ST. JOSEPH'S CONVEN T SR. SEC.

SCHOOL
JALGAON
AFFILIATED TO CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION NEW DELHI

LL AD KIN I) L\' I I GI IT

INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
TOPIC

LIGHT DEPENDEN T RESISTOR (LDR)

PRESENTED BY

KAUSHAL YOGESH KABRA

UNDER GUIDANCE OF
Saroj Miss
 CERT IFICA TE
ST. JOSEPH'S CONVENT SR. SEC. SCHOOL, JALGAON

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I I .• \ I ) Kl'sl>I ,.I . I I(; 11 l .

This is to certify that this is a bonafide work of

Kaushal Yogesh Kabra of XII A. He has performed this
investigat ory project entitled Light Dependen t
Resistor (LDR) for the subject Physics during the
academic year 2023-2024 .

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Principal's Signatur e Teacher's Signatur e

PRINCIPAL
St.Joseph' s Convent
Sr . Sec . School ,Jalgaon
Maha rashtra-425001

Examiner's Signatur e
 Ac kn ow led gem en t

The whole proj ect requ ired assistance from

many and was a chance to gain mor e knowledge.

I wou ld like to than k our Prin cipa l Sister

Myr tle for her enco urag eme nt for the proj ect.

I also wis h to express my grat itud e and special

than ks to Saroj Miss , our Physics teac her for
her valuable guid ance for com plet ion of this
proj ect.

I wou ld also like to than k Sir Rap hae l Leo and

Mr Jaip ath for thei r kin d sup por t.
 INDEX

1. CERTIFICAT E

2. ACKNOWLE DGEMENT

3. INTRODUCT ION

4. FUNCTIONS OF LDR

5. APPLICATIO N OF LDR

6. ADVANTAGES AND USES

7. VARIATION OF CURRENT THROUGH LDR.

8. BIBILIOGRA PHY
 INTRODU CTION

The general purpose photoconductive cell is also known as LDR - light

dependent resistor. It is a type of semiconductor and its conductivity
changes with proportional change in the intensity of light. The complete
principle of an LDR is as follows. In a semiconductor an energy gap exists
between conduction electrons and valence electrons. As an LDR is also
known as semiconductor photo-conductive transducer, when light is
incident on it, a photon is absorbed and thereby it excites an electron from
valence band into conduction band. Due to such new electrons coming up
in conduction band area, the electrical resistance of the device decreases.
Thus the LDR or photoconductive transducer has the resistance which is
, . h.. c
the function of radiation intensity. ao-, >,:z -~--n~ Here we must note that

any radiation with wavelength greater than the value obtained in above
equation CANNOT PRODUCE any change in the resistance of this
device.

· glass clear coating over

entire top surface
cadmium sulphide cover 1st electrode 2nd electrode
wire ___.............,....,,,........._

contacts
photoconductlve
material o...er
ceramic top surface

wire terminals
"terminals A r90 3
Typical Conslruction of a Plastic COIied Phalocell
for connection
Why is cadmium sulphide used in LDRS?

Light dependent resistors (LDRs) are made from cadmium sulphide containing
no or very few free electrons when not illuminated. Its resistance is then quite
high. When it absorbs light, electrons move to the conduction band and the
conductivity of the material increases. Cadmium sulphide (CdS) is, therefore, a
photoconductor. It has a peak sensitivity wavelength (A) of about 560nm to
600nm in the visible spectral range.

Construction:

Device consists of a pair of metal film contacts separated by a snake- like track
of cadmium sulphide film, designed to provide the maximum possible contact
area with the two metal films. The structure is housed in a clear plastic or resin
case, to provide free access to external light. Practical LDRs are available in a
variety of sizes and package styles, the most popular size having a face diameter
of roughly 10 mm.
 FUNCTIONS OF LOR
The photo resistor or light dependent resistor is attractive in many electronic
circuit designs because of its low cost, simple structure and rugged features .
While it may not have some of the features of the photo-diode and photo-
transistor, it is ideal for many applications. The properties of photo resistors can
vary quite widely dependent upon the type of material used. Some have very
long time constants, for example.

• Light dependent resistors are a crucial part in any electric circuit which is
to be turned off and on automatically in accordant to the level of ambient
light for instance.in night security lighting or solar powered garden lights.
• Light dependent resistors are usually used in circuits where it is necessary
to detect the presence or the level of light. They are commonly used in
photographic light meters and they are sensitive to light. This device is
made from semiconductor materials like cadmium sulphide.
• Light dependent resistors are used to re-charge a light during different
changes in the light or they are made to tum a light on during certain
changes in lights. One of the most common uses for light dependent
resistors is in traffic lights.

ANALOG APPLICATIO NS:

• Camera Exposure Control

• Auto Slide Focus - dual cell
• Photocopy Machines - density of toner
• Colorimetric Test Equipment
• Densitometer
• Electronic Scales dual cell
 • Automatic Gain Control - modulated light source
• Automated Rear View Mirror

DIGITAL APPLICATIONS

• Automatic Headlight Dimmer

• Night Light Control
• Oil Burner Flame Out
• Street Light Control
• Absence/Presence (beam breaker)
• Position Sensor
p

APPLICA TIONS OF LOR

Photo res istors urc most of\cn used as light sensors. They are often utilized
whe n it is r<Xtuircd to detect the presence and absence of light or measure the
light int ensity. Examples are night lights and photography light meters. An
interesting hobbyist application for light dependent resistors is the line
fo llowing robot, which uses a light source and two or more LDRs to determine
the needed change of course. Sometimes, they are used outside sensing
applications, for example in audio compressors, because their reaction to light is
not instantaneous, and so the function of LDR is to introduce a delayed
response.

LDR

~-----.-J. -- GND
Light sensor circuit example

J)LIGHT SENSOR:

If a basic light sensor is needed, an LDR circuit such as the one in the figure can
be used. The LED lights up when the intensity of the light reaching the LDR
resistor is sufficient. The 1OK variable resistor is used to set the threshold at
which the LED will tum on. If the LDR light is below the threshold intensity,
the LED will in the off state. In real-world applications, the LED would be
replaced with a relay or the output could be wired to a microcontroller or some
 j·

other device. If a darkness sensor was needed, where the LED would light in the
absence of light, the LDR and the two I OK resistors should be swapped.

2)AUD IO COMP RESSO RS:

Audio compressors are devices which reduce the gain of the audio amplifier
when the amplitude of the signal is above a set value. This is done to amplify
soft sounds while preventing the loud sounds from clipping. Some compressors
use an LDR and a small lamp (LED or electroluminescent panel) connected to
the signal source to create changes in signal gain. This technique is believed by
some to add smooth er characteristics to the signal because the response of the
light and the resistor soften the attack and release. The delay in the response
time in these applica tions is on the order of 0.1 s.
 ADVANT AGE S AND USE S

• The LDR is made of a piece of exposed semiconductor material such as CdS

photoconductive cells with spectral responses similar to that of the human
eye. That changes its electrical resistance from several thousand ohms in the
dark to only a few hundred ohms when light falls on it by creating a hole-
electron pairs in the material. The net effect is an improvement in its
conductivity with a decrease in resistance for an increase in illumination.
Also, photo resistive cells have a long response time requiring many seconds
to respond to a change in the light intensity.
• These CdS cells are inexpensive, and hence used extensively in camera light
meters, street lights, clock radios, alarm devices solar street lamps, etc.
• They are also used in some dynamic compressors togethe r with a small light
emitting diode to control gain reduction.
• Ge:Cu LDRs are among the best far-infrared detectors available, and are used
for astronomy and infrared spectroscopy
• Connecting a LDR in series with a standard resistor across a single DC
supply voltage one major advantage a different voltage will appear at their
junctio n for different levels of light.
 VAR IAT ION OF CURRENT
TlIR OU GH LOR:
the
A /111:To study the variat ion of curren t throug h a LOR with the intensity of
incide nt radiat ion .

), a meter
A PPA RA TUS:12 V bulb, LDR, Milliammeter, Battery (6 v or 9 v
scale, bulb holder, key.

DIAGRAM:

~:w Source Of Licht

~----,✓-
J;/~r- --- - - - - - - - ~
L11ht

LOR

I / 1\

..._____ +-'I ~ t-1------Sr-♦---(. ,_____,_

6v/9v Key

PRO CED URE:

m.
• The LDR was connected in senes as shown in the circuit diagra
Initially the LDR was covered using the hand. The reading in the
milliammeter was measured to be very low due to high resistance in the
LDR.
light
• Then the reading in the milliammeter was noted with the room
alone.
cm, 8
• Later the given bulb was kept at 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm, 6 cm, 7
of
cm, 9 cm. 10 cm, 15 cm, 20 cm and 25 cm from the LDR right in front
it and the corresponding readings were noted.
a
-a
-
)I
),
• A graph was plotted with I along Y- Axis and distance along the X-axis.
It was observed th at as the intensity of illumination of LDR increases, its
rcsistnncc decreases and th ere fo re current through the circuit increases.
~ The graph obeyed inverse square law.

~
PR ELIMINARY OBSERV ATIONS
L)
_. • Reading shown by the ammeter when LDR was covered= 0 rnA
• Reading shown by the ammeter when the room was illuminate d= l0mA
"
a) OBSERV ATION
i)
S. NO DISTANC E OF LOR FROM CURREN T THROUG H LOR 1
~-
, c-
1
THEBUL BDCM

25
mA

10
I

2 20 10
'• 3
4
15
10
10
10
10
• 5
6
9
8 10
7 7 10
8 6 20
9 5 30
10 4 50
11 3 80
12 2 120

ROUGH DIAGRAM :

'

I (Ma} f
---+ d (cm)
RESULT:

1. The vuriution of current through LDR with the intensity of incident

radiation wus studied .
2. From the graph it was observed that as intensity of illumination of LDR
increases, its resistance decreases and therefore current through the circuit
increases. The graph obeyed inverse square law.

PRECA U TIONS:
I . If ordinary light is used the intensity of light decreases rapidly with
distance
2. Use uA if mA is not suitable.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. There may not be variation of current in the circuit if LDR resistance is
very high.
2. Avoid loose connection.
3. A void laser source because its intensity does not vary too much over a
large distance.
 B IB IL IO G R A P H Y .

1. Wikipedia - {www.w
ikipedia.com}

2. Google-{www .google.
com}

3. 12th NCERT TEXTBO

OK.

4. 12th HSC TEXTBOOK

.