Module-1

1.1 Introduction of Materials Science and Engineering

Materials Science – Investigating relationships that exist between the structure and properties of
materials.
Materials Engineering – On the basis of these structure-property correlations, designing or
engineering the structure of a material to produce a pre-determined set of properties.

1.1.1 Structure
Structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal components.

 Subatomic - Structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions
with their nuclei.
 Atomic level- structure encompasses the organization of atoms or molecules relative to
one another.
 Microscopic – Which contains large groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated
together.
 Macroscopic – Viewable with the naked eye.

1.1.2 Property
A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a specific
imposed stimulus. Properties are made independent of material shape and size.
Example-

 A specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation,

 A polished metal surface will reflect light.

Properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different categories: (1) mechanical,
(2) electrical, (3) thermal, (4) magnetic, (5) optical and (6) deteriorative.

The four components of the discipline of materials science and engineering and their
interrelationship.

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1.1.3 Classification of Materials
Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications:
(1) metals, (2) ceramics, and (3) polymers.
1.1.3.1 Metals
 Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as iron,
aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (for
example, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts.
 Atoms in metals and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner.
 In comparison to the ceramics and polymers, are relatively dense.
 Mechanical Property- relatively stiff and strong , ductile (i.e., capable of large amounts
of deformation without fracture), and are resistant to fracture.
 Metallic materials have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons; that is, these electrons
are not bound to particular atoms.Many properties of metals are directly attributable to
these electrons.
 Example, metals are extremely good conductors of electricity,and heat, and are not
transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance.
 Some of the metals (viz., Fe, Co, and Ni) have desirable magnetic properties.

1.1.3.2 Ceramics
 Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides.
 Examples-aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2),silicon
carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4).
 Examples of traditional ceramics — clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), cement, and glass.
Properties-
 Relatively stiff and strong—stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to those of the
metals , very hard, extremely brittle (lack ductility),.highly susceptible to fracture.

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  Thermal and electrical Properties- Insulative to the passage of heat and electricity low
electrical conductivities and are more resistant to high temperatures
 Optical characteristics-Ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque.

1.1.3.3 Polymers
 Carbon-based compounds.
 Chain of H-C molecules. Each repeat unit of H-C is a monomer e.g. ethylene (C2H4),
Polyethylene – (–CH2 –CH2)n.
 Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials.
 Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen,
and other nonmetallic elements (viz. O, N, and Si).
 They have very large molecular structures, often chain-like in nature that have a
backbone of carbon atoms. Some of the common and familiar polymers are polyethylene
(PE), nylon, poly (vinyl chloride)(PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and
silicone rubber.

Properties
 Low densities, not as stiff nor as strong as ceramics and metals.
 Extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic).
 Relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large number of environments.
Limitations
 Tendency to soften and/or decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some
instances,limits their use.
 Low electrical conductivities and are nonmagnetic.
1.1.4 Composites
 A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the
categories discussed above—viz., metals, ceramics, and polymers.
 Objective-to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by any single
material
Examples
 Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)

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  Plastic molding compounds containing fillers
 Rubber mixed with carbon black
 Wood (a natural composite as distinguished from a synthesized composite)

1.1.5 Advance Materials

 Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes
termed advanced materials.

Examples
 Include electronic equipment (camcorders, CD/DVD players, etc.), computers, fiber-optic
systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), and
fiber optics.
 These advanced materials may be typically traditional materials types (e.g., metals,
ceramics, polymers) whose properties have been enhanced, and, also newly developed,
high-performance materials.
 Advanced materials include semiconductors, biomaterials, and what we may term“
materials of the future.

1.1.6 Biomaterials
 Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body for
replacement of diseased or damaged body parts.
 These materials must not produce toxic substances and must be compatible with body
tissues (i.e., must not cause adverse biological reactions).
 All of the above materials—metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and
semiconductors—may be used as biomaterials.
Example-
Titanium and its alloy, Co-Cr alloy, stainless steel, zirconia, HA, TiO2 etc.

1.1.7 Semiconductors

 Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical
conductors (viz. metals and metal alloys) and insulators (viz. ceramics and polymers).

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  The electrical characteristics of these materials are extremely sensitive to the presence of
minute concentrations of impurity atoms, for which the concentrations may be controlled
over very small spatial regions.
 Semiconductors have made possible the advent of integrated circuitry that has totally
revolutionized the electronics and computer industries (not to mention our lives) over the
past three decades.

1.1.8 The Materials Selection Process

 Pick Application and determine required Properties.

 Properties: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, deteriorative.
 Properties- Identify candidate Material(s)
 Material: structure, composition.
 Material- Identify required Processing
 Processing: changes structure and overall shape

Example: casting, sintering, vapor deposition, doping forming, joining, annealing.

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 1.2 Defects in Solids

 The term “defect” or “imperfection” is generally used to describe any deviation from the
perfect periodic array of atoms in the crystal.
 The properties of some materials are extremely influenced by the presence of
imperfections such as mechanical strength, ductility, crystal growth, magnetic hysteresis,
dielectric strength, condition in semiconductors, which are termed structure sensitive are
greatly affected by the-relatively minor changes in crystal structure caused by defects or
imperfections.
 There are some properties of materials such as stiffness, density and electrical
conductivity which are termed structure-insensitive, are not affected by the presence of
defects in crystals.
 It is important to have knowledge about the types of imperfections that exist and the roles
they play in affecting the behavior of materials.
 Crystal imperfections can be classified on the basis of their geometry as

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1.2.1 Point Defects in Metals

It is a zero dimension defect, associated with one or two atomic positions.

(a) Vacancies -The simplest of the point defects is a vacancy, or vacant lattice site, one
normally occupied from which an atom is missing. All crystalline solids contain
vacancies and, in fact, it is not possible to create such a material that is free of these
defects, vacant atomic sites in a structure.

(b) Self-Interstitials- when an atom occupies an interstitial site where no atom would
ordinarily appear, causing an interstitialcy.

1.2.2 Point Defects in Ceramics

(a) Vacancies- vacancies exist in ceramics for both cations and anions.

(b) Interstitials - interstitials exist for cations, interstitials are not normally observed for anions
because anions are large relative to the interstitial sites.

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(c) Frenkel Defect
To maintain the charge neutrality, a cation vacancy-cation interstitial pair occur together.
This is called a Frenkel defect. The cation leaves its normal position and moves to the
interstitial site. There is no change in charge because the cation maintains the same positive
charge as an interstitial.
(d) Schottky Defect
A cation vacancy–anion vacancy pair known as a Schottky defect. To maintain the
charge neutrality, remove one cation and one anion; this creates two vacancies.

1.2.3 Equilibrium number of vacancies

The equilibrium number of vacancies for a given quantity of material depends on and
increases with temperature according to

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 Where, N is the total number of atomic sites, Qv is the energy required for the formation
of a vacancy, T is the absolute temperature in kelvins, and k is the gas or Boltzmann’s constant.
1.38 x 10-23 J/atom-K.

Equilibrium Concentration:
∆

Problem

1. Find the equilibrium concentration of vacancies in aluminium and nickel at 0K, 300 K and
900K. Given Hf= 68 103 KJ /mol.

Solution-

(i) at 0K

68 10 ∆
ex p ∞ 0
8.314 0

(ii) at 300 K
68 10 ∆
ex p 27.26 1.45 10
8.314 300

2. Calculate the equilibrium number of vacancies per cubic meter for copper at 1000oC. The
energy for vacancy formation is 0.9 eV/atom; the atomic weight and density (at 1000oC) for
copper are 63.5 g/mol and 8.4 g/cm3, respectively.
Solution-
The value of N, the number of atomic sites per cubic meter for copper, from its atomic
weight its density and Avogadro’s number according to

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 10
6.023 8.4 10
63.5 /
=8.0 1028 atoms/m3
Thus, the number of vacancies at 1000oC (1273K) is equal to
atoms 0.9 eV
N 8.0 10 exp
m 8.62 10 eV/K 1273K
= 2.2 1025 vacancies/m3

1.2.4 Effect of point imperfections

 The presence of a point imperfection introduces distortions in the crystal.
 In the case of impurity atom, because of its difference in size, elastic strains are
created in the regions surrounding the impurity atom.
 All these factors tend to increase the potential energy of the crystal called ‘enthalpy’.
The work done for the creation of such a point defect is called the ‘enthalpy of
formation’ of the point imperfection

1.2.5 Line Imperfections

 A dislocation is a linear or one-dimensional defect around which some of the atoms are
misaligned. The defects, which take place due to distortion of atoms along a line, in some
direction are called as ‘line defects,.Line defects are also called dislocations.
 It is responsible for the phenomenon of slip by which most metals deform plastically.

The two types of dislocations are,

(a) Edge dislocation

 It is a linear defect that centers around the line that is defined along the end of the extra
half-plane of atoms.
 The distorted configuration extends all along the edge into the crystal.
 Thus as the region of maximum distortion is centered around the edge of the incomplete
plane, this distortion represents a line imperfection and is called an edge dislocation.

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  Edge dislocations are represented by ‘’ or ‘‘ depending on whether the incomplete
plane starts from the top or from the bottom of the crystal.
 These two configurations are referred to as positive and negative edge dislocations
respectively.

(b) Screw dislocation:-

 In this dislocation, the atoms are displaced in two separate planes perpendicular to
each other.

 It forms a spiral ramp around the dislocation.

 The Burgers Vector is parallel to the screw dislocation line.

 Speed of movement of a screw dislocation is lesser compared to edge dislocation.

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(c) Mixed dislocations –
Most dislocations found in crystalline materials are probably neither pure edge
nor pure screw, but exhibit components of both types; these are termed mixed
dislocations.

Burgers vector
 The magnitude and direction of the lattice distortion associated with a dislocation is
expressed in terms of a Burgers vector, denoted by a b.
 The Burger vector can be found by the gap in the Burger circuit which is obtained by
moving equal distances in each direction around the dislocation.

1.2.6 Surface imperfections

 Surface imperfections arise from a change in the stacking of atomic planes on or across a
boundary.
 The change may be one of the orientations or of the stacking sequence of atomic planes.
 In geometric concept, surface imperfections are two- dimensional. They are of two types
external and internal surface imperfections.

(a) External Surfaces

 They are the imperfections represented by a boundary. At the boundary the atomic bonds
are terminated.
 Surface atoms are not bonded to the maximum number of nearest neighbors, and are
therefore in a higher energy state than the atoms at interior positions. The bonds of these

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 surface atoms that are not satisfied give rise to a surface energy, expressed in units of
energy per unit area (J/m2 or erg/cm2).

(b) Grain Boundaries

The boundary separating two small grains or crystals having different
crystallographic orientations in polycrystalline materials.

(c) Twin Boundaries

 A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which there is a specific
mirror lattice symmetry; that is, atoms on one side of the boundary are located in mirror-
image positions of the atoms on the other side.
 The region of material between these boundaries is appropriately termed a twin.
 Twins result from atomic displacements that are produced from applied mechanical shear
forces (mechanical twins), and also during annealing heat treatments following
deformation (annealing twins).

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1.2.7 Volume Defects
These include pores, cracks, foreign inclusions, and other phases. They are normally
introduced during processing and fabrication steps.

1.2.8 Effect on property

 There are some properties of materials such as stiffness, density and electrical
conductivity which are termed structure-insensitive, are not affected by the presence of
defects in crystals while there are many properties of greatest technical importance such
as mechanical strength, ductility, crystal growth, magnetic.
 Hysteresis, dielectric strength, condition in semiconductors, which are termed structure
sensitive are greatly affected by the-relatively minor changes in crystal structure caused
by defects or imperfections.

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 1.3 Diffusion in solids

Diffusion is a process of mass transport by atomic movement under the influence of thermal
energy and a concentration gradient. Atoms move from higher to lower concentration region.

Figure 1. (a) A copper–nickel diffusion couple

after a high-temperature heat treatment,
showing the alloyed diffusion zone. (b)
Schematic representations of Cu (red circles)
and Ni (blue circles) atom locations within the
couple. (c) Concentrations of copper and nickel
as a function of position across the couple.

Figure 1 shows, pure copper and nickel at the two extremities of the couple, separated by an
alloyed region. Concentrations of both metals vary with position as shown in Figure1(c). This
result indicates that copper atoms have migrated or diffused into the nickel, and that nickel has
diffused into copper.

1.3.1 Diffusion Mechanisms

Diffusion is just the stepwise migration of atoms from lattice site to lattice site. In fact,
the atoms in solid materials are in constant motion. For an atom to make such a move, two
conditions

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must be met: (1) there must be an empty adjacent site, and (2) the atom must have sufficient
energy to break bonds with its neighbor atoms and then cause some lattice distortion during the
displacement.

(a) Vacancy Diffusion

In this mechanism involves the interchange of an atom from a normal lattice position to
an adjacent vacant lattice site or vacancy. This process necessitates the presence of vacancies,
and the extent to which vacancy diffusion can occur is a function of the number of these defects
that are present. Diffusing atoms and vacancies exchange positions, the diffusion of atoms in one
direction corresponds to the motion of vacancies in the opposite direction. Both self-diffusion
and inter-diffusion occur by this mechanism.

(b) Interstitial Diffusion

In this diffusion involves atoms that migrate from an interstitial position to a neighboring
one that is empty. This mechanism is found for inter-diffusion of impurities such as hydrogen,
carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, which have atoms that are small enough to fit into the interstitial
positions. In most metal alloys, interstitial diffusion occurs much more rapidly than diffusion
by the vacancy mode, since the interstitial atoms are smaller and thus more mobile.

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 (I) Steady-state diffusion
Steady-state diffusion is the situation when the diffusion flux is independent of time. Fick’s
first law describes steady-state diffusion and is given by

Where, J is the diffusion flux or the mass

transported per unit time per unit area and dC/dx is
the concentration gradient. D is known as the
diffusion coefficient.
The negative sign in this expression
indicates that the direction of diffusion is down the
concentration gradient, from a high to a low
concentration

Example-
Diffusion of atoms of a gas through a plate of metal for which the concentrations (or
pressures) of the diffusing species on both surfaces of the plate are held constant.

(II) Non-steady-state diffusion

Most practical diffusion situations are nonsteady-state ones. In this the diffusion flux and
the concentration gradient at some particular point in a solid vary with time, with a net
accumulation or depletion of the diffusing species resulting.

This is described by Fick’s second law

…….

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A solution to this equation can be obtained for a semi-infinite solid with the following boundary
conditions
For t=0, C = C0 at 0  x  
For t > 0, C= Cs at x=0
C=C0 at x=
Application of these boundary conditions to Equation 1 yields the solution

1.3.2 Factors affecting Diffusion

(a) Diffusing species
The magnitude of the diffusion coefficient D is indicative of the rate at which atoms
diffuse. Coefficients, both self- and inter-diffusion. The diffusing species as well as the host
material influence the diffusion coefficient. As the value of D is fixed for a given element in a
given material, the extent of diffusion is first decided by the diffusing species itself.
(b) Temperature
Temperature is the most important factor, which influence on the coefficients and diffusion
rates. Temperature dependence of the diffusion coefficient is expresses as

Where, Do is the pre-exponential factor, Qd is the activation energy for diffusion, T is absolute
temperature in kelvin and R is gas constant.

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Mechanisms/modes of plastic deformation
Plastic deformation in crystalline solid is accomplished by means of various processes
mentioned below; among which slip is the most important mechanism.
Plastic deformation of crystalline materials takes place by mechanisms which are very different
from that for amorphous materials (glasses). Plastic deformation in amorphous materials occur
by other mechanisms including flow (~viscous fluid) and shear banding.

Plastic deformation by dislocation Motion (SLIP)

 SLIP is the most important mechanism of plastic deformation . At low temperatures
(especially in BCC metals) twinning may also become important.
 At the fundamental level plastic deformation (in crystalline materials) by slip
involves the motion of dislocations on the slip plane (creating a step of Burgers
vector).
 Slip is caused by shear stresses (at the level of the slip plane). Hence, a purely
hydrostatic state of stress cannot cause slip.
 A slip system consists of a slip direction lying on a slip plane.
 Slip is analogous to the mode of locomotion employed by a caterpillar

 Dislocations move more easily on specific planes and in specific directions.

 Ordinarily, there is a preferred plane (slip plane), and specific directions (slip
direction) along which dislocations move. The combination of slip plane and slip
direction is called the slip system.

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  The slip system depends on the crystal structure of the metal.
 The slip plane is the plane that has the most dense atomic packing (the greatest planar
density). The slip direction is most closely packed with atoms (highest linear density).
 In CCP, HCP materials the slip system consists of a close packed direction on a close
packed plane.
 Just the existence of a slip system does not guarantee slip  slip is competing against
other processes like twinning and fracture. If the stress to cause slip is very high (i.e.
CRSS is very high), then fracture may occur before slip (like in brittle ceramics).
 For slip to occur in polycrystalline materials, 5 independent slip systems are required.
Hence, materials which are ductile in single crystalline form, may not be ductile in
polycrystalline form. CCP crystals (Cu, Al, Au) have excellent ductility.
 At higher temperatures more slip systems may become active and hence
polycrystalline materials which are brittle at low temperature, may become ductile at
high temperature.

Number of slip
Crystal Slip plane(s) Slip direction
systems

FCC {111} ½<110> 12

HCP (0001) <1120> 3

BCC {110}, {112}, {123} ½[111] 48

{110}
NaCl (Ionic) ½<110> 6
{111} not a slip plane

C (Diamond cubic) {111} ½<110> 12

TiO2(Rutile) {101} <101>

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Slip in Single Crystal

 If a single crystal of a metal is stressed in tension beyond its elastic limit, it elongates
slightly and a step appears on the surface due to the relative displacement of one part of
the crystal with respect to the others and the elongation stops.

 Further increase in the load causes movement of another parallel plane, resulting in
another step. Similarly numbers of small steps are formed on the surface of the single
crystal that are parallel to one another and loop around the circumference of the
specimen.

 Each step (shear band) results from the movement of a large number of dislocations and
their propagation in the slip system.

 Extent of slip in a single crystal depends on the magnitude of shearing stress produced by
external loads, geometry of the crystal structure and the orientation of he active slip
planes with respect to the shearing stress.

 Slip begins when the shearing stress on slip plane in the slip direction/Resolved Shear
Stress (RSS) reaches a critical value called the Critical Resolved Shear Stress (CRSS)
and plastic deformation starts (The actual Schmid’s law)

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 Even if we apply an tensile force on the specimen  the shear stress resolved onto the
slip plane is responsible for slip.

 τ RSS is maximum (P/2A) when = λ=45o

 If the tension axis is normal to slip plane i.e. λ=90o or if it is parallel to the slip plane
i.e. = 90o then τ RSS = 0 and slip will not occur as per Schmid’s law.

 CRSS is a material parameter, which is determined from experiments.

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Problem

1. Consider a single crystal of BCC iron oriented such that a tensile stress is applied along a
[010] direction.
(a) Compute the resolved shear stress along a (110) plane and in a [111] direction when a
tensile stress of 52 MPa (7500 psi) is applied

(b) If slip occurs on a (110) plane and in a [111] direction, and the critical resolved shear
stress is 30 MPa (4350 psi), calculate the magnitude of the applied tensile stress
necessary to initiate yielding.

Solution:-

Determine the value of ,the angle between the normal to the (110) slip plane (i.e., the
[110] direction) and the [010] direction using [u1v1w1] = [110], [u2v2w2] = [010] and the
following equation.


 Similarly determine the value of λ, the angle between [111] and [010] directions as
follows:

 (1)(0)  (1)(1)  (1)(0) 

  cos1    cos1 ( 1 )  54.7 o
 [(1) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2 ][(0) 2  (1) 2  (0) 2 ]  3
 

 Then calculate the value of τ RSS using the following expression

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  Yield Strength σY

30 MPa
y   73.4 Mpa
(cos 45)(cos 54.7)

Plastic deformation by Twin

 In addition to slip (dislocation movement), plastic deformation can also occur by

twinning.
 Twinning results when a portion of the crystal takes up an orientation that is related to the
orientation of the rest of the untwinned lattice in a definite, symmetrical way.
 Twinned portion of the crystal is a mirror image of the parent crystal and the plane of
symmetry between the two portions is called twinning plane.
 Twinning may favorably reorient slip systems to promote dislocation movement.

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  Twins are generally of two types: Mechanical Twins and Annealing twins
 Mechanical twins are generally seen in bcc or hcp metals and produced under
conditions of rapid rate of loading and decreased temperature.
 Annealing twins are produced as the result of annealing. These twins are generally
seen in fcc metals.
 Annealing twins are usually broader and with straighter sides than mechanical twins.

(a) Mechanical Twins (Neumann bands in iron), (b) Mechanical Twins in zinc produced by
polishing (c) Annealing Twins in gold-silver alloy

 Twinning generally occurs when the slip systems are restricted or when the slip systems
are restricted or when something increases the critical resolved shear stress so that the
twinning stress is lower than the stress for slip.
 So, twinning generally occurs at low temperatures or high strain rates in bcc or fcc metals
or in hcp metals.
 Twinning occurs on specific twinning planes and twinning directions.

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Bauschinger effect

 The Bauschinger effect refers to a property of

materials where the material's stress/strain
characteristics change as a result of the
microscopic stress distribution of the material. For
example, an increase in tensile yield strength
occurs at the expense of compressive yield
strength. The effect is named after German
engineer Johann Bauschinger.
 The Bauschinger effect is normally associated with
conditions where the yield strength of a metal
decreases when the direction of strain is changed.
It is a general phenomenon found in most
polycrystalline metals.
 The basic mechanism for the Bauschinger effect is
related to the dislocation structure in the cold worked metal. As deformation occurs, the
dislocations will accumulate at barriers and produce dislocation pile-ups and tangles.
Based on the cold work structure, two types of mechanisms are generally used to explain
the Bauschinger effect.

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Work Hardening
 Room temperature deformation.
 Common forming techniques used to change the cross sectional area:

Dislocations during Cold Work

 Dislocations entangle one another during cold work.
 Dislocation motion becomes more difficult, which makes the material stronger overall

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 Isotropic grains are approx. spherical, Anisotropic (directional) since rolling
equiaxed & randomly oriented. affects grain orientation and shape.

Result of Cold Work

 Dislocation density increases, which leads to a increase in yield strength: Materials

becomes harder.
 Ductility and tensile strength also increases.

Recovery, Recrystallization & Grain Growth

Recovery

 Recovery takes place at low temperatures of annealing.

 Apparently no change in microstructure.
 During recovery, some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved through dislocation
motion due to enhanced atomic diffusion at the elevated temperatures.
 Leads to reduction in the number of dislocations.

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  This process also removes the residual stresses formed due to cold working significant.
 The recovering of physical and mechanical properties varies with the temperature and
time.
 Recovery is a relaxation process with the following characteristics:

 There is no incubation period

 Recovery rate is large at the beginning, and then it slows down till it is near zero
 Recovery has a limit value varying with temperature; the higher the temperature, the
greater is the limit value and the shorter is the time needed to reach the limit value
 The greater the deformation, the greater is the initial recovery rate, and decrease in grain
size helps to accelerate the recovery process

The characteristic of recovery can be expressed as the following equation:

Where,
t is the time of heating under constant temperature
x is the fraction of property increase caused by cold work after heating
c is a constant related with material and temperature
The value of constant parameter c can be described with the Arrhenius equation:

Recrystallization
 After recovery is complete, the grains are still in a relatively high strain energy state.

 Recrystallization is the formation of a new set of strain-free and uniaxial grains that have
low dislocation densities.

 The temperature at which materials are recrystallized is known as the recrystallization

temperature, Trecrystallization  (0.3 – 0.5) Tm

 The driving force to produce the new grain structure is the internal energy difference
between strained and unstrained material.

 •The new grains form as very small nuclei and grow until they consume the parent
material.

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  Recrystallization is a heterogeneous process and dependent on the deformation state of
steels.
 The kinetics of recrystallization depends on nucleation rate, N, and growth rate, G.

Grain Growth
 After recrystallization, the strain-free grains will continue to grow if the metal specimen
is left at elevated temperatures. Grains begin to grow via grain boundary immigration;
this phenomenon is called grain growth.

 Grain growth is driven by the tendency to decrease the total boundary surface energy by
decreasing the grain boundary area.

 Large grains grow at the expense of smaller grains.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig.1.1. (a) Work hardening, (b) recovery, (c) recrystallization, and (d) grain growth during
annealing.

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