1.

Ecosystem Structure and Function

The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms
interact with each other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a
chain of interaction between organisms and their environment. The term “Ecosystem” was first
coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.
Read on to explore the structure, components, types and functions of the ecosystem in the
ecosystem notes provided below.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands
of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

• Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of
terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:

1. Forest Ecosystems
2. Grassland Ecosystems
3. Tundra Ecosystems
4. Desert Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and microorganisms that live in
coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the
temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.
Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate
grasslands, savanna grasslands are some of the examples of grassland ecosystems.
Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is scarce.
These are covered with snow for most of the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain
tops is tundra type.
Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with very little rainfall. The days
are hot and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided
into two types, namely:
 1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams
and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content
and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the
climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:

• Biotic Components
• Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system where
the energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.

Structure of Ecosystem highlighting the biotic and abiotic factors

Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all life in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic components can
be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).
 • Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can
produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms
higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
• Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and
tertiary consumers.
• Primary consumers are always herbivores that they rely on producers for food.
• Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can
either be a carnivore or an omnivore.
• Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for
food. Tertiary consumers can also be an omnivore.

• Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey
on tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a
food chain as they have no natural predators.
• Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on
the dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as
they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water, soil,
minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.

Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1.
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders
stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that
involves the exchange of energy.

2 . Food Chain
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy required for all plant
life. The plants utilise this energy for the process of photosynthesis, which is used to synthesise
their food.
During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy and is passed on
through successive levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a consumer and eventually,
to an apex predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.
Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its constituents by
scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents. After gaining the energy, the reducers
liberate molecules to the environment, which can be utilised again by the producers.

A classic example of a food chain in an ecosystem

▪ The food chain is an ideal representation of flow of energy in the ecosystem.

▪ In food chain, the plants or producers are consumed by only the primary
consumers, primary consumers are fed by only the secondary consumers and so
on.
▪ The producers that are capable to produce their own food are called autotrophs.
▪ Any food chain consists of three main tropic levels, viz., producers, consumers
and decomposers.
 ▪ The energy efficiency of each tropic level is very low. Hence, shorter the food
chain greater will be the accessibility of food.
▪ The typical food chain in a ground ecosystem proceeds as
grass mouse—————-> snake ————> hawk.
▪ Food webs are more complex and are interrelated at different tropic levels.
▪ Organisms have more than one choice for food and hence can survive better.
▪ Hawks don’t restrict their food to snakes, snakes eat animals other than mice, and
mice eat grass as well as grasshoppers, and so on.
▪ A more realistic illustration of feeding habits in an ecosystem is called a food
web.

3. Food web

▪ Charles Elton presented the food web concept in year 1927, which he termed as
food cycle.
▪ Charles Elton described the concept of food web as:
▪ The carnivore animals prey on the herbivores.
▪ These herbivores obtain the energy from sunlight.
▪ The later carnivores may also be preyed upon by other carnivores.
▪ Until a reach where an animal has no enemies it forms a terminus on this food
cycle.
▪ There are chains of animals that are related together by food, and all are
dependent on plants in the long run.
▪ This is termed as a food chain and all the food chains in a community is known
as the food web.
▪ A food web is a graphical depiction of feeding connections among species of an
ecological community.
▪ Food web includes food chains of a particular ecosystem.
▪ The food web is an illustration of various techniques of feeding that links the
ecosystem.
▪ The food web also explains the energy flow through species of a community as
a result of their feeding relationships.
▪ All the food chains are interconnected and overlapping within an ecosystem and
they constitute a food web.
▪ In natural environment or an ecosystem, the relationships between the food
chains are interrelated.
▪ These relationships are very complex, as one organism may be a part of multiple
food chains.
▪ Hence, a web like structure is formed in place of a linear food chain.
▪ The web like structure if formed with the interlinked food chain and such matrix
that is interconnected is known as a food web.
▪ Food webs are an inseparable part of an ecosystem; these food webs permit an
organism to obtain food from more than one type of organism of the lower trophic
level.
 ▪ Every living being is responsible and is a part of multiple food chains in the given
ecosystem.

4. Ecological pyramids

▪ The trophic levels of different organisms based on their ecological position as

producer to final consumer is represented by ecological pyramid.
▪ The food producer is present at the base of the pyramid and on the top.
▪ Other consumer trophic levels are present in between.
▪ The pyramid includes a number of horizontal bars presenting specific trophic
levels.
▪ The length of each bar stands for the total number of individuals or biomass or
energy at each trophic level in an ecosystem.
▪ An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation outlined to show the biomass
or bio productivity at each trophic level in a given ecosystem.
▪ These are trophic pyramid, energy pyramid, or sometimes food pyramid.
▪ Biomass is the quantity of living or organic matter present in an organism.
▪ Biomass pyramids represent the amount of biomass, and how much of it is
present in the organisms at each trophic level.
▪ The productivity pyramids shows the production or turnover in biomass.
▪ Ecological pyramids initiates with producers on the bottom such as green plants
and proceed through the various trophic levels such as herbivores that feed on
plants, then carnivores that feed on herbivores, then carnivores that feed those
carnivores, and so on.
▪ The highest level is shown at the top of the chain.
▪ An ecological pyramid of biomass represents the relationship between biomass
and trophic level by quantifying the biomass present at each trophic level of an
ecological community at a particular time.
▪ It is a graphical representation of biomass present in per unit area in different
trophic levels.
▪ Flow of energy through the food chain will be in a predictable way, entering at
the base of the food chain, by photosynthesis in primary producers, and then
moving up the food chain to higher trophic levels.
▪ The transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next is not efficient.
▪ It may also be useful and productive to analyse how the number and biomass of
organisms differs across trophic levels.
▪ Both the number and biomass of organisms at each trophic level should be
affected by the amount of energy joining that trophic level.
▪ When there is a direct correlation between energy, numbers, and biomass then
biomass pyramids and numbers pyramids will be formed.
▪ However, the relationship between energy, biomass, and number can be complex
by the growth form and size of organisms and ecological relationships occurring
among trophic levels.

Types of pyramids:
 ▪ The ecological pyramids are of three categories:
1. Pyramid of numbers.
2. Pyramid of biomass.
3. Pyramid of energy or productivity.

1. Pyramid of numbers:

▪ Pyramid of numbers represents the population of trophic level as the total number
of individuals of different species present at each trophic level.
▪ Pyramid of numbers may be upright and or completely inverted depending upon
count of individual present and so.
▪ The pyramid of number does not completely define the trophic structure for an
ecosystem as it is very tough to count all the organisms present there.
▪ Pyramid of number- upright: grassland ecosystem
▪ In this pyramid, the number of individuals is decreased from lower level to higher
trophic level.
▪ The examples of pyramid of numbers are Grassland ecosystem and pond
ecosystem.
▪ In grass ecosystem, at base (lowest trophic level) grass is present in plentiful
amount.
▪ The next higher trophic level is primary consumer i.e. herbivore (example –
grasshopper).
▪ The number count of grasshopper is less than that of grass.
▪ The next energy level is primary carnivore (example: rat). The number of rats are
less than grasshopper, because, they feed on grasshopper.
▪ The next higher trophic level is secondary carnivore (example: snakes). They
feed on rats.
▪ The next higher trophic level is the top carnivore. (example – Hawk).
 ▪ As we reach each higher trophic level, the numbers of individual decreases from
lower to higher trophic level.
▪ Pyramid of numbers – inverted: tree ecosystem
▪ In this type of pyramid, the number of individuals is increased from lower level
to higher trophic level. Example, tree ecosystem.

2. Pyramid of biomass:

▪ Pyramid of biomass represents the total dry weight of organisms.

▪ It is usually determined by collecting all organisms inavding each trophic level
separately and measuring their dry weight.
▪ This will serve to solve the size difference problem because all kinds of
organisms at a trophic level are weighed.
▪ The unit for measurement of biomass is g/m2.
▪ The biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry weight.
▪ Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is considered more accurate.
▪ Certain mass of living material of each trophic level at a particular time called as
standing crop.
▪ The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the
number in a unit area.
▪ pyramid of biomass: upright
▪ The pyramid of biomass on land contains a large base of primary producers with
a lesser trophic level present on top.
▪ The biomass of producer termed as autotrophs is at the maximum trophic level.
▪ The biomass of next trophic level from base, i.e., primary consumers is less than
the producers.
▪ The biomass of next higher trophic level, i.e., secondary consumers is less than
the primary consumers.
▪ The top, high trophic level consists very less amount of biomass.
▪ On other hand, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may be
present in an inverted form whereas pyramid of numbers for aquatic ecosystem
is upright.
▪ It is because the producers are small phytoplankton that grow and reproduce very
rapidly.
▪ Here, the pyramid of biomass has a small base as compared to the consumer
biomass at any instant actually exceeding the producer biomass and the pyramid
is represent in inverted shape.

3. Pyramid of energy:

▪ The pyramid of energy represents the flow of energy from lower trophic level to
higher trophic level.
▪ During the flow of energy from one organism to other, there is remarkable loss
of energy.
▪ This loss of energy is in the form of heat.
 ▪ The primary producers like the autotrophs contain more amount of energy
available.
▪ The least energy is available in the tertiary consumers.
▪ Thus, shorter food chain has more amount of energy available even at the highest
trophic level.
▪ An energy pyramid is regarded most suitable to compare the functional roles of
the trophic levels in an ecosystem.
▪ An energy pyramid represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and loss
of energy taking place during transfer to another trophic level.
▪ Hence the pyramid is always upward, with a large energy base at the bottom.
▪ Suppose an ecosystem receives 1000 calories of light energy in a given day.
▪ Most of the energy is not absorbed by plants; some amount of energy is reflected
back to space.
▪ Green plants utilise only a small portion of that absorbed energy, out of which
the plant uses up some for respiration and of the 1000 calories, only 100 calories
(10%) are stored as energy rich materials.
▪ Now, suppose an animal eats the plant containing 100 calorie of food energy, that
animal uses some of it for its own metabolism and stores only 10 calorie as food
energy.
▪ A lion that eats that animal gets an even smaller amount of energy.
▪ Thus, usable energy decreases while passing from sunlight to producer to
herbivore to carnivore. Therefore, the energy pyramid will always be upright.
6 Community ecology

Community ecology is the study and theory of how populations of organisms interact with
each other and react to their non-living surroundings. As a subset of the general study of
ecology, this field of specialization explores the organization and functioning of biological
communities.

Community ecologists protect the environment and save species from extinction by assessing
and monitoring environmental conditions such as global warming.

Community Ecology: Definition

One of the earliest formal definitions of community ecology was suggested by Cornell
professor Robert Whittaker in 1975. Whittaker characterized community ecology as an
assemblage of living organisms that interact and form a community with a unique structure
and species composition. Knowing how a community functions is vital to promoting and
preserving biodiversity.

Community ecology examines how coexisting organisms interact and compete in a particular
niche or geographical location such as a woodland, prairie or a lake. Community ecology
encompasses all populations of all species that live together in the same area.

Community ecologists study ecological interactions and consider such things as how to
intervene when a rising deer population is destroying the understory layer of a woodland.
Community Ecology Examples

Community ecology encompasses many types of ecological interactions that continue to

change over time. A forest community includes the plant community, all trees, birds,
squirrels, deer, foxes, fungi, fish in a forest stream, insects and all other species living there
or migrating seasonally.

Similarly, a coral reef community includes a vast number of different species of corals, fish
and algae. Abundance and distribution are strong forces that shape the biological
community.

Community ecology focuses on how interactions between different species affect health,
growth, dispersion and abundance of the ecological system. At the community level, species
are often interdependent. Several short food chains are common in most biological
communities. Food chains often overlap and form food webs of producers and consumers.

Community Ecology Theory

American, European and British scientists have long held many differing theories on the
definition of community ecology, which was first called plant sociology. In the 20th century,
opinions differed as to whether ecological niches were self-organized organismic
communities or random assemblages of species that thrived because of their particular traits.

By the 21st century, theories broadened to include such ideas as the metacommunity
theory that focuses on community structures and the evolutionary theory that incorporates
principles of evolutionary biology into community ecology.

Currently held community ecology theory is based on the supposition that ecological
communities are the result of different types of assembly processes. Assembly processes
involve adaptation, speciation in evolutionary biology, competition, colonization, altitude,
climate, habitat disturbances and ecological drift.

The theory of community ecology expands upon niche theory, which has to do with an
organism having a specific place and role in an ecosystem.

Indicators of Ecological Health

Species richness refers to the richness, or number, of species found. For example, an annual
bird count might yield a species richness of 63 different species of birds spotted in a nature
center. One pileated woodpecker is counted the same as 50 chickadees in determining species
richness of the area.

Species richness does not factor in the total number of individuals found within each species.
The number and type of species present in a community gradually increases toward the
equator. Species richness decreases towards the polar region. Fewer plant and animal species
are adapted to cold biomes.

Species diversity looks at overall biodiversity. Species diversity measures species richness
as well as the relative number of species present. High species diversity characterizes stable
ecological communities. Sudden or significant changes in a community such as an influx of
predators can disrupt the predator-prey ecological balance and reduce species diversity.

Community Ecology Structure

Community ecologists study the interaction between structure and organisms. Structure
describes characteristics of ecological niches, species richness and species composition.
Species interact with each other and with their environment in many different ways, such as
competing for finite resources or working together to trap game. Population dynamics play a
pivotal role in communities.

The energy pyramid shows how energy is made and transferred by organisms that comprise
the food chain. Heterotrophic producers of usable food energy from the sun form the broad
base of the pyramid.

Primary consumers such as herbivores cannot make food to fuel their cells and must eat
producers to live. Secondary consumers are carnivores that eat primary consumers. Tertiary
consumers devour secondary consumers, but the apex predator at the top of the pyramid has
no natural enemies.

A food chain represents the flow of food energy in a community. For instance,
phytoplankton are eaten by fish that may be caught and cooked by a human. Only 10
percent of the energy consumed is transferred at each trophic level, which is why the energy
pyramid is not inverted. Decomposers play a role by breaking down dead organisms to release
nutrients back into the environment.

Types of Interspecific Interactions

In biology, interspecific interactions refer to the ways in which species interact in their
community. The effect of such interactions on different species may be positive, negative or
neutral for one or both. Many types of interactions occur in an ecological community and
influence population dynamics.

These are a few examples of those types of interactions:

• Mutualism: both species benefit from interaction, such as bacteria in the gut that
speed digestion (+/+).

• Commensalism: one species benefits without affecting the other, such as a spider
spinning a web on a plant (+/0).

• Parasitism: one species benefits, but the other is harmed, such as pathogenic
microbes (+/-).

• Predation: one species preys on the other for survival (+/-).

• Competition: two species fight over limited resources (-/-).

Species and Structure Interactions

Even small changes in nature can have big effects on community ecology. For instance,
structure is influenced by factors such as slight temperature changes, disturbances to habitat,
pollution, weather events and species interaction.

Relative abundance of food is a stabilizing factor in communities. Normally, there is a check-

balance system of food and consumption.

Types of Species in Community Ecology

Foundation species, like coral in a coral reef community, play a pivotal role in community
ecology and shaping structure. Coral reefs are commonly called “rainforests of the sea”
because they provide food, shelter, breeding areas and protection for up to 25 percent of all
marine life, according to the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History. Threats to coral reefs
include climate change, pollution, overfishing and invasive species.

Keystone species like wolves profoundly affect community structure relative to the
abundance of the other species. If removed, the loss of key predators dramatically changes
the entire community. Predators keep other populations in check that would otherwise
overgraze and threaten plant species resulting in a loss of food and habitat. Overpopulation
can also lead to starvation and disease.

Invasive species are invaders that are not native to the habitat and disrupt the community.
Many types of invasive species like the Zebra Mussel, destroy native species. Invasive
species grow rapidly and reduce biodiversity, which weakens the overall animal and plant
community within that niche.

Community Ecology Definition of Succession

Ecological succession is a series of changes over time to community structure that affect
community dynamics and encourage the assemblance of plants and animals. Primary
succession starts with the introduction of organisms and species, usually on newly exposed
rock. Pioneer species like lichens on rock come first.

Secondary succession happens when orderly recolonization occurs in an area that was
previously inhabited before a disruption. For instance, after a wildfire decimates an area,
bacteria modify the soil, plants sprout from roots and seeds, bushes and shrubs establish,
followed by tree seedlings. Vegetation provides a vertical and horizontal structure that
attracts birds and animals to the biological community.

7. Ecological Niche Definition

In ecology, a niche is the role or job of a species in a habitat. The word niche comes from the
French word nicher, which means “to nest.” An ecological niche describes how a species
interacts with, and lives in, its habitat. Ecological niches have specific characteristics, such as
availability of nutrients, temperature, terrain, sunlight and predators, which dictate how, and
how well, a species survives and reproduces. A species carves out a niche for itself in a habitat
by being able to adapt and diverge from other species. Modern-day ecologists study ecological
niches in terms of the impact the species has on its environment, as well as the species’
requirements.

According to the competitive exclusion principle, two species cannot occupy the same
ecological niche in a habitat if they are competing for the same resources. When species
compete in a niche, natural selection will first move to lessen the dependence of the species on
the shared resources. If one species is successful, it reduces the competition. If neither evolves
to reduce competition, then the species that can more efficiently exploit the resource will win
out, and the other species will eventually become extinct.

Examples of Ecological Niches

Kirtland’s Warbler

Kirtland’s warbler is a rare bird that lives in small areas in Michigan’s northern Lower and
Upper Peninsulas. The niche of Kirtland’s warbler is the jack pine forest, and the forest must
have very specific conditions. Jack pine forests with areas of over 80 acres are ideal for this
species. Specifically, these forests must have dense clumps of trees with small areas of grass,
ferns and small shrubs in between. Kirtland’s warbler nests on the ground beneath the branches
when the tree is about 5 feet tall, or around 5-8 years old. When the tree reaches about 16-20
feet tall, the lower branches start to die, and the bird will no longer nest beneath the tree
branches.

Jack pine forests remained virtually undisturbed during Michigan’s lumber boom in the early
1800s because white pine was a much more valuable. The consistent availability of young jack
pines for nesting was generated by naturally occurring wildfires in this habitat. When the
lumber boom ended in the late 1800s, the wildfires continued and allowed the jack pine to
spread and create more habitat for Kirtland’s warbler. The species population reached its peak
from 1885-1900. Humans began to alter this niche by fighting and putting out forest fires. Over
time, this severely affected the Kirtland’s warbler population. Large areas of jack pine forest
were designated for habitat management via logging, burning, seeding and replanting in the
1970s, and the species recovered.

The image above shows a female Kirtland’s Warbler, Dendroica kirtlandii.

Dung Beetle

As the name implies, dung beetles eat dung, both as adults and as larvae. They live on all
continents except Antarctica. Dung is plentiful throughout the world, and over time, the dung
beetle has learned to exploit it as a resource, and create its own niche. Dung beetles are known
for the way in which they roll dung into a ball before transporting it. These balls area buried in
an underground burrow to either be stored as food or used as brooding balls. The female lays
eggs in the brooding ball and the larvae hatch inside. When they reach adult size, the beetles
dig out of the ball and work their way to the soil surface. The actions of dung beetles serve
several important functions in their habitat. Digging burrows and tunnels turns over and aerates
the soil. The buried dung releases nutrients into the soil that benefits other organisms. In
addition, the beetle’s use of dung leaves less available for flies to breed on, thus controlling
some of the fly population.
The image above shows Kheper nigroaeneus, the Large Copper Dung Beetle, on a ball of dung.

Xerophytic Plants

Xerophytic plants have developed several adaptations to living in dry ecological niches. The
adaptations evolved to help save water stored in the plant and to prevent water loss. Examples
of xerophytes are cacti and aloe vera, also called succulents. These plants have thick fleshy
leaves that store water, and long roots to reach water deep underground. Other adaptations that
xerophytic plants use include the ability to move or fold up their leaves, dropping their leaves
during dry periods, a waxy coating to prevent evaporation (called the cuticle) and thick
hairy leaf coverings. The surface of plant leaves features stomata, which are tiny mouth-like
structures that take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen and water. Plants usually open their
stomata during the day and close them at night. Succulents do the opposite in order to reduce
water loss during the heat of the day.

Extremophiles

Organisms can create ecological niches in some of the most inhospitable places on earth.
Extremophiles are organisms, primarily eukaryotes, adapted to and thriving in areas of
environmental extremes. The suffix -phile comes from the Greek word philos, which means
loving. The type of extreme environment describes these organisms. Some examples are
acidophiles (best growth between pH 1 and pH 5), thermophiles (best growth between 140°F
and 176°F), barophiles (best growth at high pressures) and endolithic (growing within rock).
Some organisms, called polyextremophiles, have adapted to more than one extreme. The study
of extremophiles is important to the understanding of how life originated on earth and what life
could be like in other worlds. Extremophiles are also important in biotechnology because their
enzymes (called extremozymes) are used under extreme production conditions.

8. Ecotone and Edge effect

An ecotone is an area that acts as a boundary or a transition between two ecosystems. A
common example could be an area of marshland between a river and its riverbank. Ecotones
are of great environmental importance. Because the area is a transition between two ecosystems
or biomes, it is natural that it contains a large variety of species of fauna and flora as the area
is influenced by both the bordering ecosystems.
Examples of ecotones include marshlands (between dry and wet ecosystems), mangrove forests
(between terrestrial and marine ecosystems), grasslands (between desert and forest), and
estuaries (between saltwater and freshwater). Mountain ranges can also create ecotones due to
the changes in the climatic conditions on the slopes.

Characteristics of Ecotones

• It may be wide or narrow.

• It is a zone of tension (as it has conditions intermediate to the bordering ecosystems).
• It could contain species that are entirely different from those found in the bordering
systems.
• Ecotones can be natural or man-made. For example, the ecotone between an agricultural
field and a forest is a man-made one.

Edge Effect
Edge effects refer to the changes in population or community structures that occur at the
boundary of two habitats. Generally, there is a greater number of species found in these regions
(ecotones) and this is called the edge effect. The species found here are called edge species.

Importance of Ecotone

1. They have a greater variety of organisms.

2. They also offer a good nesting place for animals coming in search of a nesting place or
food.
3. They serve as a bridge of gene flow from one population to another because of the
larger genetic diversity present.
4. They can act as buffer zones offering protection to the bordering ecosystems from
possible damage. For example, a wetland can absorb pollutants and prevent them from
seeping into the river.
5. Ecotones are also a sensitive indicator of global climate change. A shifting of
boundaries between ecosystems is thought to be due to climate change. So, scientists
and environmentalists are studying ecotones with greater interest now
 • Ecocline is a zone of gradual but continuous change from one ecosystem to another
when there is no sharp boundary between the two in terms of species composition.
• Ecocline occurs across the environmental gradient (gradual change in abiotic
factors such as altitude, temperature (thermocline), salinity (halocline), depth,
etc.).
• Edge effect refers to the changes in population or community structures that occur
at the boundary of two habitats (ecotone).
• Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some of the species in
the ecotone is much greater than either community. This is called edge effect.
• The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known
as edge species.
• In the terrestrial ecosystems edge effect is especially applicable to birds.
• For example, the density of birds is greater in the ecotone between the forest.

What is Ecological Succession?

Ecological succession is the steady and gradual change in a species of a given area with respect
to the changing environment. It is a predictable change and is an inevitable process of nature
as all the biotic components have to keep up with the changes in our environment.
The ultimate aim of this process is to reach equilibrium in the ecosystem. The community that
achieves this aim is called a climax community. In an attempt to reach this equilibrium, some
species increase in number while some other decrease.
In an area, the sequence of communities that undergo changes is called sere. Thus, each
community that changes is called a seral stage or seral community.
All the communities that we observe today around us have undergone succession over a period
of time since their existence. Thus, we can say that evolution is a process that has taken place
simultaneously along with that of ecological succession. Also, the initiation of life on earth can
be considered to be a result of this succession process.
If we consider an area where life starts from scratch by the process of succession, it is known
as primary succession. However, if life starts at a place after the area has lost all the life forms
existing there, the process is called secondary succession.
It is obvious that primary succession is a rather slow process as life has to start from nothing
whereas secondary succession is faster because it starts at a place which had already supported
life before. Moreover, the first species that comes into existence during primary succession is
known as pioneer species.

Types of Ecological Succession

These are the following types of ecological succession:

Primary Succession
Primary succession is the succession that starts in lifeless areas such as the regions devoid of
soil or the areas where the soil is unable to sustain life.
When the planet was first formed there was no soil on earth. The earth was only made up of
rocks. These rocks were broken down by microorganisms and eroded to form soil. The soil
then becomes the foundation of plant life. These plants help in the survival of different animals
and progress from primary succession to the climax community.
If this primary ecosystem is destroyed, secondary succession takes place.

Secondary Succession
Secondary succession occurs when the primary ecosystem gets destroyed. For eg., a climax
community gets destroyed by fire. It gets recolonized after the destruction. This is known as
secondary ecological succession. Small plants emerge first, followed by larger plants. The tall
trees block the sunlight and change the structure of the organisms below the canopy. Finally,
the climax community arrives.

Cyclic Succession
This is only the change in the structure of an ecosystem on a cyclic basis. Some plants remain
dormant for the rest of the year and emerge all at once. This drastically changes the structure
of an ecosystem.

Seral Community
“A seral community is an intermediate stage of ecological succession advancing towards the
climax community.”
A seral community is replaced by the subsequent community. It consists of simple food
webs and food chains. It exhibits a very low degree of diversity. The individuals are less in
number and the nutrients are also less.
There are seven different types of seres:

Types of Seres Explanation

Hydrosere Succession in aquatic habitat.

Xerosere Succession in dry habitat.

Lithosere Succession on a bare rock surface.

Psammosere Succession initiating on sandy areas.

Halosere Succession starting in saline soil or water.

Senile Succession of microorganism on dead matter.

Eosere Development of vegetation in an era.

Examples of Ecological Succession

Following are the important examples of ecological succession:
Acadia National Park
This national park suffered a huge wildfire. Restoration of the forest was left to nature. In the
initial years, only small plants grew on the burnt soil. After several years, the forest showed
diversity in tree species. However, the trees before the fire were mostly evergreen, while the
trees that grew after the fire were deciduous in nature.

Ecological Succession of Coral Reefs

Small coral polyps colonize the rocks. These polyps grow and divide to form coral colonies.
The shape of the coral reefs attracts small fish and crustaceans that are food for the larger fish.
Thus, a fully functional coral reef exists.