WEEK 2

3.0 FORCES IN STATIC FLUIDS

In this chapter, we will study the forces acting on or generated by fluids at rest.
3.1 FLUIDS STATICS

The general rules of statics (as applied in solid mechanics) apply to fluids at rest. From earlier
discussion we know that:
 A static fluid can have no shearing force acting on it, and that
 Any force between the fluid and the boundary must be acting at right angles to the
boundary.
Note that this statement is also true for curved surfaces, and in this case the force acting at any
point is normal to the surface at that point. The statement is also true for any imaginary plane
in a static fluid. We use this fact in our analysis by considering elements of fluid bounded by
imaginary planes.

Figure 3.1: Pressure force normal to the boundary

We also know that:

 For an element of fluid at rest– it applies that the sum of the components of forces in
any direction will be zero.
 The sum of the moments of forces on the element about any point must also be zero
It is common to test equilibrium by resolving forces along three mutually perpendicular axes
and also by taking moments in three mutually perpendicular planes and to equate these to zero.

3.2 PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT

When a fluid is contained in a vessel, it will exert a normal force at all points on the boundary
it is in contact with. Since these boundaries may be large and the force may differ from place to
place it is convenient to work in terms of pressure, P, which is the force per unit area.

Pressure intensity is the ratio of the normal force which exerts on the unit area of its
boundary. Pressure is said to be uniform, if the force exerted on each unit area of a
boundary is the same.

F
P=
A (3.1)
where, P = pressure intensity, F = force, and A = area over which the force is applied.

The unit of pressure is Newton’s per square metre, (N/m 2) or Pascal (Pa), i.e. 1Pa = 1N/m2.
Also frequently used is the alternative SI unit the bar.
5 5
Where, 1bar = 10 N/m2 =10 Pa

3.2.1 Pressure Head of a Liquid

A liquid is subjected to pressure due to its own weight and this pressure increases with an
increase in the depth of the liquid.

Consider a liquid at rest contained by a vessel as illustrated in Figure 3.2. The liquid will exert
pressure on sides and bottom of the vessel. Now let a cylinder be made to stand in the liquid as
shown the figure.

Figure 3.2: Schematic of Pressure head

Let, h = height of the liquid in the cylinder,

A = Area of the cylinder,
w = Specific weight of the liquid, and
P = Pressure intensity
Pressure on the base of the cylinder = Weight of the liquid in the cylinder
i.e. PA = wAh
thus, P = wh [since w=ρg]
P = ρgh (3.2)
We could see from Equation (3.2) that the pressure intensity of liquid depends on the height
which is the distance from the bottom of the vessel to the free surface. However, it is
sometimes convenient to express the pressure intensity of a liquid in terms of the liquid height,
h, known as the pressure head or static head.

P P
h= =
i.e. ρg w → Pressure head or static head

3.2.2 Pascal’s Law for Pressure ata Point

Pascal’s law states that pressure intensity at any point in a liquid at rest is the same in all
directions.

(Proof that pressure acts equally in all directions.)

By considering a small element of fluid in the form of a triangular prism which contains a point
P, we can establish a relationship between the three pressures Px in the x direction, Py in the y
direction and Ps in the direction normal to the sloping face.
Figure 3.3: Triangular prismatic element of fluid

The fluid is at rest, so we know there are no shearing forces on the faces of the element, and we
know that all forces due to pressure are acting at right angles to the surfaces.i.e.
Px is pressure acting perpendicular to surface ABFE,
Py is pressure acting perpendicular to surface FECD, and
Ps is pressure acting perpendicular to surface ABCD.
And, as the fluid is at rest, in equilibrium, the sum of the forces due to pressure in any direction
is zero.
The sum of forces in the x-direction is:
∑ Fx
= Px×AABFE+ ( - Ps ×AABCD)sinθ= Pxδyδz – Psδsδz(δy/δs)
= Pxδyδz - Psδyδz
For any fluid element at rest, the sum of the components of forces in any direction will be zero.
i.e Pxδyδz – Psδyδz = 0

∴
Px = Ps (3.3)

Similarly, the sum of forces in the y-direction is given as;

∑ Fy
= Py×ACDEF+ ( - Ps ×AABCD)cosθ+ Wfluidelement
= Pyδxδz – Psδsδz (δx/δs) + ρg×0.5δxδyδz
Considering the fact that δx, δy, and δz are all infinitesimal quantities, and that δxδyδz is
∑ Fy
negligible compared to δxδz coupled with the fact that = 0 for static fluid.
∴
Py = Ps (3.4)
Thus, from Equations (3.3) and (3.4),

Px = Py = Ps

Considering the prismatic element again, Psis the pressure on a plane at any angle θ, the x, y
and z-directions could be any orientation. The element is so small that it can be considered a
point so the derived expression Px = Py = Ps indicates that pressure at any point is the same in
all directions.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3.1
The diameter of ram and plunger of an hydraulic press are 200mm and 30mm respectively.
Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press, if 400N force is applied at the plunger.

Solution:
Given data: Force on plunger, F = 400N
Diameter of the plunger, d = 30mm = 0.03m
Diameter of the ram, D = 200mm = 0.2m
To find: Load lifted (W)?
Schematic of the problem:

Figure 3.4: Hydraulic press

π π
A p = d 2 = 0 . 032=7 . 07×10−4 m2
Area of the plunger, 4 4
π π
Ar = D2 = 0 .2 2=0 . 03 m2
Area of the ram, 4 4
F 400
P p= = =5 . 66×10 5 N /m2
Pressure intensity on the plunger,
A p 7 . 07×10 m
−4 2

We need to employ Pascal’s law to determine the pressure intensity on the ram, Pr.
5 2
Where, Pr =P p=5 . 66×10 N /m
Load (W )
Pr = =5 . 66×10 5 N /m2
Ar
Load (W )=A r ×5 . 66×10 5 N /m 2=0 .03 m2 ×5 .66×105 N /m2 ≈17 KN

3.2.3 Variation of Pressure Vertically In a Fluid under Gravity

Shown in Figure 3.5 is a small element of fluid which is a vertical column of constant cross-
sectional area, A, surrounded by the same fluid of mass density ρ. The pressure at the bottom
of the cylinder is P1at level z1, and at the top isP2at level z2. The fluid is at rest and in
equilibrium so all the forces in the vertical direction sum to zero. I.e. we have
Force due to P1on A (upward) = P1A
Force due toP2 on A (downward) = P2A
Force due to weight of element (downward) =mg
= mass density × volume = ρgA(z2 – z1)
Taking upward forces as positive, in equilibrium we have
P1A - P2A - ρgA(z2 – z1) = 0
P2 - P1= ρg(z2 – z1)=w(z2 – z1)(3.5)
Thus in a fluid under gravity, pressure decreases with increase in height z = (z2 – z1).
 Figure 3.5: Vertical elemental cylinder of fluid

3.2.4 Equality of Pressure at the Same Level in a Static Fluid

Consider the horizontally small cylindrical element of fluid shown in Figure 3.6, with cross-
sectional area A, in a fluid of density ρ, pressure P1 at the left hand end and pressure at the right
hand end.

The fluid is at equilibrium so the sum of the forces acting in the x direction is zero.

PlA=PrA

Pl=Pr (3.6)
Pressure in the horizontal direction is constant.

Figure 3.6: Horizontal elemental cylinder of fluid

3.2.5 General Equation for Variation of Pressure in a Static Fluid

Here we show how the above observations for vertical and horizontal elements of fluids can be
generalized for an element of any orientation.
Consider the cylindrical element of fluid in the figure above, inclined at an angle θ to the
vertical, length δs, cross-sectional area A in a static fluid of mass density ρ. The pressure at the
end with height z is P and at the end of height z+δz is P+δP.
 Figure 3.7: A cylindrical element of fluid at an arbitrary orientation.

The forces acting on the element are

PA = force acting at right-angles to the end of the face at z
(P+δP)A = force acting at right-angles to the end of the face at z+δz
mg = ρ × Aδs × g
There are also forces from the surrounding fluid acting normal to these sides of the
element.
For equilibrium of the element the resultant of forces in any direction is zero.
Resolving the forces in the direction along the central axis gives
PA− (P+δP)A−ρgAδscosθ = 0
δP = - ρgδscosθ
δP/δs = - ρgcosθ
Or in the differential form
dP/ds = - ρgcosθ = - w cosθ
o
If θ = 90 then s is in the x or y directions, (i.e. horizontal), so the weight of the element acting
vertically down

( dPds )
θ=90 o
=
dP dP
= =0
dx dy

Confirming that pressure on any horizontal plane is zero.

If θ = 0o then s is in the z direction (vertical) so

( dPds )
θ=0 o
=
dP
dz
=− ρg
(3.7)
The pressure variation with elevation is found by integrating Equation 3.7:
dP=−∫ ρ gdz
z2 z2
P2 −P1 =−∫z ρ gdz =−∫z wdz
1 1 (3.8)
3.3 PRESSURE AND HEAD
dP
=−ρg=−w
In a static fluid of constant density we have the relationship dz , as shown above.
This can be integrated to give
P=− ρ gz+cons tan t
In a liquid, the pressure at any depth z measured from the free surface is given as:
 P= ρ gh+cons tan t
Where z = - h(seethe figure below)

Figure 3.7:Fluid head measurement in a tank

At the surface of fluids we are normally concerned with the atmospheric pressure,Patmoshpere. So
P= ρ gh+Patmoshpere
As we live constantly under the pressure of the atmosphere, and everything else exists under
this pressure, it is convenient (and often done) to take atmospheric pressure as the datum. So
we quote pressure as above or below atmospheric.
Pressure quoted in this way is known as gauge pressure i.e.

P guage= ρ gh=wh
Gauge pressure is

Gauge pressure is the pressure measured with the help of pressure measuring instrument, in
which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric pressure on the scale is
marked as zero.
Gauges record pressure above or below the local atmospheric pressure, since they measure the
difference in pressure of the liquid to which they are connected and that of the surrounding air.
If the pressure of the liquid is below the local atmospheric pressure, then the guage is
designated vacuum gauge and the recoded value indicates the amount by which the pressure of
the liquid is below local atmospheric pressure, i.e. negative pressure.
Hence, vacuum pressure (or negative pressure) is defined as the pressure below the
atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure
 Figure 3.8: Relationship between pressures

The lower limit of any pressure is zero - that is the pressure in a perfect vacuum. Pressure
measured above this datum is known as absolute pressure i.e.

Absolute pressure is
Pabsolute =ρ gh+Patmoshpere (3.8)
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure

As g is (approximately) constant, the gauge pressure can be given by stating the vertical height,
h, of anyfluid of densityρ which is equal to this pressure.
P= ρgh
This vertical height, h, is known as head of fluid.

Note: If pressure is quoted in head, the density of the fluid must also be given.

Example:
−2
We can quote a pressure of 500KNm in terms of the height of a column of water of density,ρ
= 1000kg/m3. Using P = ρgh,
P 500×103
h= = =50 . 95 m
ρg 1000×9 . 81 ofwater
And in terms of Mercury with density, ρ = 13.6×103kg/m3.
P 500×103
h= = =3 .75 m
ρg 13 . 6×103 ×9 . 81 of Mercury

3.4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

The pressure of a fluid is typically measured by engineers with the use of manometers or
mechanical gauges.
Manometers:
Manometers are defined as devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid
by balancing the column of the fluid by the same or another column of liquid.
Manometers are classified as follows;
(a) Simple manometers;
1. Piezometer,
2. U-tube manometer, and
3. Single column manometer (Advance U-tube manometer).
(b) Differential manometers

Mechanical gauges:
Mechanical gauges are devices in which pressure is measured by balancing the fluid
column by spring (elastic element) or dead weight. Generally, these gauges are used for
measuring high pressure and where high precision is not required. The commonly used
mechanical gauges are:
1. Bourdon tube pressure gauge,
2. Diaphragm pressure gauge,
3. Bellow pressure gauge, and
4. Dead-weight pressure gauge.

3.4.1Simple Manometers

Simple manometer is one which consists of a glass tube whose one end is connected to a point
where pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open to atmosphere. The
relationship between pressure and head is used for pressure measurement in the simple
manometer (also known asa liquid gauge).
3.4.1.1 The Piezometer
The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the top, which is attached to the top of a vessel
containing liquid at a pressure (higher than atmospheric) to be measured. An example is shown
in the Figure 3.9. This simple device is known as a Piezometer tube. As the tube is open to the
atmosphere the pressure measured is relative to atmospheric so is gauge pressure.

Figure 3.9: A simple piezometer tube manometers

Pressure at A = pressure due to column of liquid above A

P A =ρ gh 1
Pressure at B = pressure due to column of liquid above B
 P B=ρ gh 2

This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and only when the liquid height is
convenient to measure. It must not be too small or too large and pressure changes must be
detectable.

Class Work 1:
If the distance between the bottom and top of the liquid in the piezometer tube shown in Figure
3.9 is 4m. What is the maximum gauge pressure that can be measured if (a) the liquid is water
and (b) the liquid is mercury? Remember that the densities of water and mercury are
1000kg/m3and 13.6×103kg/m3 respectively.

3.4.1.2The “U”-Tube Manometer

The “U”-Tube manometer enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be measured with
the same instrument. The “U” is connected as shown in Figure 3.10 and filled with a fluid
called the manometric-fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a mass
density less than that of the manometric fluid and the two fluids should not be able to mix
readily - that is, they must be immiscible.

Figure 3.10: U-tube manometer

(i) For positive pressure – refer to Figure 3.10 (a).

Pressure in a continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal level so,
Pressure at B = pressure at C
P B=PC
(i.e. Pressure above X-X in the left hand arm = Pressure above X-X in the right hand arm)
For the left hand arm
Pressure at B = pressure at A + pressure due to height h1 of fluid being measured
P B=P A + ρ gh1
For the right hand arm
Pressure at C = pressure at D + pressure due to height h2 of manometric fluid
PC =P Atmoshpere +ρ man gh2
As we are measuring gauge pressure we can subtract PAtmoshperic giving
P B=PC
P A =ρman gh 2 −ρ gh 1=wman h2−wh1 (3.9)

If the fluid being measured is a gas, the density will probably be very low compared to the
manometric fluid density i.e. ρman>>ρ (i.ewman>>w). In this case the term wh1can be neglected,
and the gauge pressure is given by

P A =w man h2 (3.10)

(i) For negative pressure – refer to Figure 3.10 (b).

Pressure at B = pressure at C
P B=PC
(i.e. Pressure above X-X in the left hand arm = Pressure above X-X in the right hand arm)
For the left hand arm
Pressure at B = pressure at A + pressure due to height h1 of fluid being measured
P B=P A +ρ gh1 +ρ man gh2
For the right hand arm
Pressure at C = 0
P B=PC
P A =−( ρ man gh 2 +ρ gh 1 )=−( wman h 2 +wh1 ) (3.11)
If ρman>>ρ (i.ewman>>w), then
P A =−ρman gh 2 =−w man h2 (3.12)
3.4.1.3Advances to the “U” tube manometer (Single column manometer)
The “U”-tube manometer has the disadvantage that the change in height of the liquid in both
sides mustbe read. This can be avoided by making the diameter of one side very large
compared to the other. In thiscase the side with the large area moves very little when the small
area side move considerably more.

The manometer in Figure 3.11 is arranged to measure the pressure difference in a gas of
negligible density. If the datum line indicates the level of the manometricfluid when the
pressure difference is zero and the height differences when pressure is applied is as shown in
2
Figure 3.11, the volume of liquid transferred from the left side to the right = z 2 ×( πd / 4 )
And the fall in level of the left side is

z1 = Volume moved /Area of left side

( )
2
z 2 ( πd 2 / 4 ) d
= =z 2
πD 2 / 4 D
 Figure 3.11: U-tube with one leg enlarged

We know from the theory of the “U” tube manometer that the height different in the two
columns gives the pressure difference (see Equation 3.13) so

[ ( )]
2
d
P1 −P2 =ρg z 2 +z 2
D

[ ( )]
2
d
= ρ gz 2 1+
D
2
Clearly if D is very much larger than d then (d/D) is very small so
P1 −P2 =ρ gz 2

So only one reading need be taken to measure the pressure difference.

If the pressure to be measured is very small, then, tilting the arm provides a convenient way of
obtaining a larger (more easily read) movement of the manometer. The above arrangement
with a tilted arm is shown in the Figure 3.12.

Figure 3.12: Tilted U-tube manometer

The pressure difference is still given by the height change of the manometric fluid but by
placing the scale along the line of the tilted arm and taking this reading large movements will
be observed. The pressure difference is then given by

P1 −P2 =ρ gz 2
 = ρ gx sinθ

The sensitivity to pressure change can be increased further by a greater inclination of the
manometer arm, alternatively the density of the manometric fluid may be changed.

3.4.1.4 Differential Manometers

A differential manometer is used to measure pressure differences between two points in a pipe
or in two different pipes. Differential manometer in its simplest form consist of U-tube
containing a heavy or lighter manometric fluid which its ends are connected to a pressurized
vessel at two points and the pressure difference between these two points can be measured.

The common types of differential manometers are:

1. U-tube differential manometer, and
2. Inverted U-tube (or n-tube) differential manometer

U-tube differential manometer – Measurement of pressure difference between two points in a

pipe.

If the manometer is arranged as shown in Figure 3.11, then

Pressure at C = pressure at D
PC =P D
PC =P A +γh a
P D=P B+w(h b −h )+wman h
P A + wha =P B +w (hb −h )+w man h

Giving the pressure difference

P A −PB=w(h b −h)+wman h−wha
P A −PB=w(h b −ha )+( wman −w)h (3.11)
Again, if the fluid in the vessel shown in Figure 3.10 is gas, the pressure difference will be

P A −PB=wman h (3.12)
Figure 3.13: Measurement of pressure difference between two points with U-tube manometer

Quiz 1: Briefly explain why Equation 3.11 is simplified as Equation 3.12.

Assignment 2: A U-tube manometer is arranged to measure the pressure difference between

point A and B in a pipeline conveying fluid as shown in Figure 3.13. The manometric liquid
density is 13600kg/m3, h is half a meter, and point A is 200cm lower than point B. Calculate
the pressure difference if the conveying fluid is (a) water with ρ = 1000kg/m3, and (b) methane
with ρ = 0.72kg/m3.

U-tube differential manometer connected to two pipes at the same level.

If the manometer is arranged as shown in Figure 3.14, then

Pressure at C = pressure at D
PC =P D
PC =P A +(h1 + h)w A
P D=P B+w B h 1 +w man h
P A +(h1 + h)w A=P B+ w B h1 +w man h
The pressure difference between A and B is;
P A −PB=w B h1 +w man h−(h1 +h)w A
P A −PB=(w B−w A )h 1 +w man h−hw A
w B =w A
but if , then;
P A −PB=wman h−hw A
P A −PB=(w man−w A )h
 Figure 3.14: Two pipes at the same level

where,
h = difference in manometric fluid level
h1 = distance from point A to the manometric fluid level in the right limb
PA = gauge pressure at point A
PB = gauge pressure at point B
wA and wB = weight density of liquid A and B respectively
wman = weight density of the manometric fluid

U-tube differential manometer connected to two pipes at different levels.

Pressure at C = pressure at D
PC =P D
PC =P A +(h A + h)w A
P D=P B+w B h B +w man h
P A +(h A +h )w A =PB + wB h B+ w man h
The pressure difference between A and B is;
P A −PB=w B h B +w man h−(h A +h)w A
P A −PB=(w man−w A )h+w B hB−w A h A
 Figure 3.15: U-tube differential manometer

Inverted U-tube ( or n-tube) differential manometer

This type of manometer is used to measure pressure differences where accuracy is of major
concern.

Figure 3.16: Inverted U-tube manometer

Pressure at C = pressure at D
PC =P D
PC =P A −(h A +h )w A
P D=P B−w B hB −w man h
P A −(h A+h)w A=P B−w B h B−w man h
The pressure difference between A and B is;
P A −PB=(h A +h)w A−w B h B−w man h
P A −PB=w A h A−w B hB −(w man −w A )h

3.4.5 Choice of Manometer

Care must be taken when attaching the manometer to vessel in the sense that no burrs must be
present around this joint. The presence of burrs would alter the flow causing local pressure
variations to affect the measurement.

Some disadvantages of manometers:

 Slow response - only really useful for very slowly varying pressures - no use at all for
fluctuating pressures.
 For the “U” tube manometer two measurements must be taken simultaneously to get the
h value. This may be avoided by using a tube with a much larger cross-sectional area on
one side of the manometer than the other.
 It is often difficult to measure small variations in pressure - a different manometric fluid
maybe required - alternatively a sloping manometer may be employed; It cannot be
used for very large pressures unless several manometers are connected in series;
 For very accurate work the temperature and relationship between temperature and ρ
 must be known.

Some advantages of manometers:

 They are very simple.
 No calibration is required - the pressure can be calculated from first principles.

Questions:
1. Assume the specific weight of the
liquid in the hydraulic jack shown
in Figure 3.17 is 9.8KN/m3; find the
load lifted by large piston when a
force of 0.4KN is exerted on the
small piston.

Figure 3.17: Hydraulic jack

2. The pressure of diesel flowing in a

pipeline is measure using U-tube 4. .
manometer as shown in figure 3.18.
The left end of the manometer is
connected to the pipeline and the
right-limb is open to the
atmosphere. The centre of the pipe
is 100mm below the level of
mercury in the right limb. The
specific gravity of the diesel and
mercury are 0.9 and 13.6
respectively. If the difference of
mercury level in the two limbs is
0.16m, determine the absolute
pressure of the oil in the pipe.

Figure 3.18: Pipeline flow with U-

tube manometer

3. 5. ,,
6. ,
2.5 Mechanical Gauges