
ble of exhibiting non-volatile memory effects. Polymer films obtained by
solution processing techniques were so thick that some devices required
operating voltages of at least 30 V. Bune et al. reported a major breakthrough
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 5
in the fabrication of ferroelectric films by the Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) tech-
nique in 1995.39 The resulting ferroelectric films are as thin as 1 nm and can
be switched using a voltage as low as 1 V.40 Rapid progress in polymer ferro-
electric random access memory (FeRAM) as a promising memory technology
has since been achieved.41–43
An organic transistor memory device using a sexithiophene oligomer as
the conductor and an inorganic ferroelectric material as the gate insulator

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was demonstrated in 2001 by Velu et al.44 Subsequently, ferroelectric organic
and polymer materials have also been utilized as gate insulators in field-
effect transistors (OFETs).45–48 High performance all-organic or polymer tran-
sistor memory devices have been demonstrated by Naber et al.49–51 Transistor
memory devices can be faster and more readily integrated with traditional
electronics. However, they are not able to meet the high density and low-cost
requirements since an additional terminal is required between the gate and
the semiconducting channel. A WORM type memory device based on poly-
mer fuses was demonstrated by Forrest and coworkers in 2003.7 The memory
element consists of a thin film p–i–n silicon diode and a conductive poly-
mer fuse, composed of poly(ethylene dioxythiophene) (PEDOT) oxidatively
p-doped by poly(styrene sulfonic acid) (PSS).
Bistable electrical switching and memory effects involving charge transfer
(CT) complexes were first reported in an electronic device based on a cop-
per (electron donor) and 7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ, electron
acceptor) complex.52 Subsequently, a wide variety of organometallic and
all-organic CT complexes have also been explored for non-volatile electronic
memory applications.52 Polymer memory devices based on CT effects from
doping of a polymer matrix by electron donors, such as 8-hydroxyquinoline
(8HQ), tetrathiafulvalene (TTF), polyaniline (PANI), poly-3-hexylthiophene
(P3HT), or electron acceptors such as gold nanoparticles, copper metal-
lic filaments and phenyl C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM), have been
reported.8,9,53–55 Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) possess intense π-conjugation
and strong electron-withdrawing ability. The CT complexes of CNTs and
P3HT, a conjugated copolymer or poly(N-vinylcarbazole) (PVK) have been
reported to exhibit a bistable electrical memory effect.56–58 By utilizing copo-
lymers containing both donor (D) and acceptor (A) moieties in the basic unit,
phase separation and ion aggregation could be effectively avoided in a single-
component polymer film, resulting in uniform film morphology and improved
device performance. D–A polymer-based electrically bistable memory devices
have received considerable attention. The molecular design-cum-synthesis
approach has allowed several polymer electronic memory devices, including
flash memory, WORM memory and DRAM to be realized.59–68
In order to achieve ultrahigh density memory devices, organic mate-
rials with multilevel stable states are highly desirable. In 2004, Pal et al.
reported multilevel conductivity and conductance switching in supramolec-
ular structures of Rose Bengal.69 Subsequently, they observed one low- and
three high-conducting states in ultra-thin film devices, and all four acces-
sible states have associated memory effects for data-storage applications.70
6 Chapter 1
Multilevel conductance switching in poly[2-methoxy-5-(2′-ethyl-hexyloxy)-
1,4-phenylene vinylene] (MEH-PPV) films was first reported by Lauters et al.
in 2005.71 They observed that the ITO/MEH-PPV/Al device had the ability to
store a continuum of conductance states. These states were non-volatile and
could be switched reproducibly by applying appropriate programing biases
above a certain threshold voltage. Devices demonstrating multistability
where more than two conducting states can be programmed into a single

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switching element will dramatically increase the amount of data stored per
area or volume. Further progress in the development of multilevel organic/
polymer memory has been made in recent years.72–76
In 1971, Chua proposed a new circuit element, a memristor, which is the
fourth passive circuit element beyond the fundamental resistor, capacitor and
inductor.77 A memristor is capable of processing information in the same way as
biological systems, mimicking the function of a mammalian synapse, with the
ability to learn and memorize new information. According to the redefinition of
Chua in 2011, all two-terminal non-volatile resistive switching memory devices
are memristors, regardless of the device material or the physical operating
mechanism.78 A polymer memristor was first reported in cobalt(iii)-containing
conjugated (CP) and non-conjugated (NCP) polymers with an azo-aromatic
backbone by Higuchi et al. in 2011.79 Single crystals of a cyclodextrin-based
metal–organic framework (MOF) infused with an ionic electrolyte and flanked
by silver electrodes can act as memristors.80 The metal/single-crystal MOF/
metal heterostructure can be switched between high and low conductivity
states due to the self-limiting oxidative reactions of the metal anode.
The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) has
identified polymer memory as an emerging memory technology since the
year 2005. Figure 1.2 indicates the number of related publications each year

Figure 1.2 
Statistics for publications on organic and polymer memory from 2000
to 2014. Data derived from ISI Web of Science.
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 7
worldwide since the year 2000. Research work on polymer memory before
2008 was summarized in a comprehensive review by Ling et al.22 Liu and
Chen highlighted recent developments in the field of D–A polymers for
resistive switching memory device applications.20 Chen et al. reviewed the
application of electrically, thermally and chemically modified graphene and
polymer-functionalized graphene derivatives for switching and information
storage applications.19 Most recently, Huang and coworkers summarized

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recent progress concerning the use of polymers or polymer composites as
active materials for resistive memory devices.17 The impetus for the research
effort in this area arises from the fact that organic/polymer electronic mem-
ory devices have been a promising alternative or supplementary device to
conventional memory technologies facing the problem of miniaturization
from microscale to nanoscale.

1.4 Classification of Electrical Memory Devices

According to the device structure, electronic memory devices can be divided
into three primary categories: transistors, capacitors and resistors. With
their respective ability to amplify electronic signals, to store charges, and
to produce proportional electric currents, electronic memory devices can be
constructed from transistors, capacitors and resistors.

1.4.1 Transistor-Type Electronic Memory

Inorganic transistors are widely used in conventional semiconductor memory.
For example, a group of six or more field-effect transistors can be integrated
to assemble a SRAM cell, while a floating gate transistor can be integrated
to assemble a flash memory cell. Organic (including polymer) transistors
are also of great potential for memory applications.81–84 Organic field-effect
transistor (OFET) type memory devices have attracted considerable research
interest due to their easily integrated structure and the non-destructive read-
ing of a single transistor.85–87 In addition, the mechanical flexibility of organic
materials makes them compatible with plastic substrates for lightweight and
flexible device design.

1.4.1.1 Device Structure
The organic transistor inherits its design features from inorganic MOSFET
precursors.88,89 It is composed of three main components: source, drain
and gate electrodes, a dielectric insulator layer and an active semiconductor
layer, as illustrated in Figure 1.3a.22 The electrodes can be n- or p-Si, ITO,
PEDOT:PSS, TaN, Au, Pt, Al, Cu, Cr or other metals. Among these, Au elec-
trodes are often used for OFETs because the work function of gold is close
to the ionization potential of many polymer materials, which leads to an
ohmic contact in the device. An OFET memory device consists of at least one
8 Chapter 1

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Figure 1.3 
OFET configurations: (a) top contact device and (b) bottom contact
device with different dielectric layers; (c) floating gate OFET, (d) charge
trapping OFET and (e) ferroelectric OFET, exhibiting memory effects.
The separation between the source and drain electrodes defines the
channel length (L), the width of the electrodes defines the channel width
(W). Reproduced with permission from ref. 22, © 2008 Elsevier Ltd.

polymeric material either in its dielectric insulator layer or active semicon-

ductor layer or both. The device is usually supported by a glass, wafer, or plas-
tic substrate. Within the basic MOSFET design, there are two types of device
configuration: top contact and bottom contact (Figure 1.3a and b). In the
former, the source and drain electrodes are fabricated on a preformed semi-
conductor layer, whereas the latter is constructed by depositing the organic
materials over the contacts.90

1.4.1.2 Operation Mechanism
A voltage applied to one pair of the transistor’s terminals (either source–
drain or source–gate) can change the current flowing through another pair
of terminals. The voltage applied between the source and drain is referred to
as the source–drain voltage, VD. The current flowing through the semicon-
ductor film from source to drain is referred to as the source–drain current,
ID. For a lightly doped or undoped semiconductor, the concentration of free
charge carriers in the channel is very low. When VG = 0 V, ID is very low and
the transistor is initially in the OFF state. With an increase in VG, a layer of
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 9
mobile charges from the source can accumulate at the interface between the
semiconductor and the insulator. Due to the increased charge carrier con-
centration in the semiconductor, ID increases significantly and turns the
transistor to the ON state.91 The gate threshold voltage (Vth) is defined as the
voltage necessary to induce mobile charges, that is, the gate voltage at which
the square root of the saturation ID begins to increase substantially. Alterna-
tively, field-effect transistor memory can also be operated at constant VG and

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sweeping VD.
To be a non-volatile transistor for memory applications, the charge must
be stored or polarized in domains within the bulk of the dielectric layer, or at
interfaces between the gate contact and the semiconductor channel. An addi-
tional voltage, via charge storage or polarization, is thus introduced between
the gate and the semiconductor channel to alter the charge distribution in the
transistor. On the basis of charge storage and polarization methods in the
dielectric layer or interfaces, OFET memory devices can be divided into three
categories: floating gate OFET memory, charge trapping OFET memory, and
ferroelectric OFET memory (Figure 1.3c and d).22

1.4.2 Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory

Capacitors can store charges on two parallel plate electrodes under an
applied electric field. Based on the amount of charge stored in the cell, the
bit level (either “0” or “1”) can be encoded accordingly. When the medium
between the electrodes is merely a dielectric, the stored charge will be lost
eventually.92 Thus, DRAM using a dielectric capacitor is volatile memory,
and the information stored in DRAM eventually fades unless the capacitor
charge is refreshed periodically. On the other hand, if the medium is ferro-
electric in nature, permanent electric polarization can be maintained and
longer retention time can be achieved. A ferroelectric material can maintain
permanent electric polarization that can be repeatedly switched between two
stable states by an external electric field. Thus, memory based on ferroelec-
tric capacitors (FeRAM) is non-volatile memory.4 FeRAM needs no periodic
refreshing and it still retains its data in the case of power failure. Organic
and polymeric ferroelectric materials can also be used in DRAM and FeRAM
applications.93–97

1.4.2.1 Device Structure
Several FeRAM structures, including 1T1C (T – transistor, C – capacitor),98
2T2C,99 1T2C100 and others, have been developed. The simplest DRAM and
FeRAM cells have similar structures, both utilizing 1T1C as the building
components. Figure 1.4a shows an image of a 1T1C FeRAM device, while a
schematic circuit diagram of the cell is shown in Figure 1.4b.98 The plate
line (PL) of a FeRAM device has a variable voltage level to enable the switch-
ing of the polarization of the ferroelectric capacitor. The upper electrode of
10 Chapter 1

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Figure 1.4  An image of a 1T1C FeRAM device, and (b) circuit schematic of a
(a)
typical 1T1C FeRAM cell. Reproduced with permission from ref. 98,
© 2012 Elsevier B.V.

the capacitor is made of Pt, Ir or Ru, and the lower electrode is Pt/Ti.101 The
local interconnect between the access transistor and the storage node of
the capacitor is TiN. These materials are refractive and can form conductive
oxides, such as IrOx or RuOx.

1.4.2.2 Operation Mechanism
Ferroelectric materials exhibit polarization–electric field hysteresis loops. As
shown in Figure 1.5, when voltages are applied from 0 V to +Vcc, the polariza-
tion state changes from point A to B to C progressively.22 Similarly, the polar-
ization state changes progressively from point D to E to F, with the applied
voltages increasing from 0 V to −Vcc. When voltages are applied from +Vcc
to 0 V and from −Vcc to 0 V, the polarization state changes, moving from
point C to D and from point F to A, respectively. The amount of polarization
charge can be maintained well, without reversing their direction. Under such
a situation, zero-voltage remnant polarization states with opposite direction
(Pr, points A and D) can be obtained by a large saturation voltage (±Vcc), and
can be reversed or switched by the coercive voltage (±Vc), the minimum value
of the voltage necessary to reverse, or switch, the polarization state. Thus, “0”
and “1” can be defined as the two stable states, “upward polarization” and
“downward polarization”, to apply ferroelectric characteristics to electronic
memory.22
“1” or “0” data can be written to a FeRAM cell by applying a voltage +Vcc or
−Vcc to both electrodes of the ferroelectric capacitor. For instance, to write
“0”, the word line (WL) is turned on (meaning that the access transistor is
on), the bit line (BL) is held at 0 V and the plate line (PL) is cycled from 0 V
to Vcc to 0 V (Figures 1.4b and 1.5).22 This polarizes the ferroelectric capac-
itor in the “0” state. After writing, data is retained even if the selected WL
becomes unselected (meaning that the transistor is off). When reading “0”
or “1” data from a cell, prior to selecting the WL, the BL must be precharged
to 0 V to retain the high-impedance condition. Next, the WL is selected and
Vcc is applied to the PL (Figures 1.4b and 1.5). For the cell in the “0” state,
there will be a minimal voltage change on the BL since the capacitor does
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 11

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Figure 1.5 
Charge displacement–electric field (D–E) hysteresis loop and ferroelec-
tric capacitor polarization conditions. Reproduced with permission
from ref. 22, © 2008 Elsevier Ltd.

not switch the polarization direction. For the cell in the “1” state, there will
be a larger voltage variation on the BL since the capacitor switches the polar-
ization direction and the difference in compensating charge flows onto the
BL. When reading the “1” state, the reversal in polarity causes the data to be
destroyed, creating a “0” state. Therefore, it is necessary for the capacitor to
be re-polarized to the “1” state before closing the WL and moving on to the
next operation. To rewrite the “1” state, the BL voltage level is set at Vcc and
the PL voltage level is set at 0 V. Finally, the WL is turned off and the “1” state
is stored again (Figures 1.4b and 1.5).22 When reading the “0” state, since
no reversal of polarity occurs, the datum is not destroyed and the re-writing
process is not required.

1.4.3 Resistor-Type Electronic Memory

Devices incorporating switchable resistive materials are generically classi-
fied as resistor-type memory, or resistive random access memory (RRAM).
Unlike transistor and capacitor memory devices, resistor-type memory does
not require a specific cell structure (e.g. FET) or to be integrated with the
CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) technology. Resistor-
type memory devices store data in an entirely different form, for instance,
based on different electrical conductivity states (ON and OFF states). Elec-
trical bistability usually arises from changes in the intrinsic properties of
materials, such as charge transfer, phase change, conformation change and
reduction–oxidation (redox) reaction, in response to an applied voltage or
electric field.22
12 Chapter 1

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Figure 1.6 
Schematic diagram of (a) a 3 × 3 polymer memory device, (b) a 3 (word
line) × 3 (bit line) cross-point memory array, and (c) a 3 (layer) × 3 (word
line) × 3 (bit line) stacked memory device.

1.4.3.1 Device Structure
Resistor-type electronic memory usually has a simple structure with an
organic/polymer thin film sandwiched between two electrodes on a support-
ing substrate (glass, silicon wafer, plastic or metal foil). The configuration
of the top and bottom electrodes can be either symmetric or asymmetric,
with aluminum, gold, copper, p- or n-doped silicon, and ITO being the most
widely used electrode materials. Test structures usually consist of a spin-
coated polymer thin film on the bottom electrode, for instance, ITO, with the
top electrodes deposited through a shadow mask via thermal evaporation in
a vacuum chamber. The area covered by the top electrode forms the active
device area. The basic configuration of a test memory device is shown in
Figure 1.6a. The individual memory cells can be integrated into a cross-bar
(two dimensional or 2D) memory array (Figure 1.6b), and further stacked
into three-dimensional (3D) data storage devices (Figure 1.6c). Each cell in
the 2D memory array or 3D stacked device can be identified by its unique
Cartesian coordinates. Due to the two terminal simple structure and the
nanoscale active organic/polymer thin film, high data storage density can be
realized in organic/polymer memory.

1.4.3.2 Operation Mechanism
Resistor-type memory is based on the change of the electrical conductivity
of materials in response to an applied voltage (electric field). Various mech-
anisms have been proposed to explain electrical conductance switching in
organic/polymer memory devices. Among them, the most widely reported
mechanisms include filament conduction, space charges and traps, charge
transfer effects, and conformational changes.

1.4.3.2.1 Filament Conduction. Filament conduction is used to describe

the high conductivity (ON) state where the current is highly localized in a
small fraction of the device area. It is believed that filament conduction is
normally associated with physical damage to the device, and thus results in
artifact memory effects which are difficult to control and reproduce. Two
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 13
types of filament conduction, carbon-rich filament and metallic filament
conduction, are widely reported in polymer memory.102 The former is caused
by local degradation of polymer films and will increase the mobility of charge
carriers only.30 The latter results from local fusing, migrating or sputtering of
electrode metal through the films, leading to an increase in both the charge
carrier mobility and concentration.103

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1.4.3.2.2 Space Charges and Traps. The intrinsic electrical conductivity of
organic and polymer materials is far lower than that of metals. When the
electrode–film contact is ohmic, charge carriers will be easily injected from
the electrode into the organic thin film and accumulated near the interface to
form a space charge buildup. The electrostatic repulsion between individual
charges can screen the applied electric field and further limit charge injec-
tion into the film.104 Consequently, hysteresis in the current–voltage (I–V)
characteristics of the film is observed. Space charges in materials may arise
from several sources, such as electrode injection of charge carriers, ionized
dopants in interfacial depletion regions and accumulation of mobile ions at
electrode/organic film interfaces. Capacitance–voltage (C–V) characteristics
can also show hysteresis arising from space charges.105 The hysteric behav-
ior, either in I–V or C–V characteristics, can be utilized to create data storage
devices. A device can be programmed by applying a voltage pulse to write a
state, and read by measuring the device current under a small probe voltage.
When traps are present either in the bulk of the material or at the interface
regions, the charge carrier mobility will be significantly reduced. Adsorbed
oxygen molecules in organic films,35 intra-molecular donor–acceptor struc-
tures106 and semiconductor or metal nanoparticles107 can act as charge
trapping centers. As greater numbers of charge carriers are injected with
increasing voltage, the traps in the organic thin film are gradually filled.35
When all of the traps are eventually filled, the newly injected charge carri-
ers will no longer be affected by the fully filled traps. An abrupt increase in
the current is observed, and the transition from the OFF to the ON state is
related to the level of occupancy of the charge traps. The current is limited by
re-excitation (de-trapping) of the trapped carriers in the trap-filled state.108
Both space charges and traps play an important role in the electronic pro-
cesses and switching behavior of organic electronic devices.109

1.4.3.2.3 Charge Transfer Effects. A charge transfer (CT) complex is

defined as an electron donor–acceptor (D–A) complex, characterized by an
electronic transition to an excited state in which a partial transfer of charge
occurs from the donor moiety to the acceptor moiety. The conductivity of
a CT complex is dependent on the ionic binding between the D–A compo-
nents.110 As illustrated in Figure 1.7,22,111 if the donor is characterized by
small size and low ionization potential, a strongly ionic salt forms and a
complete transfer of charge (or with the CT degree value, δ > 0.7) occurs from
the donor to the acceptor, making the ionic salt insulating. When the donor
is very large and has a high ionization potential, a neutral molecular solid
14 Chapter 1

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Figure 1.7 
Schematic representation of the formation of ion-radical species and
charge transfer complexes. Reproduced with permission from ref. 22,
© 2008 Elsevier Ltd.

(δ < 0.4) forms, which is also insulating. If the donor has intermediate size
and ionization potential, it tends to form a weakly ionic salt with the accep-
tor, which possesses incomplete CT (0.4 < δ < 0.7) and thus is potentially
conductive. The formation of a conductive CT complex can be employed to
design molecular electronic devices. Many organic CT systems, including
organometallic complexes, carbon allotrope (fullerene, carbon nanotubes
and graphene)-based polymer complexes, gold nanoparticle–polymer com-
plexes, and single polymers with intra-molecular D–A structures have been
explored for memory applications.112–115

1.4.3.2.4 Conformational Changes. The spatial conformation of a mate-

rial can significantly affect the distribution of electron density within the
macromolecule and/or the π-conjugation of the system, thus effectively
controlling the material’s electrical conductivity. Electrical bistability aris-
ing from electric field-induced conformational changes has been reported
in organic and polymeric materials.116–118 For instance, carbazole containing
polymers are capable of exhibiting field-induced conformational change via
rotations of randomly oriented carbazole groups to form a more regioreg-
ular arrangement for facilitated carrier delocalization and transport.117 A
transition in the molecular conformation of anthracenyl moieties can tune
the energy levels of anthracene -containing polymers, and improve the bulk
charge recombination.118 Substituted biphenyl or bipyridine molecules have
been inserted as the active material between a pair of metallic electrodes,
to control the longitudinal conduction in response to an applied electric
field.119,120 The mechanism of operation is based on the action of an electric
field perpendicular to the ring–ring bond on the torsional angle and, as a
consequence, the inter-ring conjugation. With the inclusion of suitable sub-
stituents on the aromatic rings, the transverse electric field can increase the
dihedral angle, and thus change the conformation from one in which elec-
trons can flow freely from side to side, to one in which this flow is hindered.
As a result, the conductance of the molecule is varied, providing a means for
potential data storage.
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 15
To further understand the device transition from the OFF state to the ON
state, the current density–voltage data in both states can be fitted to theo-
retical models. Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain the gen-
eration, trapping and transport of charge carriers in organic and polymer
memory devices.121,122

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1.5 
Types of Organic-Based Electrical
Memory Devices
1.5.1 Organic Molecules
Organic electronic memory devices based on organic molecules were first
reported in several acene derivatives including naphthalene, anthracene,
tetracene, pentacene, perylene, p-quaterphenyl and p-quinquephenyl.123–126
Ma et al. reported an organic electrically bistable device with the structure
of a single layer of N,N′-di(naphthalene-l-yl)-N,N′-diphenyl-benzidine (NPB)
embedded between ITO and Ag electrodes.127 Subsequently, a negative differ-
ential resistance (NDR) in organic devices consisting of 9,10-bis-(9,9-diphe-
nyl-9H-fluoren-2-yl)-anthracene (DPFA) sandwiched between two electrodes
was observed.128 The device exhibited reproducible NDR and can be electri-
cally switched between the ON state and the OFF state.
Organometallic and all-organic CT complexes have been explored for use
in organic memory (Scheme 1.1). Electrical memory phenomena of CT com-
plexes were first reported in a copper and 7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane
(TCNQ) complex (Cu-TCNQ).52 Stable and reproducible current-controlled
bistable electrical switching was observed in a device with the structure
Cu/Cu-TCNQ/Al. Inspired by this discovery, many other organometallic CT
complexes with different metals and organic acceptors have been prepared
and explored for memory effects over the past few decades.129–132 A series of
all-organic CT complexes were prepared by alternative, mixed or dual deposi-
tion in a vacuum chamber. All films of these organic CT complexes exhibited
electrically bistable states at room temperature and a short transition time
from high to low resistance.133–137 These CT complexes consisted of metha-
nofullerene 6,6-phenyl C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) as the organic
electron acceptor, and tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) as the organic electron donor.
Electrical bistability was demonstrated in devices with a sandwich structure.
Devices in the OFF state could be switched to the ON state by applying a 5
V pulse of width shorter than 100 ns, while the ON state could be converted
to the OFF state by applying a −9 V pulse of width shorter than 100 ns. Pal
et al. demonstrated a WORM memory effect in a monolayer of a copper(ii)
phthalocyanine (CuPc) and fullerenol CT complex.136 Ma et al. observed a
reproducible NDR and memory effect in a 1,4-dibenzyl C60 (DBC) and zinc
phthalocyanine (ZnPc) CT complex.137 The introduction of DBC enhanced
the ON/OFF current ratio and significantly improved the memory stability.
The ON/OFF current ratio was up to 2 orders of magnitude. The number of
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Scheme 1.1 Chemical
 structures of the molecules used for organic memory
devices.

write–read–erase–reread cycles was greater than 106, and the retention time
reached 10 000 s without current degradation.
Organic dyes, such as phthalocyanines (Pc), porphyrins (Por) and xanthene
derivatives have also been explored for electrical memory effects. Ray et al.
fabricated bistable memory devices by using 70 nm thick spun films of PbPc
molecules sandwiched between an ITO substrate and Al top electrodes.138
The bistable electrical switching effects were attributed to the existence of
a depletion layer at the ITO/PbPc interface and an exponential distribution
of the energetics of traps in the non-active region of the PbPc films. Similar
phenomena can also be observed for some other phthalocyanine derivatives,
such as NiPc,105 CuPc139 and ZnPc.140 Pal et al. observed high electrical con-
ductance switching (ON/OFF ratio = 105) in single-layer sandwich structures
based on the organic molecule Rose Bengal (RB) at room temperature.141 A
molecular switching device utilizing LB monolayer films containing ZnPor
as a redox-active component has also been reported.142 Devices with the
structure metal/ZnPor LB monolayer/metal exhibited outstanding switching
diode and tunneling diode behavior at room temperature.
Organic memory devices with a triple-layer structure sandwiched between
two outer metal electrodes have been reported.143 The active layer of the
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 17

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Scheme 1.2 Chemical
 structures of several typical D–A small molecules reported
for binary data-storage devices.

organic bistable device consists of a 2-amino-4,5-imidazoledicarbonitrile

(AIDCN)/Al/AIDCN trilayer structure interposed between an anode and a
cathode. This device has two distinctive states of conductivity that can be
achieved by applying voltage pulses with different polarities. This memory
device is non-volatile and rewritable, with an ON/OFF ratio of more than 106.
The device demonstrates good rewritability characteristics during cycle test-
ing. More than one million write–read–erase cycles were performed on the
device without failure. When this organic bistable device is integrated with
an organic light-emitting diode, the device can be read out optically.144
Small organic molecules containing both an electron donor and an elec-
tron acceptor are an important type of material for organic electronic mem-
ory devices. As shown in Scheme 1.2, a number of conjugated D–A molecules
have been investigated as electrically active materials in binary devices. The
triphenylamine-containing D–A molecule (BDOYM) was designed to improve
the intrinsic storage performance.145 By using scanning tunneling micros-
copy (STM), stable, reliable, reversible data storage was demonstrated.
Subsequently, the effect of different D–A structures on the electronic
switching properties of triphenylamine-based molecules was investigated
(Figure 1.8).146 Based on different arrangements of the donor and acceptor
units, D–A molecules of two structural types, viz., D–π–A–π–D and A–π–D–
π–A were designed. Devices based on the D–π–A–π–D molecule exhibited
excellent write–read–erase characteristics with a high ON/OFF ratio of up to
106, while the device based on the A–π–D–π–A molecule exhibited irrevers-
ible switching behavior and a relatively low ON/OFF ratio. The arrangement
18 Chapter 1

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Figure 1.8  Chemical structures of D–A molecules, (b) macroscopic I–V charac-
(a)
teristics of ITO/TPDBCN/Al, (c) macroscopic I–V characteristics of ITO/
TPDYCN1/Al, (d) macroscopic I–V characteristics of ITO/TPDYCN2/Al,
and (e) comparison of the ON/OFF current ratio of (b) and (c). The inset
of (b) shows the device structure used for macroscopic I–V measure-
ments. Reproduced with permission from ref. 146, © 2010 WILEY-VCH
Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 19
of the donor and acceptor within the molecular backbone plays a key role in
the electrical memory behavior of devices.
Lu and coworkers reported a simple DRAM device based on SNACA where the
electron acceptor naphthalimide (NA) and electron donor carbazole (CA) were
linked by a hydrazone bond (Figure 1.9a).147 The electrical switching behavior
of a Pt/SNACA/Al device is demonstrated in Figure 1.9c. From theoretical cal-
culations, it was found that during the HOMO to LUMO transition, the elec-

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tron density underwent a minor shift from the electron donor to acceptor in
the SNACA backbone, resulting in poor stability of the ON state of the memory
device after removal of the electrical field, and thus leading to volatile DRAM
characteristics. To alter the distribution of electron density throughout the
molecular backbone and thereby tune the corresponding memory type of the
device, Lu et al. introduced a π-spacer pyridyl acetylene into the conjugated

Figure 1.9 
Molecular structures, and HOMO and LUMO energy levels of SNACA
(a) and CAPyNA (b); current–voltage (I–V) characteristics of the memory
device Pt/SNACA/Al (c) and ITO/CAPyNA/Al (d). Reproduced from ref.
147 and 148 with permission from The Royal Society of Chemistry.
20 Chapter 1

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Scheme 1.3 Chemical
 structures of several typical D–A small molecules reported
for ternary data-storage devices.

molecular skeleton to replace the original hydrazone bond between the carba-
zole unit and the naphthalimide moiety (Figure 1.9b and d).148
Small D–A molecules with multilevel stable states can lead to an increased
device capacity of 3n or larger. As illustrated in Scheme 1.3, a series of novel
small organic molecules have been designed and synthesized for ternary
data-storage devices.74–76,149–152 Figure 1.10a shows the I–V characteristics of an
ITO/DPKAZO/Al device.76 The device demonstrates typical non-volatile ternary
WORM memory behavior. As shown in Figure 1.10b, the I–V characteristics of
the ITO/FKAZO/Al device also exhibit non-volatile ternary WORM characteris-
tics. The two switching threshold voltages of FKAZO are markedly lower than
those of DPKAZO (−1.05 and −1.81 V compared to −1.50 and −2.61 V). The low
switching threshold voltages are due to the fact that FKAZO has a planar con-
formation (Figure 1.10c), which can generate a highly ordered arrangement
in the film and decrease the hole injection energy barrier. The charge carrier
transport process in the D–A molecule FKAZO (Figure 1.10d) was proposed to
explain the switching mechanism of the ternary memory device.
Song et al. reported a meta-conjugated donor–bridge–acceptor (DBA)
organic molecule for electronic multilevel storage.153 This DBA molecule is
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 21

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Figure 1.10 
Current–voltage (I–V) characteristics of (a) ITO/DPKAZO/Al device
and (b) ITO/FKAZO/Al device. (c) HOMO orbitals, LUMO orbitals, and
molecular electrostatic potential (ESP) of DPKAZO and FKAZO from
DFT calculations. DPKAZO is twisted and unsymmetrical. FKAZO is
planar and symmetrical. (d) Schematic diagram of the charge carrier
transport process in an FKAZO-based memory device. Reproduced
with permission from ref. 76, © 2012 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
KGaA, Weinheim.

exploited as the storage medium (Figure 1.11a) in which TPA acts as an elec-
tron donor and TCF acts as an electron acceptor. The D–A pair is separated by
a meta-conjugated bridge of a 2,7,12-trisubstituted truxene unit. As shown in
Figure 1.11b and c, the device with the structure of ITO/DBA/Al shows good
electrically bistable switching behavior between “0” (OFF) and “2” (HC-ON)
states in the dark, with a large ON/OFF ratio of more than 106. In cooperation
with UV light, a new “1” (LC-ON) state is addressable. This “1” state is “writ-
ten” from the “0” state, by a combination of UV light and a positive voltage
of +1.0 V, or from the “2” (HC-ON) state, by a combination of UV light and a
negative voltage of −3.4 V.
Certain organic materials and biomacromolecules possess great poten-
tial for application in biocompatible, low cost and disposable electronic
devices.154–156 Chen et al. used the sericin protein as the functional mate-
rial for the fabrication of flexible multilevel memory devices.154 Kundu
et al. reported the fabrication of transparent bio-memristor devices using
natural regenerated silk fibroin protein.155 As shown in Figure 1.12, by
sweeping the dc bias in 4 steps, the ITO/silk/Al device exhibits typical
pinch hysteresis-like I–V characteristics on a linear scale. The observed
22 Chapter 1

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Figure 1.11  Molecular structure of donor–bridge–acceptor compound (DBA).
(a)
Inset: schematic diagram of ITO/DBA/Al sandwich memory device. (b)
I–V characteristics of the memory device. (c) Schematic graph show-
ing the possible transitions and threshold voltage among three states.
Reproduced with permission from ref. 153, © 2012, American Chem-
ical Society.

Figure 1.12  characteristics of transparent bio-memristor devices with silk

I–V
fibroin protein. The corresponding schematic of the fabricated mem-
ristor device is shown in the upper inset. The equivalent circuit model
consisting of a rectifier in parallel with a memristor is shown in the
lower inset. Reproduced with permission from ref. 155, © 2012 WILEY-
VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 23
rectifying nature in the I–V characteristics suggests that the silk fibroin
can make a rectifier contact with either electrode. Thus the bipolar mem-
ristive switching with rectifying characteristics of the silk fibroin memris-
tor was demonstrated.

1.5.2 Polymeric Materials

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The molecular structure of polymeric materials can be tailored using elec-
tron donors and acceptors of different strengths, spacer moieties with dif-
ferent steric effects, and electroactive pendant groups to induce different
switching behaviors for electronic memory applications.

1.5.2.1 Functional Polyimides
Functional polyimides (PIs) are one of the most attractive polymeric materi-
als for organic electrical memory applications due to their good solution pro-
cessability, high thermal stability and mechanical strength.18 In functional
PIs, phthalimide acts as the electron acceptor, and electron donors (triphe-
nylamine or carbazole moieties) are introduced to form a D–A structure. An
electric field-induced CT state can be formed, which is the main mechanism
responsible for the memory behavior.157 Electronic memory devices based on
soluble PIs were first reported in 2006.59 As shown in Figure 1.13a, the func-
tional TP6F-PI contains triphenylamine as electron donor and phthalimide
as the acceptor. The hexafluoroisopropylidene (6F) group plays an important
role in increasing the solubility of the PIs due to its bulkiness and low surface
energy. TP6F-PI exhibited excellent thermal stability, with a 10% weight-loss

Figure 1.13  Molecular structure (top) of functional PI (TP6F-PI) and schematic

(a)
diagram (bottom) of single-layer memory device. (b) J–V character-
istics of a 0.16 mm2 Al/TP6F-PI/ITO device. The ON state was main-
tained by refreshing at 1 V every 5 s. Sweeps 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 8: 0 to
+4 V (with power off for 1 min for sweeps 6 and 7). Sweeps 3 and 4: 0
to −4 V. Reproduced with permission from ref. 59, © 2006, American
Chemical Society.
24 Chapter 1
temperature of 524 °C and a glass transition temperature of 316 °C. The Al/
TP6F-PI/ITO device exhibits dynamic random access memory (DRAM) behav-
ior with an ON/OFF current ratio of up to 105 (Figure 1.13b). Field-induced
charge transfer from triphenylamine to phthalimide is considered to domi-
nate the switching behavior. Since 2006, a large number of memory effects,
including volatile and non-volatile switching behavior, have been observed in
a number of functional PIs.158–167

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Flexible dual functional devices with multi-colored electrochromic and
volatile memory characteristics have been fabricated from a solution-
processable TPA-containing PI (Figure 1.14a).166 Introduction of highly
electron-donating starburst TPA moieties into the polymer main chain
not only stabilizes its radical cations but also leads to good solubility and

Figure 1.14 
(a) Design strategy for starburst triarylamine-based polyimide
9Ph-6FDA. (b) I–V characteristics, and (c) appearance in various bent
states, and variation of current and threshold voltage with different
bending radii of the ITO/9Ph-6FDA/Al flexible memory device. Repro-
duced with permission from ref. 166, © 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag
GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 25
film-formation properties of the PI. As shown by the I–V characteristics of
Figure 1.14b, the device can switch from the OFF state to the ON state during
the negative sweep. The fifth sweep was conducted after turning off the power
for about 3 min. It was found that the ON state had relaxed to the steady OFF
state without an erasing process. The device could be reprogrammed to the
ON state again at a threshold voltage of −3.6 V. Thus the ITO/9Ph-6FDA/Al
flexible memory device exhibits SRAM memory behavior. Reliable and repro-

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ducible switching memory behavior of this flexible memory device (Figure
1.14c) can be maintained under mechanical bending stress. Furthermore,
the polymer device showed electrochromism with a high contrast ratio, high
coloration efficiency, low switching time, and outstanding stability for long-
term electrochromic operation in both the visible and near-infrared regions.
Ree et al. reported the fabrication and operation of an electrically program-
mable non-volatile memory device based on a thermally and dimensionally
stable PI containing carbazole moieties (6F-HAB-CBZ PI).167 The fabricated
Al/6F-HAB-CBZ/Al devices exhibited excellent unipolar switching behavior,
and could be repeatedly written, read, and erased.

1.5.2.2 Non-Conjugated Polymers with Pendants

Non-conjugated polymers with pendent electroactive donors, acceptors and
chromophores are another kind of polymer material favorable for electronic
memory.168–172 Chen et al. developed D–A random copolymers P(VTPAx-
BOXDy) and P(CNVTPAxBOXDy) containing pendent electron-donating TPA
and electron-accepting 1,3,4-oxadiazole units for memory device applications
(Figure 1.15).66 The tunable switching behavior (SRAM or DRAM) was explored
by using different ratios of the pendent TPA donor and the BOXD acceptor.
Similarly, the electrical switching behavior based on pendent polymers con-
taining electron-donating carbozole units (VPK) and electron-withdrawing

Figure 1.15 
Donor–acceptor random copolymers with pendent triphenylamine
and 1,3,4-oxidazole for memory device applications. Reproduced with
permission from ref. 66, © 2011, American Chemical Society.
26 Chapter 1
oxadiazole-containing units (OXD or BOXD) can be tuned using the donor/
acceptor ratio or acceptor trapping ability.168 The electrical I–V character-
istics change between the diode, the volatile memory, and the insulator,
depending on the relative donor/acceptor ratios. The unstable ON state in
the P(VPK8OXD2) or P(VPK8BOXD2) device was due to shallow hole traps
with spontaneous back transfer of charge carriers when the electric field was
removed to produce volatile SRAM behavior.

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Novel random and block copolymers with controlled morphologies and
electrical properties have been developed to prevent aggregation and thus
improve the reproducibility and stability of memory devices.169,171 Lee
et al. synthesized D–A type block copolymers of poly(9-(4-vinylphenyl)­
carbazole)-b-poly(2-vinylpyridine) (denoted PVPCz-b-P2VP).169 By adjusting
the block ratios of PVPCz and P2VP, various morphologies, ranging from
spherical to lamellar, as well as different electrical behaviors including metal-
lic, bistable switching and insulating, were observed.
For the Disperse Red 1-functionalized PVK copolymer (PVDR), in which
carbazole entities serve as electron donors, and DR1 moieties serve as elec-
tron acceptors,68 both inter- and intrachain electron transfer can occur eas-
ily. PVDR nanoaggregates self-assemble via π–π stacking interactions of the
carbazole groups in the polymer system after adding a solution of PVDR in
N,N′-dimethylformamide (DMF) to dichloromethane (DCM). The ITO/PVDR/
Al device fabricated from the pre-assembled PVDR film exhibited a typical
WORM memory effect.
The use of azobenzene moieties as spacers between electron donor and
acceptor groups in the pendant chains of vinyl-based polymers has been
investigated.173–177 The reversibility of the ON state was found to be depen-
dent on the terminal moiety of the azobenzene chromophores.173 Polymers
with electron-accepting terminal moieties (–Br or –NO2) in the pendent
azobenzene exhibited WORM memory behavior, while those with electron-
donating terminal moieties (–OCH3) showed rewritable memory behavior.
The switching threshold voltage of the devices varied almost linearly with
the functional azobenzene moiety content in the copolymer, which was
attributed to the reduced energy barrier between the HOMO of the copo-
lymer film and the ITO work function.174 The ON/OFF ratios of the WORM
devices (104–106) were also higher than those of the rewritable devices
(103–104). Two poly(N-vinylcarbazole) derivatives with pendant donor–
trap–acceptor (D–T–A) structures, PVK-AZO-2CN and PVK-AZO-NO2, have
been prepared for memory devices.175,176 The Al/polymer/ITO devices all
exhibited WORM memory effects with a low switching threshold voltage
and a high ON/OFF current ratio, with the Al/PVK-AZO-2CN/ITO device with
stronger electron acceptors (2CN) exhibiting an even higher ON/OFF ratio.
The charge transfer and trapping processes were further stabilized by the
conformational relaxation of the total energy of the D–T–A system through
donor–acceptor electrostatic interaction. When the terminal acceptor moi-
eties were removed from the azobenzene chromophores, pure insulators
were obtained.
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 27

1.5.2.3 Conjugated Polymers
Considerable effort has been devoted to develop novel conjugated polymers
for information and communication technology.178–180 The incorporation of
different electron acceptors into conjugated polymer donors significantly
affects the memory properties, while the induced trapping environment or
charge transfer channel determines the volatility of the memory device.20
D–A type conjugated polymers (Scheme 1.4) have been utilized to fabricate

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different types of memory device, such as volatile DRAM and SRAM devices,
and non-volatile WORM and Flash devices.181–186 A device with the sandwich
structure ITO/PFOxPy/Al could write, read, erase and refresh its electronic
states, fulfilling the functionality of a DRAM device. Its memory behavior
was attributed to space charge and de-trapping effects.
A device based on a fluorene conjugated polymer with electron-accepting
oxidiazole (PCFO) exhibited WORM memory effects,67 with a switching
threshold voltage of −2.3 V and an ON/OFF current ratio of 105. Another
polyfluorene-based copolymer (PFTPACN) containing electron-rich TPA and
electron-poor cyano substituents on the side chain also exhibited typical
WORM memory characteristics.184 In addition, non-volatile rewritable mem-
ory behavior was observed in a device based on conjugated poly[9,9-bis(4-
diphenylaminophenyl)-2,7-fluorene] donors covalently bridged with Disperse
Red 1 acceptors (DR1-PDPAF-DR1).181
Conjugated polymers with good solution processability have been used
to fabricate flexible memory devices. A conjugated polymer with fluorene
and thiophene donors in the main chain and the phenanthro[9,10-d]-imid-
azole (PFT-PI) acceptor in the side chain was employed as the active layer
for a flexible device.183 The fabricated PEN/Al/PFT-PI/Al flexible device exhib-
ited non-volatile rewritable memory behavior. The J–V characteristics did
not change significantly before and after continuous bending stress. Subse-
quently, the tunable electrical switching characteristics of the vinylene-based
conjugate polymers, PVC-PI, PVT-PI, and PVTPA-PI, consisting of different
donors of carbazole (C), thiophene (T) and triphenylamine (TPA) and the
acceptor phenanthro[9,10-d] imidazole (PI) were demonstrated.185 The donor
structure affects the polymer conformation, the D–A electrical interaction,
and the LUMO energy levels for stabilizing the charge separation. The PEN/Al/
PVC-PI/Al flexible device exhibited SRAM behavior while the PVTPA-PI device
exhibited WORM behavior. However, the PVT-PI device only exhibited diode-
like electrical behavior. The PVC-PI and PVTPA-PI flexible memory devices
could operate at low voltages (less than <2.5 V) with high ON/OFF current
ratios (>104) and exhibited excellent durability in repeated bending tests.
Benzodithiophene (BDT)-based conjugated polymers that exhibit good
performance in both organic field-effect transistors and solar cells have also
been used in polymer memory.186 A series of BDT-based D–D and D–A con-
jugated polymers have been prepared (Figure 1.16). Reliable and reproduc-
ible WORM memory properties were demonstrated in ITO/CPs/Al flexible
memory devices. Conjugated polymers with different backbones and side
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Scheme 1.4 Chemical

 structures of some D–A type conjugated polymers for mem-
ory devices.

chains exhibited different stabilities of their charge-separated states. Con-

jugated polyelectrolytes,187 poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene-
sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS)188,189 and doped conjugated polymers73,190 have also
been used as switching media for flexible devices. McCreery et al. fabricated
redox-based polymer memristors using polythiophene as the electroactive
component and ethylviologen perchlorate as the redox counter-electrode
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Organic Electronic Memory Devices
Figure 1.16  Chemical structures of BDT-based conjugated polymers, (b) configuration of flexible memory device. (c) I–V characteris­
(a)
tics of ITO/CP2/Al memory device. (d) I–V characteristics of ITO/CP4/Al memory device. Reproduced from ref. 186 with

29
permission from The Royal Society of Chemistry.
30 Chapter 1
190
material. The devices exhibited switching immediately after fabrication
and did not require the “electroforming” step required in many types of
memory device. The conductivity of the polythiophene layer could be revers-
ibly switched between high and low conductance states with a “write–erase”
(W–E) bias, with only minor degradation of response after 200 W–E cycles.
A poly(Schiff base) is a conjugated polymer with imine groups (C=N) in its
backbone. Li et al. fabricated an organic resistive switching memory device

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based on protonic-acid-doped polyazomethine (PA-TsOH).73 The resistance
of this memory device can be controlled gradually and exactly via manipula-
tion of the doping level of the PA:TsOH system. The uniformity in the device
performance is superior to that reported for RRAM devices, suggesting that
controllable protonic doping is an effective way to optimize the uniformity
of the resistive switching behavior. By applying different RESET voltages to
the Pt/PA-TsOH/Pt devices, the memory device can be programmed into four
resistive states consecutively for more than 700 switching cycles, increasing
the data storage capacity exponentially.

1.5.2.4 Polymers Chemically Modified with

Fullerenes or Graphene
Carbon nanomaterials such as fullerenes, graphene and their derivatives
have exhibited good performance in optoelectronic devices. PVK with cova-
lently attached fullerene (PVK–C60),58 in which the carbazole group serves as
the electron donor and hole-transporting moiety, and C60 serves as the elec-
tron acceptor, has been synthesized. The fabricated ITO/PVK–C60/Al device
exhibited non-volatile rewritable memory behavior. Ree et al. also attached
a fullerene acceptor covalently to a carbazole containing polymer in a con-
trolled manner.191 With C60 acting as a charge trap, poly(2-(N-carbazolyl)
ethyl methacrylate) end-capped with fullerene (PCzMA-C60) exhibited both
bipolar and unipolar rewritable memory characteristics. By introducing 10
wt% PCBM into poly-4-methoxytriphenylamine,61 Liou et al. demonstrated
a WORM memory device with lower switching-ON voltage (0.9 V) and much
higher ON/OFF ratio (109) than those of the blended composites.
Chemical functionalization also plays a key role in tailoring the struc-
ture, processability, and physicochemical and electronic properties of GO
nanosheets. By using the “grafting to” or “grafting from” method, a variety
of electroactive polymers have been covalently incorporated onto the surface
as well as the edge of GO nanosheets to fabricate graphene-based polymer
memory devices.113–115,192–195 Triphenylamine (TPA)-based conjugated polya-
zomethine, covalently grafted to GO (TPAPAM–GO),113 has been used directly
for fabricating memory devices (Figure 1.17). With efficient hole injection,
high carrier mobilities and the low ionization potential of the TPAPAM poly-
mer chains, the devices exhibited bistable electrical switching and non-vola-
tile rewritable memory effects, with a small switch-on voltage of about −1 V
and an ON/OFF current ratio of more than 103. The CT state of TPAPAM–GO is
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 31

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Figure 1.17 
(a) Molecular structure of conjugated polymer functionalized
graphene oxide TPAPAM–GO; (b) J–V characteristics of Al/TPAPAM–
GO/ITO device. Reproduced with permission from ref. 113, © 2010
WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

effectively stabilized by electron delocalization in the graphene nanosheets,

which leads to the non-volatile nature of the memory device.
A PANI-functionalized GO derivative (GO–PANI) was prepared via in-situ
oxidative graft polymerization of aniline on GO nanosheets.195 After grow-
ing PANI from the surface of GO, spindle-shaped PANI nanofibers with large
length-to-diameter ratios appear to surround the GO nanosheets and act as
a tunneling barrier for electrons moving from one GO sheet to another. The
Al/GO–PANI/ITO device exhibited typical bistable electrical switching and
non-volatile rewritable memory effects, which can be attributed to electric
field-induced charge transfer between the PANI chains and the GO sheets.
Covalent functionalization of GO with electroactive polymers is thus an effec-
tive and versatile approach to tuning the electronic properties of GO. In addi-
tion, the conductance of PANI can be further manipulated by ionic doping
with mineral as well as organic acids, demonstrating great potential for the
development of novel ionic electronics.

1.5.2.5 Polymers Containing Metal Complexes

When introduced into polymer backbones or pendants, the electrical affinity
of transition-metal complexes can improve the stability of conductive states,
and their reversible redox properties can make a polymer memory device
more suitable for practical applications.196 Among various transition-metal
complexes, ferrocene (Fe2+) is of particular interest because of its well-studied
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Figure 1.18  Chemical structure of the ferrocene containing polymer, PFT2-Fc.
(a)
(b) I–V characteristics of PFT2-Fc device. (c) Postulated mechanism for
memory behavior. Reproduced with permission from ref. 197, © 2007,
American Chemical Society.

reversible redox behavior, and its stable oxidized form ferrocenium (Fe3+),
which renders the possibility of non-volatility for memory applications.
Choi et al. synthesized a new conjugated polymer (PFT2-Fc) with redox-active
functionality, ferrocene, in the polymer main chain (Figure 1.18).197 The fab-
ricated Al/LiF/PFT2-Fc/ITO device exhibited non-volatile rewritable memory
behavior. Its switching mechanism involves ferrocene acting as a voltage-
dependent in-situ dopant during the redox process to result in the enhance-
ment of conductivity of the polymer film.
Ling et al. coupled 1.3 mol% of a rare-earth metal complex (Eu-complex)
with a carbazole donor to synthesize the D–A type functional copolymers,
PKEu (Scheme 1.5).112 The as-fabricated transparent and uniform film
avoided the phenomena of ion aggregation and phase separation commonly
found in mixed or doped systems. The Al/PKEu/ITO device exhibited non-
volatile rewritable memory behavior with an ON/OFF ratio as high as 104.
Transient current density versus time measurements indicated that the device
transition occurred in less than 20 µs. They further introduced 1,3,4-oxadi-
azole moieties (electron acceptors) into the polymer chains, to obtain a new
triblock copolymer, PCzOxEu.198 The device based on PCzOxEu exhibited
much better rewritable memory performance, with an ON/OFF current ratio
up to 105, a switching response time of ∼1.5 µs, more than 106 read cycles and
a retention time of more than 8 h.
Non-volatile flash memory devices using polyfluorenes containing Ir(iii)
complexes in the main chain (iamP1–iamP3) as the active material have
been reported.60 The fluorene moieties act as electron donors and the Ir(iii)
complex units as the electron acceptors. Charge transfer and traps in the
polymers are probably responsible for the conductance-switching behavior
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 33

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Scheme 1.5 Chemical

 structures of some polymers containing metal complexes
for memory devices.

and the memory effect. Polycarbazole and polyfluorene containing cationic

Ir(iii) complexes in their side chains also exhibited electrical bistability, and
non-volatile flash memory devices based on them have been realized.199 Poly-
mer iamP6 comprises flexible spacers (O=C–O–C–C units) bridging the elec-
troactive pendent chromophore carbazoles to permit conformational change
under an electric field and a donor–acceptor system containing carbazole as
donor and an Ir(iii) complex as acceptor to permit charge transfer. The ITO/
iamP6/Al device exhibited excellent ternary memory performance, including
low reading, writing and erasing voltages, and good stability for the three
states.
Higuchi et al. studied the memory behavior of a Co(iii)-containing con-
jugated (CP) and non-conjugated polymer (NCP) with an azo-aromatic
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Figure 1.19  Chemical structure of the Co(iii) polymer of an azo aromatic ligand;
(a)
(b) I–V characteristics of the CP device. Reproduced with permission
from ref. 79, © 2011, American Chemical Society.

backbone (Figure 1.19).79 The I–V characteristics of the CP device traced in

the voltage range ±5 V showed the current to jump from the initial low level
to a high level at −5 V, as well as another jump from the high level to the
initial level at +5 V. This bistable behavior with a “pinch-off” in the I–V char-
acteristics is a typical feature of a memristive device. The CP device could be
operated at different voltage levels with different current responses, there-
fore providing multilevel storage capability to replace the existing binary
computing devices.

1.5.3 Organic–Inorganic Hybrid Materials

Generally, organic–inorganic hybrid materials are composed of organic lay-
ers containing fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, graphene, metal nanoparticles,
semiconductor nanoparticles or inorganic quantum dots (QDs).

1.5.3.1 Organic–Carbon Allotrope Hybrid Materials

Fullerene and its derivatives possess high electron-withdrawing ability,
and are able to capture up to six electrons. For organic electronic memory
applications, they have been widely used as electron acceptors to form CT
complexes with polymer-containing electron donors, such as thiophene, flu-
orene, carbazole and aniline derivatives.200–204 A hybrid material-based elec-
trical memory device with the configuration rGO/P3HT:PCBM/Al exhibited
electrically bistable behavior and the WORM memory effect, with an ON/OFF
ratio of more than 104.200 The memory effect was attributed to the polariza-
tion of PCBM domains and the formation of a localized internal electrical
field among the adjacent domains.
Chen et al. reported the fabrication of a memory device with the
structure of poly[4-(9,9-dihexylfloren-2-yl)styrene]-block-poly(2-vinylpyridine)
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 35
(P(St-Fl)-b-P2V):PCBM composites sandwiched between the top Al elec-
trode and the bottom ITO electrode.201 The switching mechanism could be
explained by a charge injection dominated thermionic emission model (OFF
state) and a charge transfer dominated Poole–Frenkel (PF) emission model
(ON state).
In the absence of electron donor moieties in hybrid materials, C60 mole-
cules can be used as the charge storage medium.205–208 By simply changing

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the concentration of C60 in the insulating polystyrene (PS) matrix, the device
with the structure Al/PS:C60/Al exhibits three distinctly different electrical
behaviors, namely a true insulator (C60%(wt) = 1.0–5.0%), a rewritable mem-
ory device (C60%(wt) = 5.0–7.5%) with an ON/OFF current ratio larger than 104
and a WORM type memory device (C60%(wt) = 7.5–20%). Memory effects have
also been observed in a memory device with C60 molecules dispersed in a
poly(vinyl phenol) (PVP) matrix. This simple device exhibits distinct electrical
hysteresis with low and high conductivity states. Charge transfer and reten-
tion in the C60 molecules are proposed to account for the electrical switching.
Polyimide (PI) has been used as a dielectric and mechanical-support
material in the electronics industry due to its thermal stability, good chem-
ical resistance, and excellent mechanical properties. Kim et al. fabricated
organic non-volatile memory devices on PET flexible substrates using PI:P-
CBM hybrid materials as active layers.209 These flexible memory devices
showed successful rewritable switching properties even under bent condi-
tions. Three-dimensional (3D) stacking of memory devices provides a way to
achieve a great increase in memory cell density. A 3D-stacked 8 × 8 cross-bar
array of polymer resistive memory devices with the PI:PCBM hybrid material
as the memory element has been fabricated using a spin-coating process.210
The memory cells in each layer exhibited excellent non-volatile memory per-
formance, and they can be independently written, read and erased with a
high ON/OFF ratio, good endurance and good retention capability.
Organic/polymer:PCBM hybrid materials have been integrated into one
diode–one resistor (1D–1R) arrays to demonstrate practical implementation
of organic memory.211,212 For instance, Kim et al. reported the first 64-bit
organic flexible memory cell array in a 1D–1R architecture with photo-
patternable hybrid memory (PS:PCBM) and diode (P3HT) systems.212
Figure 1.20 shows the integrated structure of the PEN/Al/PS:PCBM/Al/P3HT/
Au/Al 1D–1R cell. A P3HT/Bis-FB-N3 solution was chosen as the diode mate-
rial, and a PS/PCBM/Bis-FB-N3 mixture was used for the unipolar memory
component. The 1D–1R cell array can avoid cross-talk problems and encode
letters based on the standard ASCII character code.
Controllable electrical conductance switching and non-volatile mem-
ory effects have been observed in Al/PVK–CNT/ITO sandwich structures.57
Unique device behavior, including (i) insulator behavior, (ii) bistable electri-
cal conductance switching effects (rewritable memory and WORM memory
effects), and (iii) conductor behavior, can be realized in an ITO/PVK–CNT/
Al sandwich structure by increasing the CNT content in the PVK–CNT com-
posite film. The turn-on voltage of the bistable devices decreased with the
increase in CNT content of the composite film.
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Figure 1.20  Illustration of as-fabricated 1D–1R organic resistive memory cell
(a)
array on a flexible PEN substrate and (b) optical image. Scale bar: 5 mm.
(c) Schematic of unit cell of 1D–1R cell (Al/PS:PCBM/Al/P3HT/Au/Al).
(d) Chemical structure of P3HT and Bis-FB-N3 for ultraviolet pattern-
able diode layer. (e) Chemical structure of PS, PCBM and Bis-FB-N3
for ultraviolet patternable memory layer. Reproduced with permission
from ref. 212, © 2013, Rights Managed by Nature Publishing Group.

Park et al. developed resistive-type non-volatile polymer memory devices

for high temperature operation using hybrid nanocomposites of the con-
jugated block copolymer poly(styrene-block-paraphenylene) (PS-b-PPP) and
single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) by simple solution blending.213
With certain SWNT concentration regimes, the nanocomposites exhibited
bipolar non-volatile rewritable memory characteristics. High temperature
operation of the device was realized at up to 100 °C without significant deg-
radation of the memory performance.
Kim et al. fabricated mechanically flexible, multilevel switching resis-
tive memory by solution casting of PS–chemically-doped multiwalled CNT
composites.214 The controlled work function and high dispersibility of the
substitutionally doped CNTs significantly improved the resistive memory
performance of the PS:CNT composite devices. As shown in Figure 1.21,
devices consisting of quadruple layers of Al/PS:BCNT/PS:NCNT/Al were
prepared on polyimide substrates (BCNT = boron-doped CNT, NCNT =
nitrogen-doped CNT). The flexible device with a quadruple layer exhibited
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 37

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Figure 1.21  A schematic illustration of the fabrication process of a multistate
(a)
resistive memory device. (b) I–V and (c) retention characteristics of
multistate devices. Reproduced with permission from ref. 214, © 2012,
American Chemical Society.

stable triple state memory characteristics (i.e., low resistance state (LRS),
high resistance state (HRS) and interstate (IRS)), unlike triple layer devices
consisting of Al/PS:BCNT or PS:NCNT/Al. The ON/OFF ratios for LRS/IRS
and IRS/HRS were 50 and 15, respectively. The switching mechanism of the
CNT:PS composite memory devices follows a charge storage mechanism by
trapping and de-trapping.
Graphene nanosheets have been of particular interest for application in
organic–inorganic hybrid material-based memory devices.215–221 Figure 1.22
shows a schematic structure of the hydrogen bonding between poly(styrene-
block-4-vinylpyridine) (PS-b-P4VP) and GO sheets.217 The ITO/PS-b-P4VP:7
wt% GO composite/Al device exhibits a WORM memory effect with an ON/
OFF ratio of 105 at −1.0 V. The switching mechanism was attributed to the
38 Chapter 1

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Figure 1.22  Schematic structures of PS-b-P4VP and GO composites. (b) I–V
(a)
characteristics of a 7 wt% GO composite device. Reproduced from
ref. 217 with permission from The Royal Society of Chemistry.

charge trapping environment operating across the PS-b-P4VP/GO interface

and due to the GO intrinsic defects. Controlling the physical interaction of
the copolymers and functional GO nanosheets can generate a well-dispersed
charge storage composite device for future flexible information technology.
An interconnected, one-dimensional/two-dimensional lamellar film
was produced through encapsulation of self-assembled tetracene-derived
organic wires by GO nanosheets.215 By combining the hole transporting abil-
ity of the p-type tetracene semiconductor and the charge trapping properties
of GO, the memory devices exhibited reproducible and non-volatile electrical
bistability. Zhang et al. demonstrated resistive memory effects in a device
with the structure ITO/PVK:graphene/Al.218 Devices with 2 wt% graphene
in the composite exhibited the WORM memory effect, while devices with 4
wt% graphene showed rewritable memory effects. The conductance switch-
ing effects of the composites can be attributed to electron trapping in the
graphene nanosheets of the electron-donating/hole-transporting PVK matrix.
Figure 1.23 shows a schematic diagram of an Al/polymer/graphene/poly-
mer/ITO memory device, which was fabricated by laminating two glass sub-
strates coated with patterned electrodes and spacers.216 Devices based on the
Al/PS/graphene/PS/ITO sandwich structure exhibit WORM memory behav-
ior, while devices with the structure Al/PVK/graphene/PVK/ITO show vola-
tile memory behavior. The distinct electrical behavior of the two devices is
probably related to the different depths of charge traps formed between the
graphene sheets and polymer matrix, and provides a new route to tailor the
memory effects of hybrid bistable devices.
Li et al. systematically investigated the rewritable memory effects of devices
based on polyimide (PI) and graphene oxide (GO) with the structure Ag/PI/
GO:PI/PI/ITO.220 The stacked layer structure for the GO–PI film indicates that
the GO nanosheets are well-packed during the spin coating process. The I–V
curves for the as-fabricated device exhibit multilevel resistive-switching prop-
erties under various reset voltages. Multilevel conduction states arose from
the varying filling degrees of traps in the active layer at different reset bias.
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 39

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Figure 1.23 
Schematic diagram of hybrid bistable memory devices fabricated uti-
lizing graphene sheets sandwiched between polymer layers. Repro-
duced with permission from ref. 216, © 2011 Elsevier B.V.

1.5.3.2 Organic–Inorganic Nanocomposites
Hybrid electronic memory devices have been reported in some organic
composites containing metal nanoparticles (NPs), quantum dots (QDs) and
metal oxide NPs.222–227 Yang et al. fabricated a memory device with the struc-
ture of a Au NP and 8-hydroxyquinoline-containing PS film sandwiched
between two metal electrodes.8 Electronic transitions were attributed to
electric field-induced charge transfer between the Au NPs and 8-hydroxy-
quinoline. Au NPs can also be introduced into electroactive polymers such
as P3HT,54 PANI224 and PVK226 to realize memory behavior. A rewritable
memory effect was demonstrated in a hybrid memory device with an active
layer consisting of P3HT and Au NPs capped with 1-dodecanethiol sand-
wiched between two metal electrodes.54 The device was fabricated through a
simple solution processing technique and exhibited remarkable electrically
bistable behavior.
In such electroactive polymer–metal nanoparticles hybrid systems,
the electroactive polymers usually act as electron donors while the metal
nanoparticles act as electron acceptors; the electrical bistability is related to
electric field-induced charge transfer between the two components. Thus,
the compatibility of the two components is crucial for optimal device perfor-
mance. Yang et al. reported a non-volatile rewritable memory device based on
polyaniline (PANI) nanofibers decorated with Au NPs.55 The active polymer
layer was created by growing nanometer sized gold particles within the PANI
nanofibers using a redox reaction with chloroauric acid. The solution synthe-
ses of PANI nanofibers with different sizes of autoreduced Au NPs were also
investigated and the relationship between Au NP size and bistable memory
response was evaluated (Figure 1.24).224 The performance of devices made
from four different solutions, with the Au NPs in four distinct size ranges is
shown in Figure 1.24g.
Metal NP–polymer hybrids have also been used in organic polymer
floating-gate transistor memory.82,85 Organic memory devices consisting
of P3HT electrospun nanofiber transistors functionalized with surface-
modified Au NPs have been reported.82 Figure 1.25 illustrates a prototypical
40 Chapter 1

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Figure 1.24 
TEM images of autoreduced gold nanoparticles of (a) <1, (b) 2, (c) 6,
and (d) >20 nm grown on polyaniline nanofibers. (e) Schematic struc-
ture of PANI-nanofiber/Au NP material after application of +3 V. An
increase in charge transfer from PANI to the Au NPs is believed to
occur. (f) The structure of the PANI nanofiber/Au NP bistable mem-
ory device. (g) Characteristic I–V scans for autoreduced Au NPs/PANI
nanofiber hybrid memory devices. Reproduced with permission from
ref. 224, © 2011, American Chemical Society.

electrospun P3HT:Au hybrid nanofiber-based transistor memory device on

a PEN substrate with a bottom-gate top-contact configuration using ther-
mally evaporated Au as back gate. The device remains reliable and stable
even under bending conditions (radius: 5–30 mm) or after 1000 repetitive
bending cycles. The high performance P3HT:Au hybrid nanofiber-based
transistor memory devices allow their integration in future flexible logic
circuits.
Other kinds of inorganic nanomaterials, such as ZnO, TiO2 and MoS2,
have also been introduced into the organic polymer layer for hybrid memory
devices. For instance, Kim and co-workers investigated the electrical prop-
erties and carrier transport mechanisms of memory devices fabricated by
utilizing ZnO NPs embedded in PVK or PMMA layers as active materials.223,225
Kim et al. fabricated an 8 × 8 array structured device using TiO2 NPs embed-
ded in a PVK film.228 By varying the concentration of TiO2 NPs, the ON/OFF
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 41

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Figure 1.25  Schematic configuration of hybrid nanofiber-based transistor mem-

(a)
ory devices, chemical structures of P3HT and surface-modified Au
NPs, and representative plan-view TEM measurements of a P3HT:Au
hybrid nanofiber. (b) Plot of Ids1/2 versus VG curves of the P3HT:Au
NP nanofiber-based transistor memory devices (programmed state:
VG = −5 V, 1 ms; erased state: VG = 5 V, 1 ms; at a fixed VD = −5 V). Repro-
duced with permission from ref. 82, © 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH
& Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
42 Chapter 1
ratio of the devices could be modulated. More recently, Liou et al. fabricated
memory devices using hydroxy-containing fluorene-based polyimide hybrids
with tunable TiO2 contents.229 The hybrid memory devices with different
TiO2 concentrations from 0 wt% to 50 wt% exhibited tunable memory prop-
erties from DRAM to SRAM to WORM with an ON/OFF current ratio as high
as 108. The unique energy level and quantum confinement effects also render
MoS2 as a charge trapping component for memory applications. Zhang et al.

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developed a facile method for exfoliation and dispersion of MoS2 with the
aid of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP).230 The flexible device fabricated by a solu-
tion processing technique with the configuration rGO/PVP:MoS2/Al exhibited
electrical bistability and a non-volatile rewritable memory effect.
Yolk–shell type nanospheres, consisting of a movable Au nanocore in the
hollow cavity of a hairy electroactive polymer shell (Au@air@PTEMA-g-P3HT
hybrid nanorattles, PTEMA = poly(2-(thiophen-3-yl)ethyl methacrylate), P3HT =
poly(3-hexylthiophene)) can be readily dispersed in toluene and uniformly
integrated into polystyrene (PS) thin films (Figure 1.26).231 By controlling
the nanorattle content in the composite film, the corresponding devices are
capable of exhibiting unique device behaviors, including insulating behavior
(with 5 wt% nanorattles), WORM (with 10 wt% nanorattles) and rewritable
memory effects (with 25 wt% nanorattles), and conductive behavior (with
50 wt% nanorattles). In the structure of the Au@air@PTEMA-g-P3HT hybrid
nanorattles, the PTEMA-g-P3HT shell can act as an electron donor, with the
Au nanocore as an electron acceptor. The switching mechanism of the hybrid
devices can probably be attributed to electric field-induced charge transfer
from the P3HT shell to the Au nanocore.
Kim et al. investigated the electrical bistability and operating mechanism
of an organic–inorganic hybrid device consisting of CdSe–ZnS core–shell
nanoparticles embedded in a PVK layer.232 The devices exhibited non-volatile
electrically bistable behavior. Similar electrical behavior was also observed in
memory devices involving CuInS2(CIS)–ZnS core–shell type QDs blended with
a PVK layer.233 Pal et al. investigated the bistability of a memory device based
on core–shell CdS:PB (phloxine B) hybrid nanoparticles.234 The device based
on core–shell nanoparticles exhibited a higher ON/OFF ratio and a lower
switching threshold voltage than those based on the individual components.

1.6 Conclusions and Outlook

Research on novel memory materials, device structures and mechanisms is
currently at a rapid growth stage, since it is recognized that organic-based
electrical memory devices may be an alternative or supplemental technol-
ogy to the conventional memory technologies facing the problem of minia-
turization from micro- to nanoscale. By using organic/polymeric materials
as storage media, flexible and miniaturized memory devices with simple
structure can be fabricated with particular ease through solution processing.
More importantly, the electronic properties of organic/polymeric materials,
and thus the device performance, can be tailored through molecular design
cum chemical synthesis. This chapter provided an introduction to the basic
Organic Electronic Memory Devices 43

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Figure 1.26  A schematic diagram of the Al/Au@air@PTEMA-g-P3HT+PS/ITO

(a)
switching device. (b) Typical I–V characteristics of the devices with differ-
ent weight ratios of Au@air@PTEMA-g-P3HT nanorattles. Reproduced
from ref. 231 with permission from The Royal Society of Chemistry.

concepts, history, device structures and switching effects associated with

organic/polymer memory, and systematically summarized recent advances
in organic/polymer memory materials and device performance.
Although significant advances have been made in the field of organic/poly-
mer electronic memory over the past decade, it is still at the early stage of
development in comparison to commercially viable inorganic devices. The
44 Chapter 1
immediate challenges facing organic electronic memory devices are the fab-
rication of organic thin film devices with reproducible switching and trans-
port properties, and their integration into addressable memory arrays. The
relationships among the materials structure, device parameters and elec-
trical transition phenomena should be further explored to understand the
solid-state physics and electronics. Refinements in materials design and
preparation methods, and improvements in device fabrication, characteri-

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zation and integration techniques will be needed to advance organic mem-
ory technology. In spite of the great challenges faced by memory devices,
organic/polymer electronic memory proves to be one of the most promising
electronic technologies of the 21st century.

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