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EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication and Computing

Stamatios Papadakis   Editor

IoT, AI, and ICT

for Educational
Applications
Technologies to Enable Education for All
EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication
and Computing

Series Editor
Imrich Chlamtac, European Alliance for Innovation, Ghent, Belgium
The impact of information technologies is creating a new world yet not fully
understood. The extent and speed of economic, life style and social changes already
perceived in everyday life is hard to estimate without understanding the technological
driving forces behind it. This series presents contributed volumes featuring the
latest research and development in the various information engineering technologies
that play a key role in this process. The range of topics, focusing primarily on
communications and computing engineering include, but are not limited to, wireless
networks; mobile communication; design and learning; gaming; interaction;
e-health and pervasive healthcare; energy management; smart grids; internet of
things; cognitive radio networks; computation; cloud computing; ubiquitous
connectivity, and in mode general smart living, smart cities, Internet of Things and
more. The series publishes a combination of expanded papers selected from hosted
and sponsored European Alliance for Innovation (EAI) conferences that present
cutting edge, global research as well as provide new perspectives on traditional
related engineering fields. This content, complemented with open calls for
contribution of book titles and individual chapters, together maintain Springer’s and
EAI’s high standards of academic excellence. The audience for the books consists
of researchers, industry professionals, advanced level students as well as practitioners
in related fields of activity include information and communication specialists,
security experts, economists, urban planners, doctors, and in general representatives
in all those walks of life affected ad contributing to the information revolution.
Indexing: This series is indexed in Scopus, Ei Compendex, and zbMATH.
About EAI - EAI is a grassroots member organization initiated through cooperation
between businesses, public, private and government organizations to address the
global challenges of Europe’s future competitiveness and link the European
Research community with its counterparts around the globe. EAI reaches out to
hundreds of thousands of individual subscribers on all continents and collaborates
with an institutional member base including Fortune 500 companies, government
organizations, and educational institutions, provide a free research and innovation
platform. Through its open free membership model EAI promotes a new research
and innovation culture based on collaboration, connectivity and recognition of
excellence by community.
Stamatios Papadakis
Editor

IoT, AI, and ICT for

Educational Applications
Technologies to Enable Education for All
Editor
Stamatios Papadakis
The University of Crete
Rethymnon, Greece

ISSN 2522-8595     ISSN 2522-8609 (electronic)

EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication and Computing
ISBN 978-3-031-50138-8    ISBN 978-3-031-50139-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50139-5

© European Alliance for Innovation 2024

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Preface

The integration of the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) into educational applications
has ushered in a transformative era in learning. IoT devices enable real-time data
collection and analysis, enhancing personalized learning experiences for students.
AI algorithms can adapt curriculum content to individual student needs, providing
tailored support and challenging tasks, ultimately improving learning outcomes.
ICT infrastructure empowers educators with tools for interactive teaching, virtual
classrooms, and collaborative platforms, breaking down geographical barriers and
making education accessible to a global audience. Together, these technologies cre-
ate a dynamic and engaging educational environment, fostering innovation, improv-
ing educational access, and preparing students for a rapidly evolving digital world.
The decision to produce this new book is a response to the growing need for
academic literature in emerging research domains already exerting a significant
influence on society. These innovative technologies augment the personalization of
student learning programs and courses, facilitate tutoring to address students’ weak-
nesses and refine their skills, expedite communication between educators and stu-
dents, and extend the accessibility of continuous learning opportunities available
around the clock.
The target audience for this book comprises preservice educators, practising
teachers, academics, researchers, and university faculty members. It also extends to
individuals from various disciplinary backgrounds committed to advocating for a
comprehensive approach to nurturing and educating young children.
This book comprises eleven chapters contributed by researchers from various
corners of the globe, representing nations such as Greece, Turkey, New Zealand,
Vietnam, Israel, Russia, Spain, Qatar, and Great Britain. Chapter 1 investigates the
self-efficacy levels of preschool teachers in Turkey and Greece regarding integrat-
ing Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into their classrooms,
focusing on the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Grounded in Albert
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, the research delves into teachers’ beliefs and
self-efficacy’s role in their ICT utilization within an educational context. Employing
a cross-cultural adaptation of the Technological Self-Efficacy Scale in Information,

v
vi Preface

Communication, and Technology (TSES-ICT-PDE), this study juxtaposes the self-­

efficacy perceptions of Greek and Turkish preschool teachers. The findings reveal
no statistically significant disparity in ICT self-efficacy between the two groups.
However, despite harboring positive attitudes toward integrating ICT, its implemen-
tation in the classroom remained limited, particularly in Turkey, due to practical
impediments such as hardware issues, inadequate institutional support, and defi-
ciencies in teacher training programs. These results underscore the imperative of
enhancing teachers’ ICT self-efficacy and addressing pragmatic challenges to pro-
mote effective technology integration in early childhood education, transcending
diverse cultural contexts.
Chapter 2 engages in a comprehensive examination of technological advance-
ments in the field of education, which have propelled global initiatives aimed at
integrating digital technology into curricula. This integration seeks to equip stu-
dents with essential twenty-first-century skills, including digital literacy, effective
communication, critical thinking, teamwork proficiency, and the capacity to gener-
ate original ideas. With approximately seven years remaining to achieve Sustainable
Development Goal 4 (SDG4), the focal point of many educational systems centers
on this aspiration. SDG4’s Objective 4.7 underscores the need to provide learners
with opportunities to acquire knowledge and skills conducive to promoting sustain-
able development. Adopting various technological tools has gained prominence to
maximize meaningful student engagement and active participation in the teaching-­
learning process. This chapter establishes an informative foundation regarding
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)’s role in mathematics education while consid-
ering its advantages, challenges, and opportunities. The discussion commences by
delineating the essence of CAI, its overarching objectives, distinctive features, and
delivery modes. Additionally, from a theoretical standpoint, various technology
integration frameworks relevant to a CAI environment are explored, contributing to
the ongoing discourse on the utilization of CAI in mathematics education.
Furthermore, this chapter delves into an extensive review of meta-analysis studies,
providing empirical evidence supporting the positive impact of CAI on students’
mathematics learning outcomes.
Chapter 3 explores ChatGPT’s prospective utility as a tool for creating portfolios
within the context of English as a Second Language (ESL) education. E-portfolios
have emerged as a valuable instrument for language learners to effectively exhibit
their language proficiency, track educational advancements, and showcase personal
accomplishments. Nevertheless, constructing an e-portfolio can pose formidable
challenges for learners, particularly concerning composing and structuring their
reflections and collating their educational artefacts. ChatGPT, a language model
underpinned by artificial intelligence, stands poised to ameliorate the portfolio
development process by furnishing learners with automated feedback and prompts
to aid in shaping their writing and reflective practices. This chapter will extensively
examine the existing literature concerning portfolios and language learning, scruti-
nize the attributes and functionalities inherent in ChatGPT, and proffer insights into
pragmatic strategies for the seamless integration of ChatGPT into e-portfolio con-
struction. Additionally, this chapter will accentuate the merits and impediments
Preface vii

associated with using ChatGPT in the domain of e-portfolio development and pro-
pose avenues for potential future research endeavors.
Chapter 4 pertains to the influence of globalization on the status of English as a
global language, which significantly impacts the teaching and learning of English
on a global scale. In the present era, our educational landscape is marked by a rap-
idly evolving and demanding environment characterized by globalization, techno-
logical advancements, and increased mobility. Educators must adapt to this changing
landscape by integrating digital resources into daily teaching practices. This ground-
breaking research study explored the potential benefits of harnessing Alexa,
Amazon’s artificial intelligence-based personal assistant, to augment motivation,
self-assurance, engagement, and language acquisition outcomes among Israel’s
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students. The study’s primary objective was
to investigate how Alexa could be effectively employed in English language learn-
ing to promote favorable student outcomes. Drawing upon theories of language
acquisition and pedagogical learning, this research examined how Alexa could be
incorporated into the routine teaching process to facilitate the development of
English language skills. To achieve this, semi-structured interviews were conducted
with a cohort of 60 EFL students who had integrated Alexa into their learning jour-
ney. Employing thematic analysis, key themes on the students’ interactions with
Alexa and the perceived advantages of its use were identified. The research findings
illuminated the positive impact of Alexa on students’ motivation to engage in
English language learning. Furthermore, it was revealed that the use of Alexa
enhanced their self-confidence and level of engagement. Alexa’s non-judgmental
environment proved conducive to language practice. Additionally, students cited
vocabulary enrichment, improved pronunciation, enhanced grammar skills, devel-
opment in listening comprehension, and the availability of immediate feedback as
key benefits stemming from the integration of Alexa. These insights enrich our com-
prehension of the potential offered by AI-driven tools within the domain of lan-
guage education and underscore the significance of infusing technology into the
EFL classroom.
Chapter 5 discusses that in recent years, the scientific community has initiated a
rigorous examination of the integration of smart education within the educational
domain. The heightened prevalence of technology and artificial intelligence, par-
ticularly accentuated during the pandemic, has attracted substantial attention to
these educational modalities. Within this context, the authors have undertaken a
comprehensive analysis of the core concept of smart education, delving into peda-
gogical experiences related to the implementation of online education and scrutiniz-
ing the potential applications of state-of-the-art technologies. In our research, we
aim to shift our focus toward the social risks and challenges that emerge when
adopting the smart education paradigm. In a previous scholarly endeavor, we eluci-
dated the fundamental principles underpinning smart education's methodology.
Significantly, sociologists have underscored the social risks accompanying integrat-
ing smart technologies and artificial intelligence into individuals’ daily lives and
professional spheres. From our standpoint, it is paramount to understand how smart
viii Preface

education interfaces with and responds to the challenges presented by the emer-
gence of the smart reality.
In contemporary educational contexts, computers have assumed a significant and
multifaceted role. They serve as valuable tools for enhancing the educational pro-
cess. The capacity to animate figures and visual representations, facilitated by
appropriate software applications, stimulates students’ creativity and bolsters their
problem-solving capabilities. As we approach the impending era of the Fourth
Industrial Revolution (4IR), computers, leveraged by the advanced Internet of
Things, are poised to furnish an extensive wellspring of information for students
and educators. Many didactic methods have emerged wherein computers play a
central and transformative role. Examples include the APOS/ACE instructional
treatment for mathematics instruction, the pedagogical approach of flipped learn-
ing, and the utilization of case-based reasoning techniques to tackle complex prob-
lems. Computational thinking has emerged as a prerequisite intellectual attribute for
proficient problem solvers. Furthermore, applying Artificial Intelligence techniques
has facilitated the development of intelligent learning systems. In addition to delv-
ing into these progressive developments in the realm of education, Chapter 6 pro-
vides an in-depth exploration of the advantages and drawbacks of e-learning when
contrasted with conventional learning paradigms. It also focuses on Connectivism,
a novel educational theory germane to the digital age. The evolving role of educa-
tors in future educational scenarios is scrutinized, and the chapter concludes with a
comprehensive discussion regarding the implications of the Fourth Industrial
Revolution (4IR), culminating in overarching conclusions.
In light of the global adoption of computer science as an essential component of
curricula, the imperative of nurturing a foundation in computational thinking from
an early age is widely acknowledged by experts. Concurrently, augmented reality in
education is gaining increasing attention within the academic sphere due to its dem-
onstrated positive influence on students’ learning outcomes and motivation.
ByteEd’s “Play Code Learn” series, a collection of STEM (Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics) kits, introduces a novel pedagogical approach that
melds unplugged-to-digital methodologies with innovative augmented reality tech-
nologies to teach computer science concepts. Chapter 7 presents the findings of a
study conducted to evaluate the impact of the inaugural “Play Code Learn” kit,
known as “Dinosaur Steps,” within the educational landscape of New Zealand. The
unplugged instructional approach has proven to be highly advantageous for learn-
ers, marking a significant transformation in knowledge retention and comprehen-
sion of computer science principles, competencies, and literacy among students
who engaged with the kit. Notably, using play-based methodologies has yielded a
substantial upsurge in students’ motivation for learning. This research underscores
the pivotal role of innovative teaching methods in fostering computational thinking
and enhancing educational outcomes.
Despite having existed for several decades, Artificial Intelligence (AI) is increas-
ingly pivotal in society. Its pervasive integration across diverse domains, including
education, is readily apparent. Notably, effective AI deployment in the classroom
has surfaced, demonstrating tangible benefits for both students’ learning outcomes
Preface ix

and teachers’ professional growth. Nevertheless, AI’s growing presence also evokes
apprehensions and reservations, particularly concerning its unknown future impli-
cations. This research endeavors to elucidate the perspectives held by Spanish edu-
cators regarding AI and its application within the educational setting. To this end, a
tailored questionnaire was meticulously crafted, validated, and disseminated
through various social networks and educational channels. Five hundred ninety-­
nine educators representing diverse regions and educational levels in Spain
responded to the survey. Findings of Chap. 8 reveal that Spanish educators need to
gain more and its potential applications within the classroom. They are more
inclined to recognize AI’s capacity to enhance teacher professional development
instead of its potential to improve teaching and learning processes. Additionally,
educators acknowledge their need for training to employ AI in education effectively.
In conclusion, beyond the imperative for comprehensive training, the successful
integration of AI in education necessitates critically examining the ethical dimen-
sions and pedagogical functionalities intrinsic to AI.
Chapter 9 delves into the pertinence of Leadership 4.0 within the domain of
Education 4.0 as it pertains to school leaders. This investigation revolves around the
knowledge and perceptions held by school leaders concerning Education 4.0, fur-
nishing valuable insights into their comprehension of and readiness for this trans-
formative educational paradigm shift. The empirical research entailed four focus
group interviews with 16 school principals from eight countries. These interviews
were administered after a webinar focusing on Education 4.0. The findings from this
research underscore that while school leaders exhibited limited prior familiarity
with Education 4.0, they displayed a degree of recognition of related terminologies
and concepts. Notable concerns expressed by these educational leaders encom-
passed potential disruptions to traditional classroom settings, considerations for the
well-being of both teachers and students and the implications for educational equity.
Despite these apprehensions, school leaders acknowledged the merits inherent in
Education 4.0. They accentuated the significance of equipping themselves and their
teaching staff with diverse leadership skills. The concept of agile leadership emerged
as particularly critical for effectively navigating the landscape of Education 4.0.
This style of leadership centers on adept crisis management, strategic professional
development initiatives, and the mobilization of the collective capacity of the edu-
cational community. The overarching conclusion drawn from this study emphasizes
the imperative for a fundamental paradigm shift in policy structures. This shift is
necessary to foster enhanced collaboration and co-construction of educational
reform agendas. Furthermore, this underscores the pressing need to augment school
leaders’ awareness and competency in addressing the challenges of Education 4.0.
Numerous educators, students, and parents are currently immersed in a vast array
of digital technologies encompassing both hardware (such as smartphones, tablets,
augmented reality (AR) tools, virtual reality (VR) glasses, holographic devices,
etc.) and software (including apps, online platforms, and artificial intelligence (AI)
chatbots, among others). Many technologies, such as holography and VR glasses,
were not initially developed for educational purposes. Nevertheless, there is a dis-
cernible trend toward their gradual integration into educational settings. This trend
x Preface

presents various opportunities and challenges. Educators, learners, and parents

widely assume that if digital technologies function effectively in other contexts,
they should similarly enhance the teaching and learning process when adapted for
educational use. However, the quality and appropriateness of incorporating digital
technologies into education require more comprehensive scrutiny. The enthusiasm
for this integration surpasses the empirical evidence available in the field. Within
this context, Chap. 10 provides insight into how these digital resources may facili-
tate transformative and innovative mathematics learning experiences, primarily
emphasizing AR and AI. Simultaneously, the chapter seeks to delineate the princi-
pal challenges inherent to this endeavor. More specifically, the chapter proposes
potential applications of AR in mathematics education and examines how AI-based
tools can augment the teaching and learning experiences in this subject area.
Drawing inspiration from the cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT), this chap-
ter introduces a framework that offers research-grounded principles for developing
digital resources conducive to effective learning with emerging technologies.
Moreover, it highlights various stakeholders’ primary challenges in this evolving
landscape.
Amid the global disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, educational
institutions swiftly transitioned from traditional in-person instruction to remote
learning modalities as a precautionary measure to curb the spread of the virus. This
abrupt and unforeseen shift significantly restructured the educational landscape,
compelling the Turkish Higher Education Council (YÖK) to embrace online teach-
ing methodologies. This research study delves into the utilization of Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) by preservice preschool teachers at a univer-
sity as they endeavored to construct a blog to educate preschoolers and their parents
about pandemic-related topics. The investigation scrutinized designing and imple-
menting the blog, involving a cohort of 48 preservice teachers enrolled in the
Preschool Education Program throughout the academic years 2019–2020 and
2020–2021. Employing a qualitative case study approach, data was collected from
various sources, encompassing video recordings of instructional sessions, blogs cre-
ated by the preservice teachers, and interviews conducted with the participants. The
blog’s development process encompassed multiple stages, including content selec-
tion, digital conversion, blog publication, and content dissemination strategies.
While the initial utilization of ICT tools posed specific challenges for the preservice
teachers, the study revealed a noteworthy progression in their competence and pro-
ficiency over time. In-depth interviews with the participants underscored an
improved appreciation of ICT tools and a heightened level of understanding, a direct
consequence of their exposure to diverse technological resources throughout the
blog development process. Finally, Chapt. 11 highlights the pivotal role of ICT in
contemporary teacher education and accentuates its heightened significance, par-
ticularly during periods of crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
The book’s conclusion encompasses an examination of the latest research and
advancements within the field of education, offering insights into forthcoming
developments. Furthermore, it succinctly recapitulates pivotal insights and offers
supplementary resources for those seeking to delve deeper into the subject. It is
Preface xi

imperative to acknowledge that innovation does not manifest in isolation; rather, it

necessitates an atmosphere of receptivity and collaboration between educational
systems and their broader contexts. This principle is particularly applicable to the
realm of education. The transformational process faced by universities, schools, and
educators necessitates comprehensive support, not merely in policy measures but
also through engagement with other stakeholders and actors. This book convenes
scholars from across the global educational landscape to foster a constructive dia-
logue to delineate optimal policies and practices for nurturing innovation within the
educational sphere. Leveraging internationally comparative data and rigorous anal-
ysis, this synthesis of available evidence serves as a foundational resource for inte-
grating these innovative technologies into the educational sector.

Rethymnon, Greece  Stamatios Papadakis

Acknowledgments

I want to thank the staff at Springer for their help and support.

Rethymnon, Greece  Stamatios Papadakis

xiii
Contents

1 Examining the Validity and Reliability of the Teacher

Self-Efficacy Scale in the Use of ICT at Home
for Preschool Distance Education (TSES-ICT-PDE)
Among Greek Preschool Teachers:
A Comparative Study with Turkey��������������������������������������������������������    1
Stamatios Papadakis, Ali İbrahim Can Gözüm, Ümit Ünsal Kaya,
Michail Kalogiannakis, and Turgut Karaköse
2 Benefits, Challenges and Opportunities of Using
Computer-Assisted Instruction in Mathematics Education����������������   31
Farouq Sessah Mensah and Ernest Ampadu
3 Exploring the Use of ChatGPT as a Tool for Developing
Eportfolios in ESL Classrooms��������������������������������������������������������������   51
Anh Nguyen-Nhu Le, Vu Ngoc Nguyen, Mai Thi-Xuan Nguyen,
and Linh Khanh Bo
4 Exploring the Use of Alexa as a Motivational Tool
in English Language Learning Among EFL Students in Israel����������   77
Ela Luria
5 
Smart Education: Social Risks and Challenges������������������������������������   99
Svetlana Sharonova and Elena Avdeeva
6 The Role of Computers in Education in the Era
of the Fourth Industrial Revolution ������������������������������������������������������ 119
Michael Gr. Voskoglou
7 Play, Code, Learn: Fostering Computational Thinking
in Primary Aged Learners Through Interactive Play�������������������������� 135
Sarah Washbrooke and Nasser Giacaman

xv
xvi Contents

8 Opinion of Spanish Teachers About Artificial Intelligence

and Its Use in Education������������������������������������������������������������������������� 163
Juan-Francisco Álvarez-Herrero
9 
School Leadership 4.0: Are We Ready? ������������������������������������������������ 173
Norma Ghamrawi, Tarek Shal, and Najah A. R. Ghamrawi
10 Harnessing the Power of Digital Resources
in Mathematics Education: The Potential of Augmented Reality
and Artificial Intelligence������������������������������������������������������������������������ 191
Xinyue Li and Rachad Zaki
11 ICT Use in Blog Design: A Study of Pre-­service
Preschool Teachers During Pandemic���������������������������������������������������� 225
Ali İbrahim Can Gözüm and Ümit Ünsal Kaya

Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 247
Other documents randomly have
different content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The gold hunters
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The gold hunters

A first-hand picture of life in California mining camps in the
early fifties

Author: John David Borthwick

Editor: Horace Kephart

Release date: February 10, 2024 [eBook #72919]

Language: English

Original publication: NYC: Outing Publishing Company, 1917

Credits: Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team

at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
images generously made available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GOLD

HUNTERS ***
 CONTENTS
FOOTNOTES
TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE
 THE GOLD HUNTERS

OUTING ADVENTURE LIBRARY

THE GOLD HUNTERS

By J. D. BORTHWICK

A First-Hand Picture of Life in California

Mining Camps in the Early Fifties

EDITED BY
HORACE KEPHART
 NEW YORK
OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY
MCMXVII

Copyright, 1917, by
OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY
All rights reserved.
 INTRODUCTION

C ALIFORNIA under Spanish and Mexican rule was a lotus-land of lazy,

good-natured, hospitable friars, of tame and submissive Indian
neophytes, of vast savannas swarming with half-wild herds, of orchards
and gardens, vineyards and olive groves. There was no mining, no
lumbering, no machinery, no commerce other than a contraband exchange
of hides and tallow for clothing, merchandise and manufactures. There was
no art, no science, no literature, no news, save at rare intervals, from the
outer world. One day was like another from generation to generation.
Everyone was content with his mode of life or ignorant of any other. War
never harassed the Franciscans’ drowsy realm, nor ever threatened, beyond
a few opéra bouffe affairs that began and ended in loud talk and bloodless
gesticulation.
Under the old Spanish law, foreign commerce was prohibited and
foreign travelers were excluded from California. But Boston traders
managed to evade it by collusion with local officials; and strangers did enter
the land; sailors and merchants of divers nationalities came across seas and
settled along the coast, while hunters and trappers crossed overland from
the States. Generally they were welcomed and encouraged to establish
themselves in California, though in defiance of the Mexican government.
The foreigners, being for the most part men of enterprise and energy, were
respected and became influential. Many of them married into native
California families, were naturalized, and acquired large estates. Among the
Americans was John A. Sutter, formerly a Swiss military officer, who, in
1839, was permitted to build a fortified post on the present site of
Sacramento. He received a large grant of land around it, and became a
Mexican official.
As a result of the Mexican war, California was ceded to the United
States on the 2d of February, 1848. Nine days earlier an event occurred that
was destined to fix upon this splendid province the fascinated gaze of all the
world. On the 24th of January, at Colonel Sutter’s mill, near the present
Coloma, a workman named James W. Marshall discovered gold.
Within a few months amazingly rich placers were found in river bars,
creeks and gulches, of this and the surrounding region. During the first year
or two of discovery it was not unusual for a miner to wash or dig up a
hundred ounces of gold in a day. Some lucky strikes were made of five to
ten times this amount, and nuggets were picked up of from $1,000 to
$20,000 value. Within a few hundred yards of a populous town, a man
stubbed his toe against a protruding rock; glaring in wrath at the stumbling-
block, he was thunderstruck at the sight of more gold than quartz. A market
gardener, abusing his sterile soil for producing cabbages that were all stalk,
was quickly placated by finding gold adhering to their roots; the cabbage-
patch was successfully worked for years, and pieces of gold of many
pounds weight were taken from it. Stories went abroad of places where the
precious metal was blasted out in chunks, of ledges so rich that it could be
picked out of the fissures with a bowie-knife, of men digging up gold as
they would potatoes, and of a competence being amassed by a few hours’
work with a tin spoon.
For two or three months the tales that came from the diggings were
received with incredulity; but when larger and larger shipments of the
yellow metal kept coming to the coast there was a wild stampede for the
gold-fields. “Settlements were completely deserted; homes, farms and
stores abandoned. Ships deserted by their sailors crowded the bay at San
Francisco (there were five hundred of them in July, 1850); soldiers deserted
wholesale, churches were emptied, town councils ceased to sit; merchants,
clerks, lawyers and judges and criminals, everybody, flocked to the
foothills. Soon, from Hawaii, Oregon and Sonora, from the Eastern States,
the South Seas, Australia, South America and China came an extraordinary
flow of the hopeful and adventurous. In the winter of ’48 the rush began
from the States to Panama, and in the spring across the plains. It is
estimated that 80,000 men reached the coast in 1849, about half of them
coming overland; three-fourths were Americans.” By 1851 the number of
actual miners had risen to about 140,000. From across the Atlantic there
came Britons, Germans, Frenchmen, Italians, others speaking strange
tongues, until the mines of California were likened to so many towers of
Babel, and pantomime often took the part of speech.
Never before had there been brought together, in a far quarter of the
earth, a body of men of so varied trades and professions all massed in a
twinkling to one common pursuit. Social distinctions vanished at a touch.
Soft-handed lawyers and clergymen wielded pick and shovel side-by-side
with born navvies, cooked their own meals and washed their own clothes.
No honest labor lowered the dignity of a gentleman, since that gentleman
needs must wait upon himself and provide for himself with the work of his
own hands. Out of this common necessity grew, as it were over-night, a
natural democracy in which all men met each other on an equal footing. No
deference was paid save to conspicuous ability of such sort as was useful in
the work at hand.
The popular notion of a miner is that of a rude and reckless fellow who
“works one day with a tin pan and gets drunk the next.” There were, indeed,
many of this ilk in the gold-diggings; but in the main, the miners of ’49
were a picked and superior class of men. It was not as if a bonanza had been
struck within easy reach of the riffraff of the nations. California, by the
shortest route, was two thousand miles from any well populated part of
America, five thousand from a European port. The journey thither was
expensive, and most of the men who undertook it were such as had
accumulated, by their own industry, a good “stake” at home. They were
adventurers, to be sure; but what is an adventurer? One who hazards a
chance, especially a chance of danger. That is the spirit which starts almost
any enterprise that demands courage, determination and self-reliance.
Beyond this, the argonauts were notably capable and intelligent men, as
their works soon proved. An unbiased observer said of them: “Perhaps in no
other community so limited could one find so many well-informed and
clever men—men of all nations who have added the advantages of traveling
to natural abilities and a liberal education.” Most of them were charged with
spontaneous and persistent energy. Immediately, as by an electric shock, the
California of dreaming friars and lazy vaqueros was tossed aside and an
amazing industry whirred into action.
When San Francisco was laid in ashes, not a day was wasted in
lamentation. Before the débris had fairly cooled the work of rebuilding was
started with a rush. Soon the sand-hills were leveled, and rocks were blasted
out to make room for a greater city. Brick buildings rose where there had
been nothing but shanties or canvas tents. Foundries were built and shops
were fitted with machinery brought half around the world. To provide rapid
transit to the mines, large river steamers, of the same model as those used
on the Hudson, were bought in New York, and, incredible as it may seem,
these toplofty and fragile craft were navigated around South America, by
way of the Straits of Magellan, and most of them came safe into the Golden
Gate. (The author of this book declares his belief that a premium of 99 per
cent. would not have insured them at Lloyd’s for a trip from Dover to
Calais.) The mines themselves were as so many ant-hills swarming with
hurrying workers. Where water was scarce, canals were dug, or flumes were
run for miles along mountain sides and carried over gorges or valleys by
viaducts; even a large river was borne half a mile by an aqueduct high
above its native bed. So rapid was the development of the country that, as
our author says, California became a full-grown State while one-half the
world still doubted its existence.
Gold mining, of course, was a gamble; while some “struck it rich” many
others worked hard for nothing. So gambling was in the very air. And so
long as common labor commanded at least five dollars a day, so long as
ships by the hundred lay idle at their docks because sailors would rather
take their chances in the mines than a steady wage of two or three hundred
dollars a month, there was bound to be reckless extravagance and wild
dissipation. Most of the miners were young men, too active, ebullient,
vivacious, for quiet amusements in their hours of leisure. There was no
home life nor anything to suggest it. In 1850 only two per cent. of the
population of the mining counties were women, and probably most of these
were of loose character. There was no standard of respectability to be lived
up to. So long as a man did not interfere with the rights of others, he was
perfectly free, if he chose, to go to the devil in his own way. Against the toil
and hardships of the mining-field, against the gloom of disappointment or
the wild elation of success, human nature demanded a counterpoise of some
sort—and the only places in all the wide land where the miner could find
comfort, luxury, gaiety, were the saloons and gambling-houses.
There being no sheriffs or policemen worthy the name, every man went
armed, prepared at an instant’s notice to redress his own real or fancied
grievances. Shootings and stabbings were frequent, though in much less
number actually than such conditions might be expected to provoke—most
men think twice before stirring up trouble in a company where everybody
carries a loaded gun and knows how to use it. Formal law was powerless,
through corrupt or inefficient officers, to keep in check the many scoundrels
and desperadoes that infested the cities and the diggings; so the miners
themselves administered summary justice by means of extemporized courts,
and for high crimes were prompt to inflict the highest punishment after the
verdict of Judge Lynch. It is undeniable that, in a pioneer society, such
rough-and-ready justice was a necessity and that its effects were salutary.
 Yet when the first fever of excitement had passed away, when the richest
placers were exhausted, when men settled down from prospecting and
“rushes” to the steady work of mining on a business basis, it is wonderful
how quickly the social order changed for the better. Miners returning to San
Francisco after a year’s absence scarcely recognized the place. Substantial
buildings of brick and stone were replacing the tinder-boxes that had been
swept away by one “great fire” after another—dressed granite for some of
them was even imported from China! Streets that had been rubbish-heaps
and quagmires were orderly and clean. A large number of respectable
women had arrived in California, and their influence was immediately
noticeable in the refinement of dress and decorum of the men. Places of
rational amusement had sprung up—clubs, reading-rooms, theaters—which
replaced in great measure the gambling-houses. In very many instances a
quiet domestic life had supplanted the old-time roistering in saloons. Few, if
any, cities ever showed such rapid progress in manners and morals as well
as in material things.
Many narratives have been published by men who participated in the
stirring events of early California. From among them I have chosen, after
long research, one written by a British artist, Mr. J. D. Borthwick, and
issued in Edinburgh in 1857. The original book is now rare and sought for
by collectors of western Americana. It is here reprinted in full, with certain
errors corrected. I do not know of another story by an actual miner that is so
well written and so true to that wonderful life in the Days of Gold.
Horace Kephart.
October, 1916.
 CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction 5
CHAPTER
I. On to the Gold Fields 15
II. Across the Isthmus 38
III. A City in the Making 53
IV. Life at High Speed 73
V. Off for the Mines 99
VI. Looking for Gold 116
VII. Indians and Chinamen 130
VIII. Miners’ Law 146
IX. Gold is Where You Find It 160
X. Ursus Horribilis 173
XI. On the Trail 185
XII. Sitters for Portraits 195
XIII. On the Way to Downieville 208
XIV. The Reason for Lynch Law 216
XV. Growing Over Night 227
XVI. A Band of Wanderers 241
XVII. Chinese in the Early Days 252
XVIII. Down With the Flood 262
XIX. A Bull and Bear Fight 271
XX. A Mountain of Gold 286
XXI. In Lighter Mood 297
XXII. Sonora and the Mexicans 306
XXIII. Bull Fighting 316
XXIV. A City Burned 325
XXV. The Day We Celebrate 333
XXVI. Frenchmen in the Mines 342
XXVII. The Resourceful Americans 353
The Gold Hunters
 CHAPTER I

ON TO THE GOLD FIELDS

A BOUT the beginning of the year 1851, the rage for emigration to
California from the United States was at its height. All sorts and
conditions of men, old, young, and middle-aged, allured by the hope of
acquiring sudden wealth, and fascinated with the adventure and excitement
of a life in California, were relinquishing their existing pursuits and
associations to commence a totally new existence in the land of gold.
The rush of eager gold-hunters was so great that the Panama Steamship
Company’s office in New York used to be perfectly mobbed for a day and a
night previous to the day appointed for selling tickets for their steamers.
Sailing vessels were despatched for Chagres almost daily, carrying crowds
of passengers, while numbers went by the different routes through Mexico,
and others chose the easier, but more tedious, passage round Cape Horn.
The emigration from the Western States was naturally very large, the
inhabitants being a class of men whose lives are spent in clearing the wild
forests of the West, and gradually driving the Indian from his hunting-
ground.
Of these western-frontier men it is often said, that they are never
satisfied if there is any white man between them and sundown. They are
constantly moving westward; for as the wild Indian is forced to retire before
them, so they, in their turn, shrinking from the signs of civilization which
their own labors cause to appear around them, have to plunge deeper into
the forest, in search of that wild border-life which has such charms for all
who have ever experienced it.
To men of this sort, the accounts of such a country as California,
thousands of miles to the westward of them, were peculiarly attractive; and
so great was the emigration, that many parts of the Western States were
nearly depopulated. The route followed by these people was overland,
across the plains, which was the most congenial to their tastes, and the most
convenient for them, as, besides being already so far to the westward, they
were also provided with the necessary wagons and oxen for the journey. For
the sake of mutual protection against the Indians, they traveled in trains of a
dozen or more wagons, carrying the women and children and provisions,
accompanied by a proportionate number of men, some on horses or mules,
and others on foot.
In May, 1851, I happened to be residing in New York, and was seized
with the California fever. My preparations were very soon made, and a day
or two afterwards I found myself on board a small barque about to sail for
Chagres with a load of California emigrants. Our vessel was little more than
two hundred tons, and was entirely devoted to the accommodation of
passengers. The ballast was covered with a temporary deck, and the whole
interior of the ship formed a saloon, round which were built three tiers of
berths: a very rough extempore table and benches completed the furniture.
There was no invidious distinction of cabin and steerage passengers—in
fact, excepting the captain’s room, there was nothing which could be called
a cabin in the ship. But all were in good spirits, and so much engrossed with
thoughts of California that there was little disposition to grumble at the
rough-and-ready style of our accommodation. For my own part, I knew I
should have to rough it in California, and felt that I might just as well begin
at once as wait till I got there.
We numbered about sixty passengers, and a nice assortment we were.
The majority, of course, were Americans, and were from all parts of the
Union; the rest were English, French, and German. We had representatives
of nearly every trade, besides farmers, engineers, lawyers, doctors,
merchants, and nondescript “young men.”
The first day out we had fine weather, with just sea enough to afford the
uninitiated an opportunity of discovering the difference between the lee and
the weather side of the ship. The second day we had a fresh breeze, which
towards night blew a gale, and for a couple of days we were compelled to
lay to.
The greater part of the passengers, being from the interior of the country,
had never seen the ocean before, and a gale of wind was a thing they did not
understand at all. Those who were not too sick to be able to form an opinion
on the subject, were frightened out of their senses, and imagined that all
manner of dreadful things were going to happen to the ship. The first night
of the gale, I was awakened by an old fool shouting frantically to the
company in general to get up and save the ship, because he heard the water
rushing into her, and we should sink in a few minutes. He was very
emphatically cursed for his trouble by those whose slumbers he had
disturbed, and told to hold his tongue, and let those sleep who could, if he
were unable to do so himself.
It was certainly, however, not very easy to sleep that night. The ship was
very crank, and but few of the party had taken the precaution to make fast
their luggage; the consequence was, that boxes and chests of all sizes,
besides casks of provisions, and other ship’s stores, which had got adrift,
were cruising about promiscuously, threatening to smash up the flimsy
framework on which our berths were built, and endangering the limbs of
any one who should venture to turn out.
In the morning we found that the cook’s galley had fetched way, and the
stove was rendered useless; the steward and waiters—landlubbers who were
only working their passage to Chagres—were as sick as the sickest, and so
the prospect for breakfast was by no means encouraging. However, there
were not more than half-a-dozen of us who could eat anything, or could
even stand on deck; so we roughed it out on cold beef, hard bread, and
brandy-and-water.
The sea was not very high, and the ship lay to comfortably and dry; but,
in the evening, some of the poor wretches below had worked themselves up
to desperation, being sure, every time the ship laid over, that she was never
coming up again. At last, one man, who could stand it no longer, jumped
out of his berth, and, going down on his knees, commenced clapping his
hands, and uttering the most dismal howls and groans, interspersed with
disjointed fragments of prayers. He called on all hands to join him; but it
was not a form of worship to which many seemed to be accustomed, for
only two men responded to his call. He very kindly consigned all the rest of
the company to a place which I trust none of us may reach, and prayed that
for the sake of the three righteous men—himself and the other two—the
ship might be saved. They continued for about an hour, clapping their hands
as if applauding, and crying and groaning most piteously—so bereft of
sense, by fear, that they seemed not to know the meaning of their incoherent
exclamations. The captain, however, at last succeeded in persuading them
that there was no danger, and they gradually cooled down, to the great relief
of the rest of the passengers.
The next day we had better weather, but the sick-list was as large as ever,
and we had to mess again on whatever raw materials we could lay our
hands on—red-herrings, onions, ham, and biscuit.
We deposed the steward as a useless vagabond, and appointed three
passengers to fill his place, after which we fared a little better—in fact, as
well as the provisions at our command would allow. No one grumbled,
excepting a few of the lowest class of men in the party, who had very likely
never been used to such good living ashore.
When we got into the trade-winds we had delightful weather, very hot,
but with a strong breeze at night, rendering it sufficiently cool to sleep in
comfort. The all-engrossing subject of conversation, and of meditation, was
of course California, and the heaps of gold we were all to find there. As we
had secured our passage only as far as Chagres, our progress from that point
to San Francisco was also a matter of constant discussion. We all knew that
every steamer to leave Panama, for months to come, was already full, and
that hundreds of men were waiting there to take advantage of any
opportunity that might occur of reaching San Francisco; but among our
passengers there were very few who were traveling in company; they were
mostly all isolated individuals, each “on his own hook,” and every one was
perfectly confident that he at least would have no trouble in getting along,
whatever might be the fate of the rest of the crowd.
We added to the delicacies of our bill of fare occasionally by killing
dolphins. They are very good eating, and afford capital sport. They come in
small shoals of a dozen or so, and amuse themselves by playing about
before the bows of the vessel, when, getting down into the martingale under
the bowsprit, one takes the opportunity to let drive at them with the
“grains,” a small five-pronged harpoon.
The dolphin, by the way, is most outrageously and systematically
libeled. Instead of being the horrid, big-headed, crooked-backed monster
which it is generally represented, it is the most elegant and highly-finished
fish that swims.
For three or four days before reaching Chagres, all hands were busy
packing up, and firing off and reloading pistols; for a revolver and a bowie-
knife were considered the first items in a California outfit. We soon
assumed a warlike appearance, and though many of the party had probably
never handled a pistol in their lives before, they tried to wear their weapons
in a negligé style, as if they never had been used to go without them.