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Tom Taulli

How to Create a Web3 Startup

A Guide for Tomorrow’s Breakout Companies
Foreword by Daniel Roberts
Tom Taulli
Monrovia, CA, USA

ISBN 978-1-4842-8682-1 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-8683-8

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8683-8

© Tom Taulli 2022

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively
licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in
any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Apress imprint is published by the registered company APress

Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY
10004, U.S.A.
Foreword
Web3 is weird.
Its biggest supporters spend their time advocating for their favorite
cryptocurrencies on Twitter and in Discord chat rooms, and proudly
use cartoon NFT avatars (from Bored Apes to CryptoPunks to Cool
Cats) as their profile pictures – before they flip them for profit and buy
another one instead. Many of them proudly identify as members of
token-specific camps, from “Bitcoin maximalists” to “Ethereans” to
“LINK marines” to the “XRP army.” They identify each other with in-
crowd lingo like “gm,” “WAGMI,” “NGMI,” “HODL,” “down bad,” and
“rekt.”
And yet, to dismiss Web3 as a passing fad (or, as crypto skeptics like
to insist, a fraud or scam or Ponzi scheme) would be extremely short-
sighted. It has already proven its staying power: Bitcoin has been
trading for more than 13 years, and Ethereum for seven years, and
neither blockchain has ever been hacked, nor has either coin ever gone
to zero.
And after crypto had its biggest mainstream bull run yet in 2020
and 2021 during the pandemic, riding the retail investor revolution and
Reddit-fueled meme stock wave, more big names are Web3 believers
than ever before – both individuals and companies. Wall Street hedge
fund titans changed their tune on crypto as an investment; publicly
traded companies like Tesla and Square bought Bitcoin for their
balance sheets; fintech giants like PayPal and Robinhood rolled out
crypto buying features; consumer brands from Budweiser to Visa to
Tiffany’s to Gucci embraced NFTs.
All of this adds up to a very clear directive: Web3 is here to stay, and
while it’s still early days, the time to build is right now.
Coinbase was started in 2012 by a former Airbnb engineer and
former Goldman Sachs trader; now it’s publicly traded and a household
name in the United States. Crypto exchange names and logos adorn the
arenas of the LA Lakers and Miami Heat, and every MLB umpire’s shirt.
The CEO of DraftKings, the scrappy Boston startup that survived years
of legal battles with state regulators to become a $10 billion sports
betting behemoth, is a huge believer in crypto and told Decrypt this
year: “Early in the internet days, there weren’t a lot of mainstream ways
to consume the internet… but everything eventually centered around
the world wide web, all the underlying technology was built around
that. And then all of a sudden things like video, and other things that
are more mainstream and easier to consume for the average person,
came about.”
The economist and New York Times columnist Paul Krugman
infamously wrote in 1998 that “the growth of the internet will slow
drastically… By 2005 or so, it will become clear that the internet’s
impact on the economy has been no greater than the fax machine’s.” He
was very, very wrong, and the quote resurfaces every few years to get
roasted by denizens of the Web.
But to ensure that the same skeptics who now dismiss blockchain
technology are wrong, entrepreneurs building Web3 startups will need
to build tools that have real use cases, address a need, and demonstrate
what decentralized tech can do.
Many are already doing it, applying blockchain to areas like
decentralized data storage and video hosting, peer-to-peer payments,
lightning-fast international remittances, faster and more private
charitable donations, and fairer voting for group projects. But there are
also many scams and fly-by-night money grabs – like in any new tech
industry. To avoid the failures of the past (remember the ICO boom of
2018?) and to onboard the next million people into Web3,
entrepreneurs in the space need to be honest, patient, strategic, and
above all else, build products that matter.

—Daniel Roberts, Editor in Chief of Decrypt

Contents
Chapter 1:​Why Web3?​
Chapter 2:​Core Technology
Chapter 3:​The Web3 Tech Stack
Chapter 4:​The Web3 Team
Chapter 5:​Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAOs)
Chapter 6:​NFTs, Gaming, and Social Networks
Chapter 7:​DeFi
Chapter 8:​The Metaverse
Chapter 9:​Taxes and Regulations
Glossary
Index
About the Author
Tom Taulli
has been developing software since the 1980s. In college, he started his
first company, which focused on the development of e-learning systems.
He created other companies as well, including Hypermart.net, which
was sold to InfoSpace in 1996. Along the way, Tom has written columns
for online publications such as BusinessWeek.com, TechWeb.com, and
Bloomberg.com. He also writes posts on artificial intelligence for
Forbes.com and is the adviser to various companies in the space. You
can reach Tom on Twitter (@ttaulli) or through his website (
www.tomtaulli.com ).
About the Technical Reviewer
Stijn Van Hijfte
has been working at Howest Applied University College since 2017,
where he teaches applied computer science and is active as an expert at
Sia Partners. He has a background in economics, IT, and data science
and is often called in as a translator between business and IT
departments. He started back in 2012 with some first investigations in
the blockchain space and had his entire living room looking like a
science experiment to connect to the Ethereum network in 2015. His
continued interest in digital solutions has led to him studying many
extra certifications and destroying equipment in the process.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to APress Media, LLC, part of Springer
Nature 2022
T. Taulli, How to Create a Web3 Startup
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8683-8_1

1. Why Web3?
It’s a Rethinking of the Internet

Tom Taulli1
(1) Monrovia, CA, USA

Since childhood, Gavin Wood has been interested in the convergence of

economics and game theory.1 He even co-published a board game of
strategy. He was also an avid computer programmer, having started at
age eight.
When Gavin became an adult, he worked at startups as well as
Microsoft. His main focus was on leveraging computer visualizations
and machine learning for music and audio systems.
In 2013, he met Vitalik Buterin, a programmer who wrote a paper
about Ethereum, which was based on the emerging blockchain
platform. Gavin was intrigued and coded the first workable client for it,
which he referred to as PoC-1 (for “proof of concept”). He presented
this at the North American Bitcoin Conference in January 2014.
Ethereum would quickly get adoption. But Gavin also saw this
technology as the basis for a new type of Internet. He called it “Web3.”2
According to him: “This is [the] technology that is being used to build
the new world — the world that’s going to drive human civilization for
the rest of this century, at least.”3 He then co-founded Polkadot, a
technology startup, and the Web3 Foundation, a nonprofit organization
that supports the category.
So, then what is Web3? Why has it received so much buzz? And why
is it important for entrepreneurs? In this chapter, we’ll take a look.
Definition of Web3
Web3 is still in the nascent stages. This means that the definition of this
term is evolving. In a way, it’s similar to what happened with the
emergence of the Internet in the mid-1990s.
But let’s take a look at a few definitions:
The Web3 Glossary: “Web3 (noun, adjective) [is] the next iteration of
the web being ushered in as we speak, which leverages blockchain
technology, open-source applications, and the decentralization of
data and information. Web3 aims to remove control of the web from
monopolistic tech companies and return ownership of data and
content to its users. Also referred to as the ‘read-write-trust web.’”4
Ethereum.org: “Web3, in the context of Ethereum, refers to
decentralized apps that run on the blockchain. These are apps that
allow anyone to participate without monetizing their personal data.”5
Digiday.com: “Web 3.0, or stylized as Web3, is the label being applied
to a decentralized version of the internet that would be jointly owned
by the users and the builders. Essentially, this is the antithesis to how
centralized platforms like Apple, Google and Facebook operate, by
monetizing data extracted from users on a daily basis.”6
There are some common themes. First, Web3 rests on the
blockchain stack of technologies. This means it is decentralized since
users create the network and even own it. With it, they can engage in
direct peer-to-peer interactions.
The fast-growing network is not controlled by a central entity, such
as Facebook or Apple. In a sense, Web3 is a democratized version of the
online world. Everyone owns their data and can monetize it themselves.
Now it’s true that the Web2 Internet is based on a myriad of free
protocols – and this is certainly a form of decentralization. But the
reality is that – for most people – they need to use the large Internet
providers to do anything meaningful, such as make connections, read or
view content, and so on.
Web3 is also permissionless. This means that anyone can use it
without having to create login credentials or get authorization from a
central provider. When you are on the system, you cannot be kicked off.
 Of course, all this only scratches the surface of Web3. But these
concepts get to the high-level essence.

Note The term Web3 has different variations. When Gavin Wood
coined the term, he referred to it as Web 3.0. But it has also been
called Web 3. Yet the general usage now is for Web3.

Web1
To better understand Web3, it is important to get a brief backgrounder
on Web1 and Web2. No doubt, both of these periods were full of drama
and rapid technological change. There was also a major impact on
society.
Now the origins of Web1 go back to the late 1960s. The Internet was
known as ARPANET, or the Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network, and had the backing of the U.S. Department of Defense. At the
core of this technology was packet switching, which allowed computers
to communicate with each other. The idea was to have a network that
could survive a nuclear war.
However, ARPANET would be primarily for academic purposes. For
example, the first online connection happened between research labs at
UCLA and Stanford. Even though the message just had “Login,” the
system crashed anyway!7
During the 1970s and 1980s, programmers developed a variety of
protocols that were freely available. Some examples include
Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol, or TCP/IP,
Domain name system (DNS), SMTP, or the Simple Message Transfer
Protocol, and File Transfer Protocol (FTP). All these have remained
critical for powering today’s online world.
But in 1990, the Internet would change in a big way. Tim Berners-
Lee created the World Wide Web, which allowed for hypertext links. For
him, he thought this was a much better way for searching and reading
academic papers.
But it would not take long until the Internet would become
mainstream, allowing for searching and ecommerce. In 1993, college
student Marc Andreessen helped to create the Mosaic web browser.
From the start, it got huge numbers of downloads.
A year later, tech entrepreneur Jim Clark contacted Andreesen to
build a company, called Netscape. The main product was the Navigator
browser – and the growth was staggering. On August 9, 1995, Netscape
came public at $28 a share and the price ended the day at $58.8 The
market valuation was $2.2 billion, even though the revenues for the
past six months were only $16.6 million. There was a net loss of $4.31
million.
The IPO ignited the dot-com boom, which would last until 2000.
Some interesting characteristics of this period include the following:
Few people created content. Simply put, it was difficult to develop
websites. You had to know HTML and scripting code. The dialup
Internet connections made it challenging to use video and images.
Creating startups was expensive and required the help of venture
capitalists. You had to buy expensive servers and databases. It was
also hard to find talent who could create the web technologies and
there were not many useful development tools.
A popular business model was advertising. This allowed for content
sites like Yahoo! to provide their services for free. The ads were
usually based on the number of views or “eyeballs.”
The Internet was still for a small part of the global population. By
2001, only about 50 million had access to broadband Internet.9
Portals like Yahoo!, Lycos, Infoseek, AltaVista, and Excite became very
important for the growth of Web1. They allowed many people to
easily get useful information in one place.
According to Chris Dixon, a general partner at a16z: “Web1…was
about open protocols that were decentralized and community
governed. Most of the value accrued to the edges of the network —
users and builders.”10
The bottom line: It was very similar to the vision of Web3.
Interestingly, a common notion is that Web3 is really a way to get back
to the original principles of the Internet.
Yet this is likely an exaggeration. The fact is that Web1 saw
centralization. And this was not necessarily a bad thing. It actually
helped get a large number of people to participate in the ecosystem.
 Part of this was due to the power of AOL, which was the Facebook of
its era. AOL was like an alternative version of the Internet – and it held
tremendous power. Because of its huge user base, the company was
able to generate massive amounts of revenues from advertisements and
sponsorships.
Then there was AOL’s hugely popular chat system. It connected
millions of users like a modern-day social network.
The Web1 world also highlighted something important that we’ve
seen in Web2: The network effect. This is where a system gets more
useful and powerful as more people join it.
A classic case of this was eBay. True, there were various other online
auctions. But eBay quickly turned into the clear dominant platform
because sellers were attracted to the large number of buyers and vice
versa. In fact, today the company is still the leader in the space.

Web2
The dot-com implosion was brutal. Many companies like Pets.com,
Webvan, eToys, Go.com, and DrKoop.com simply ran out of money.
Venture capital dried up. Many people left Silicon Valley and went
into other industries, like Wall Street. Everything seemed hopeless.
But the tech industry would rejuvenate itself and Web2 or Web 2.0
would emerge.
IT engineer, Dracy DiNucci, coined the term back in 1999 in an
article entitled “Fragmented Future.”11 Her vision was that the Internet
would become much more immersive and be prevalent across
platforms outside of a computer, such as the TV, car dashboard, cell
phone, and game machines.
But it was not until 2004 that Web 2.0 became part of the Silicon
Valley buzz. For the most part, the concept was evolving from DiNucci’s
concept to where the Internet would be user centric. Anyone could
create their own content and share it.
The leading companies in this era included Google, YouTube,
Facebook, Snap, and Twitter. And yes, they remain very much relevant
today. They are also exploring how to evolve in the Web3 world.
In 2006, Time Magazine chose Web 2.0 as the Person of the Year.
The story noted that the Internet had “became a tool for bringing
together the small contributions of millions of people and making them
matter.”12 At the time, the red-hot property was MySpace.com. This
social network allowed for users to create content and connect with
friends.
The belief was that Web 2.0 was the beginning of a new egalitarian
Internet. It was common to think of it as decentralized, since the users
had the power.
But this would eventually fade. The mega operators like Google,
Facebook, and Twitter would control much of the online world –
including the valuable data on billions of people.
These companies would amass enormous power. Just look at
Google. In the fourth quarter of 2021, the company posted revenues of
$75 billion, up 32% on a year-over-year basis, and the profit was $20.6
billion.13 The company had ten online properties with over 1 billion
users.
The company also was more than search and online apps. It owned
Waymo, one of the world’s largest autonomous driving operators. It
also controlled device companies like Fitbit and Nest.
So, was there too much power concentrated among too few
companies? Many in the tech world believed that the answer was yes.
And this was leading to major problems. After all, could a startup take
on Google search? Or go after the Apple iPhone? Or dethrone
Facebook’s massive social network?
It would not be easy. The fight would also take huge amounts of
resources.
As a result, the tech industry wanted to create a new paradigm –
one that was truly decentralized and in control of the users. It was the
Web3 paradigm.
“Web3 appeals to so many different kinds of people that have been
slighted in one way or another by corrupted centralized parties,” said
Josh Neuroth, who is the head of product at Ankr. “Platforms like
Facebook used and manipulated user data in ways we never thought
possible. Governments failed citizens with economic policy, sanctions,
hyperinflation. Now, people see ways to regain some privacy, autonomy,
and freedom in Web3.”14
Other documents randomly have
different content
 February, or March will give
compact blooming plants for the
next winter; and thereafter new
ones should take their places (Fig.
163).

Fig. 162.—Old Geranium Plant cut

back to make it throw out Shoots
from which Cuttings can be made.

The Hardwood Cutting.—Best Fig. 163.—Early Winter Geranium,

from a spring cutting.
results with cuttings of mature
wood are secured when the
cuttings are made in the fall and then buried until spring in sand in
the cellar. These cuttings are usually six to ten inches long. They are
not idle while they rest. The lower end calluses or heals, and the
roots form more readily when the cutting is planted in the spring. But
if the proper season has passed, take cuttings at any time in winter,
plant them in a deep box in the window, and watch. They will need
no shading or special care. Grape, currant, gooseberry, willow, and
poplar readily take root from the hardwood. Fig. 164 shows a currant
cutting. It has only one bud above the ground.
The Graft.—When the cutting is inserted in a plant rather than in
the soil, it is a graft; and the graft may grow. In this case the cutting
grows fast to the other plant, and the two become one. When the
 cutting is inserted in a plant, it is no longer called a
cutting but a scion; and the plant in which it is inserted
is called the stock. Fruit trees are grafted in order that
a certain variety or kind may be perpetuated, as a
Baldwin or Ben Davis variety of apple, Seckel or
Bartlett pear, Navel or St. Michael orange.
Plants have preferences as to the stocks on which
they will grow; but we can find out what their choice is
only by making the experiment. The pear grows well
on the quince, but the quince does not thrive on the
pear. The pear grows on some of the hawthorns, but it
is an unwilling subject on the apple. Tomato plants will
grow on potato plants and potato plants on tomato
plants. When the potato is the root, both tomatoes and
potatoes may be produced, although the crop will be
very small; when the tomato is the root, neither
potatoes nor tomatoes will be produced. Chestnut will
Fig. 164.— grow on some kinds of oak. In general, one species or
Currant kind is grafted on the same species, as apple on apple,
Cutting. pear on pear, orange on orange.
The forming, growing tissue of the stem (on the
plants we have been discussing) is the cambium (Chap. X), lying on
the outside of the woody cylinder beneath the bark. In order that
union may take place, the cambium of the scion and of the stock
must come together. Therefore the scion is set in the side of the
stock. There are many ways of shaping the scion and of preparing
the stock to receive it. These ways are dictated largely by the relative
sizes of scion and stock, although many of them are matters of
personal preference. The underlying principles are two: securing
close contact between the cambiums of scion and stock; covering
the wounded surfaces to prevent evaporation and to protect the
parts from disease.
On large stocks the commonest form of grafting is the cleft-graft.
The stock is cut off and split; and in one or both sides a wedge-
shaped scion is firmly inserted. Fig. 165 shows the scion; Fig. 166,
the scions set in the stock; Fig. 167, the stock waxed. It will be seen
that the lower bud—that lying in the wedge—is covered by the wax;
but being nearest the food supply and least exposed to weather, it is
the most likely to grow: it will push through the wax.
Cleft-grafting is practised in spring, as growth begins. The scions
are cut previously, when perfectly dormant, and from the tree which it
is desired to propagate. The scions are kept in sand or moss in the
cellar. Limbs of various sizes may be cleft-grafted,—from a half inch
up to four inches in diameter; but a diameter of one to one and a half
inches is the most convenient size. All the leading or main branches
of a tree top may be grafted. If the remaining parts of the top are
gradually cut away and the scions grow well, the entire top will be
changed over to the new variety.

Fig.
165.—
Fig. 166.—The Scion Fig. 167.—The Parts
Scion
Inserted. Waxed.
of
Apple.
 Another form of grafting is known as budding. In this case a
single bud is used, and it is slipped underneath the bark of the stock
and securely tied (not waxed) with soft material, as bass bark, corn
shuck, yarn, or raffia (the last a commercial palm fibre). Budding is
performed when the bark of the stock will slip or peel (so that the bud
can be inserted), and when the bud is mature enough to grow.
Usually budding is performed in late summer or early fall, when the
winter buds are well formed; or it may be practised in spring with
buds cut in winter. In ordinary summer budding (which is the usual
mode) the “bud” or scion forms a union with the stock, and then lies
dormant till the following spring, as if it were still on its own twig.
Budding is mostly restricted to young trees in the nursery. In the
spring following the budding, the stock is cut off just above the bud,
so that only the shoot from the bud grows to make the future tree.
This prevailing form of budding (shield-budding) is shown in Fig. 168.
Suggestions.—128. Name the plants that the gardener propagates by means
of cuttings. 129. By means of grafts. 130. The cutting-box may be set in the
window. If the box does not receive direct sunlight, it may be covered with a pane
of glass to prevent evaporation. Take care that the air is not kept too close, else
the damping-off fungi may attack the cuttings, and they will rot at the surface of the
ground. See that the pane is raised a little at one end to afford ventilation; and if
the water collects in drops on the under side of the glass, remove the pane for a
time. 131. Grafting wax is made of beeswax, resin, and tallow. A good recipe is
one part (as one pound) of rendered tallow, two parts of beeswax, four parts of
resin; melt together in a kettle; pour the liquid into a pail or tub of water to solidify
it; work with the hands until it has the colour and “grain” of taffy candy, the hands
being greased when necessary. The wax will keep any length of time. For the little
grafting that any pupil would do, it is better to buy the wax of a seedsman. 132.
Grafting is hardly to be recommended as a general school diversion, as the
making of cuttings is; and the account of it in this chapter is inserted chiefly to
satisfy the general curiosity on the subject. 133. In Chap. V we had a definition of a
plant generation: what is “one generation” of a grafted fruit tree, as Le Conte pear,
Baldwin, or Ben Davis apple? 134. The Elberta peach originated about 1880: what
is meant by “originated”? 135. How is the grape propagated so as to come true to
name (explain what is meant by “coming true”)? currant? strawberry? raspberry?
blackberry? peach? pear? orange? fig? plum? cherry? apple? chestnut? pecan?
 CHAPTER XVII
HOW PLANTS CLIMB

We have found that plants struggle or contend for a place in which

to live. Some of them become adapted to grow in the forest shade,
others to grow on other plants, as epiphytes, others to climb to the
light. Observe how woods grapes, and other forest climbers, spread
their foliage on the very top of the forest tree, while their long flexile
trunks may be bare.
There are several ways by which plants climb, but most climbers
may be classified into four groups: (1) scramblers, (2) root
climbers, (3) tendril climbers, (4) twiners.
Scramblers.—Some plants rise to light and air by resting their
long and weak stems on the tops of bushes and quick-growing
herbs. Their stems may be elevated in part by the growing twigs of
the plants on which they recline. Such plants are scramblers. Usually
they are provided with prickles or bristles. In most weedy swamp
thickets, scrambling plants may be found. Briers, some roses, bed-
straw or galium, bittersweet (Solanum Dulcamara, not the Celastrus)
the tear-thumb polygonums, and other plants are familiar examples
of scramblers.
Root Climbers.—Some plants climb by means of true roots.
These roots seek the dark places and therefore enter the chinks in
walls and bark. The trumpet creeper is a familiar example (Fig. 36).
The true or English ivy, which is often grown to cover buildings, is
another instance. Still another is the poison ivy. Roots are
distinguished from stem tendrils by their irregular or indefinite
position as well as by their mode of growth.
Tendril climbers.—A slender coiling part that serves to hold a
climbing plant to a support is known as a tendril. The free end
swings or curves until it strikes some object, when it attaches itself
 and then coils and draws the plant close to the
support. The spring of the coil also allows the
plant to move in the wind, thereby enabling the
plant to maintain its hold. Slowly pull a well-
matured tendril from its support, and note how
Fig. 169.—Tendril, to strongly it holds on. Watch the tendrils in a
show where the coil is wind-storm. Usually the tendril attaches to the
changed. support by coiling about it, but the Virginia
creeper and the Boston ivy (Fig. 170) attach to
walls by means of disks on the ends of the tendrils.
Since both ends of the
tendril are fixed, when it
finds a support, the coiling
would tend to twist it in two.
It will be found, however,
that the tendril coils in
different directions in
different parts of its length.
In Fig. 169, showing an old
and stretched-out tendril,
the change of direction in
the coil occurred at a. In
long tendrils of cucumbers
and melons there may be
several changes of
direction. Fig. 170.—Tendril of Boston Ivy.
Tendrils may represent
either branches or leaves. In the Virginia creeper and the grape they
are branches; they stand opposite the leaves in the position of fruit
clusters, and sometimes one branch of a fruit cluster is a tendril.
These tendrils are therefore homologous with fruit clusters, and fruit
clusters are branches.
In some plants tendrils are leaflets (Chap. XI). Examples are the
sweet pea and the common garden pea. In Fig. 171, observe the
leaf with its two great
stipules, petiole, six normal
leaflets, and two or three
pairs of leaflet tendrils and
a terminal leaflet tendril.
The cobaea, a common
garden climber, has a
similar arrangement. In
some cases tendrils are
stipules, as probably in the
green briers (smilax).
The petiole or midrib
may act as a tendril, as in
various kinds of clematis.
In Fig. 172, the common
wild clematis or “old man
vine,” this mode is seen.
Twiners.—The entire
plant or shoot may wind
about a support. Such a
plant is a twiner. Examples Fig. 171.—Leaves of Pea,—very large stipules,
are bean, hop, morning- opposite leaflets, and leaflets represented by
tendrils.
glory, moon-flower, false
bittersweet or waxwork
(Celastrus), some honeysuckles, wistaria, Dutchman’s pipe, dodder.
The free tip of the twining branch sweeps about in curves, much as
the tendril does, until it finds support or becomes old and rigid.
Each kind of plant usually coils in only one direction. Most plants
coil against the sun, or from the observer’s left across his front to his
right as he faces the plant. Examples are bean, morning-glory. The
hop twines from the observer’s right to his left, or with the sun.
 Fig. 172.—Clematis climbing by Leaf-tendril.
Suggestions.—136. Set the pupil to watch the behaviour of any plant that has
tendrils at different stages of maturity. A vigorous cucumber plant is one of the
best. Just beyond the point of a young straight tendril set a stake to compare the
position of it. Note whether the tendril changes position from hour to hour or day to
day. 137. Is the tip of the tendril perfectly straight? Why? Set a small stake at the
end of a strong straight tendril, so that the tendril will just reach it. Watch and make
drawing. 138. If a tendril does not find a support what does it do? 139. To test the
movement of a free tendril draw an ink line lengthwise of it, and note whether the
line remains always on the concave side or the convex side. 140. Name the
tendril-bearing plants that you know. 141. Make similar observations and
experiments on the tips of twining stems. 142. What twining plants do you know,
and which way do they twine? 143. How does any plant that you know shoot up?
144. Does the stem of a climbing plant contain more or less substance (weight)
than an erect self-supporting stem of the same height? Explain.
 CHAPTER XVIII
THE FLOWER—ITS PARTS AND FORMS

The function of the flower is to produce seed. It is probable that all

its varied forms and colours contribute to this supreme end. These
forms and colours please the human fancy and add to the joy of
living, but the flower exists for the good of the plant, not for the good
of man. The parts of the flower are of two general kinds—those that
are directly concerned in the production of seeds, and those that act
as covering and protecting organs. The former parts are known as
the essential organs; the latter as the floral envelopes.
Envelopes.—The floral envelopes usually
bear a close resemblance to leaves. These
envelopes are very commonly of two series or
kinds—the outer and the inner. The outer
series, known as the calyx, is usually smaller
and green. It usually comprises the outer cover
of the flower-bud. The calyx is the lowest whorl
Fig. 173.—Flower of a
in Fig. 173. Buttercup in
The inner series, known as the corolla, is Section.
usually coloured and more special or irregular in
shape than the calyx. It is the showy part of the flower, as a rule. The
corolla is the second or large whorl in Fig. 173.
The calyx may be composed of several leaves. Each leaf is a
sepal. If it is of one piece, it may be lobed or divided, in which case
the divisions are called calyx-lobes. In like manner, the corolla may
be composed of petals, or it may be of one piece and variously
lobed. A calyx of one piece, no matter how deeply lobed, is
gamosepalous. A corolla of one piece is gamopetalous. When
these series are of separate pieces, as in Fig. 173, the flower is said
to be polysepalous and polypetalous. Sometimes both series are
of separate parts, and sometimes only one of them is so formed.
The floral envelopes are homologous
with leaves. Sepals and petals, at least
when more than three or five, are in
more than one whorl, and one whorl
stands below another so that the parts
overlap. They are borne on the
expanded or thickened end of the flower
stalk; this end is the torus. In Fig. 173 all
the parts are seen as attached to the
torus. This part is sometimes called the
receptacle, but this word is a common-
language term of several meanings,
whereas torus has no other meaning.
Sometimes one part is attached to
another part, as in the fuchsia (Fig. 174),
in which the petals are borne on the
calyx-tube.
Fig. 174.—Flower of Fuchsia
in Section. Subtending Parts.—Sometimes there
are leaf-like parts just below the calyx,
looking like a second calyx. Such parts
accompany the carnation flower. These parts are bracts (bracts are
small specialized leaves); and they form an involucre. We must be
careful that we do not mistake them for true flower-parts. Sometimes
the bracts are large and petal-like, as in the great white blooms of
the flowering dogwood: here the real flowers are several, small and
greenish, forming a small cluster in the centre.
Essential Organs.—The essential organs are of two series. The
outer series is composed of the stamens. The inner series is
composed of the pistils.
Stamens bear the pollen, which is made up of grains or spores,
each spore usually being a single plant cell. The stamen is of two
parts, as is readily seen in Figs. 173, 174,—the enlarged terminal
part or anther, and the stalk or filament. The filament is often so
short as to seem to be absent, and the anther is then said to be
sessile. The anther bears the pollen spores. It is made up of two or
four parts (known as sporangia or spore-cases), which burst and
discharge the pollen. When the pollen is shed, the stamen dies.
The pistil has three parts: the
lowest, or seed-bearing part,
which is the ovary; the stigma at
the upper extremity, which is a
flattened or expanded surface,
and usually roughened or sticky;
the stalk-like part or style,
connecting the ovary and the
stigma. Sometimes the style is
apparently wanting, and the
stigma is said to be sessile on the Fig. 175.—The Structure of a Plum
Blossom.
ovary. These parts are shown inse, sepals; p, petals; sta, stamens; o, ovary; s, style;
the fuchsia (Fig. 174). The ovary st, stigma. The pistil consists of the ovary, the style
and the stigma. It contains the seed part. The
or seed vessel is at a. A long stamens are tipped with anthers, in which the pollen
is borne. The ovary, o, ripens into the fruit.
style, bearing a large stigma,
projects from the flower. See also
Figs. 175 and 176.
Stamens and pistils probably are homologous with leaves. A pistil
is sometimes conceived to represent anciently a leaf as if rolled into
a tube; and an anther, a leaf of which the edges may have been
turned in on the midrib.
The pistil may be of one part or compartment, or of many parts.
The different units or parts of which it is composed are carpels.
Each carpel is homologous with a leaf. Each carpel bears one or
more seeds. A pistil of one carpel is simple; of two or more carpels,
compound. Usually the structure of the pistil may be determined by
cutting horizontally across the lower or seed-bearing part, as Figs.
177, 178 explain. A flower may contain a simple pistil (one carpel),
as the pea (Fig. 177); several simple pistils (several separate
 carpels), as the buttercup
(Fig. 176); or a compound
pistil with carpels united, as
the Saint John’s wort (Fig.
178) and apple. How many
Fig. 176.—Simple carpels in an apple? A
Pistils of peach? An okra pod? A
Buttercup, one bean pod? The seed cavityFig. 177.—Pistil of
in longitudinal in each carpel is called a Garden Pea, the stamens
section. being pulled down in order
locule (Latin locus, a to disclose it; also a
place). In these locules the section showing the single
seeds are borne. compartment (compare
Fig. 188).
Conformation of the
Flower.—A flower that
has calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils is said to
be complete (Fig. 173); all others are
incomplete. In some flowers both the floral
envelopes are wanting: such are naked. When
one of the floral envelope series is wanting, the
remaining series is said to be calyx, and the
flower is therefore apetalous (without petals).
Fig. 178.—Compound
The knot-weed (Fig. 179), smartweed,
Pistil of a St. John’sbuckwheat, elm are examples.
Wort. It has 5
Some flowers lack the pistils: these are
carpels.
staminate, whether the envelopes are missing
or not. Others lack the stamens: these are
pistillate. Others have neither stamens nor pistils: these are sterile
(snowball and hydrangea). Those that have both stamens and pistils
are perfect, whether or not the envelopes are missing. Those that
lack either stamens or pistils are imperfect or diclinous. Staminate
and pistillate flowers are imperfect or diclinous.
When staminate and pistillate flowers are borne on the same
plant, e.g. oak (Fig. 180), corn, beech, chestnut, hazel, walnut,
hickory, pine, begonia (Fig. 181), watermelon, gourd, pumpkin, the
 plant is monœcious
(“in one house”). When
they are on different
plants, e.g. poplar,
cottonwood, bois d’arc,
willow (Fig. 182), the
plant is diœcious (“in
two houses”). Some
varieties of strawberry,
grape, and mulberry are
partly diœcious. Is the
rose either monœcious
or diœcious? Fig. 181.—Begonia
Flowers.
Flowers in which theStaminate at A: pistillate
below, with the winged
Fig. 179.—Knotweed, a very parts of each series are ovary at B.
common but inconspicuous alike are said to be
plant along hard walks and regular (as in Figs.
roads. Two flowers, enlarged, 173, 174, 175). Those in which some
are shown at the right. These
flowers are very small and parts are unlike other parts of the same
borne in the axils of the series are irregular. Their regularity may
leaves. be in calyx, as in nasturtium (Fig. 183); in
corolla (Figs. 184, 185); in the stamens
(compare nasturtium, catnip, Fig. 185, sage); in the pistils.
Irregularity is most frequent in the corolla.
Fig. 180.—Staminate Catkins
of Oak. The pistillate flowers
are in the leaf axils, and not
shown in this picture.

Fig. 182.—Catkins of a Willow.

A staminate flower is shown at s, and a pistillate flower
at p. The staminate and pistillate are on different
plants.
 Fig. 183.—Flower
of Garden Fig. 184.—The Five Petals of Fig. 185.—
Nasturtium. the Pansy, detached to show Flower of
Separate petal at a. The the form. Catnip.
calyx is produced into a
spur.

Various Forms of Corolla.—The corolla often assumes very

definite or distinct forms, especially when gamopetalous. It may have
a long tube with a wide-flaring limb, when it is said to be funnelform,
as in morning-glory and pumpkin. If the tube is very narrow and the
limb stands at right angles to it, the corolla is salverform, as in
phlox. If the tube is very short and the limb wide-spreading and
nearly circular in outline, the corolla is rotate or wheel-shaped, as in
potato.
A gamopetalous corolla or gamosepalous calyx is often cleft in
such way as to make two prominent parts. Such parts are said to be
lipped or labiate. Each of the lips or lobes may be notched or
toothed. In 5-membered flowers, the lower lip is usually 3-lobed and
the upper one 2-lobed. Labiate flowers are characteristic of the mint
family (Fig. 185), and the family therefore is called the Labiatæ.
(Literally, labiate means merely “lipped,” without specifying the
number of lips or lobes; but it is commonly used to designate 2-
lipped flowers.) Strongly 2-parted polypetalous flowers may be said
to be labiate; but the term is oftenest used for gamopetalous
corollas.
Labiate gamopetalous flowers that are
closed in the throat (or entrance to the
tube) are said to be grinning or
personate (personate means masked).
Snapdragon is a typical example; also
toadflax or butter-and-eggs (Fig. 186),
and many related plants. Personate
flowers usually have definite relations to Fig. 186.—Personate Flower
insect pollination. Observe how an insect of Toadflax.
forces his head into the closed throat of
the toadflax.
The peculiar flowers of the pea tribes are explained in Figs. 187,
188.
Spathe Flowers.—In many plants, very simple (often naked)
flowers are borne in dense, more or less fleshy spikes, and the spike
is inclosed in or attended by a leaf, sometimes corolla-like, known as
a spathe. The spike of flowers is technically known as a spadix.
This type of flower is characteristic of the great arum family, which is
chiefly tropical. The commonest wild representatives are Jack-in-the-
pulpit, or Indian turnip, and skunk cabbage. In the former the flowers
are all diclinous and naked. In the skunk cabbage all the flowers are
perfect and have four sepals. The common calla is a good example
of this type of inflorescence.
Composite Flowers.—The head (anthodium) or so-called “flower”
of sunflower (Fig. 189), thistle, aster, dandelion, daisy,
chrysanthemum, goldenrod, is composed of several or many little
flowers, or florets. These florets are inclosed in a more or less
dense and usually green involucre. In the thistle (Fig. 190) this
involucre is prickly. A longitudinal section discloses the florets, all
attached at bottom to a common torus, and densely packed in the
involucre. The pink tips of these florets constitute the showy part of
the head.
 Fig. 188.—Diagram of Alfalfa Flower
in Section:
C, calyx; D, standard; W, wing; K, keel; T, stamen
tube; F, filament of tenth stamen; X, stigma; Y, style;
O, ovary; the dotted lines at E show position of
stamen tube, when pushed upward by insects.
Enlarged.

Fig. 187.—Flowers of the Each floret of the thistle (Fig. 190)

Common Bean, with one flower is a complete flower. At a is the ovary.
opened (a) to show the structure. At b is a much-divided plumy calyx,

known as the pappus. The

corolla is long-tubed, rising
above the pappus, and is
enlarged and 5-lobed at
the top, c. The style
projects at e. The five
anthers are united about
the style in a ring at d.
Such anthers are said to
be syngenesious. These
are the various parts of the
florets of the Compositæ.
In some cases the pappus
is in the form of barbs, Fig. 189.—Head of Sunflower.
bristles, or scales, and
sometimes it is wanting. The pappus, as we shall see later, assists in
 distributing the seed. Often the
florets are not all alike. The corolla
of those in the outer circles may
be developed into a long,
straplike, or tubular part, and the
head then has the appearance of
being one flower with a border of
petals. Of such is the sunflower
(Fig. 189), aster, bachelor’s button
or cornflower, and field daisy (Fig.
211). These long corolla-limbs are
called rays. In some cultivated
composites, all the florets may
develop rays, as in the dahlia and
the chrysanthemum. In some
species, as dandelion, all the
florets naturally have rays.
Fig. 190.—Longitudinal Section of Syngenesious arrangement of
Thistle Head; also a Floret of anthers is the most characteristic
Thistle. single feature of the composites.
Double Flowers.—Under the
stimulus of cultivation and increased food supply, flowers tend to
become double. True doubling arises in two ways, morphologically:
(1) stamens or pistils may produce petals (Fig. 191); (2) adventitious
or accessory petals may arise in the circle of petals. Both these
categories may be present in the same flower. In the full double
hollyhock the petals derived from the staminal column are shorter
and make a rosette in the centre of the flower. In Fig. 192 is shown
the doubling of a daffodil by the modification of stamens. Other
modifications of flowers are sometimes known as doubling. For
example, double dahlias, chrysanthemums, and sunflowers are
forms in which the disk flowers have developed rays. The snowball is
another case. In the wild snowball the external flowers of the cluster
are large and sterile. In the cultivated plant all the flowers have
become large and sterile. Hydrangea is a similar case.
Fig. 191.—Petals arising from the Staminal
Column of Hollyhock, and accessory petals
in the corolla-whorl.

Fig. 192.—Narcissus or Daffodil. Single flower at the right.

Suggestions.—145. If the pupil has been skilfully conducted through this
chapter by means of careful study of specimens rather than as a mere memorizing
process, he will be in mood to challenge any flower that he sees and to make an
effort to understand it. Flowers are endlessly modified in form; but they can be
understood if the pupil looks first for the anthers and ovaries. How may anthers
and ovaries always be distinguished? 146. It is excellent practice to find the
flowers in plants that are commonly known by name, and to determine the main
points in their structure. What are the flowers in Indian corn? pumpkin or squash?
celery? cabbage? potato? pea? tomato? okra? cotton? rhubarb? chestnut? wheat?
oats? 147. Do all forest trees have flowers? Explain. 148. Name all the
monœcious plants you know. Diœcious. 149. What plants do you know that bloom
before the leaves appear? Do any bloom after the leaves fall? 150. Explain the
flowers of marigold, hyacinth, lettuce, clover, asparagus, garden calla, aster,
locust, onion, burdock, lily-of-the-valley, crocus, Golden Glow, rudbeckia, cowpea.
151. Define a flower.

Note to the Teacher.—It cannot be urged too often that the specimens
themselves be studied. If this chapter becomes a mere recitation on names and
definitions, the exercise will be worse than useless. Properly taught by means of
the flowers themselves, the names become merely incidental and a part of the
pupil’s language, and the subject has living interest.