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NETWORKING
Eighth Edition
Guide to
Networking
Essentials
Greg Tomsho
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions,
some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed
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Guide to Networking Essentials © 2020, 2016 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Eighth Edition Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage.
Greg Tomsho
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Publisher does not warrant or guarantee any of the products described herein or perform any independent analysis in connection with any of
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2019
Brief Contents
introduction�� xvii
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Computer Networks...........................................................1
CHAPTER 2
Network Hardware Essentials��59
CHAPTER 3
Network Topologies and Technologies��115
CHAPTER 4
Network Media��173
CHAPTER 5
Network Protocols��223
CHAPTER 6
IP Addressing��285
CHAPTER 7
Network Reference Models and Standards��345
CHAPTER 8
Network Hardware in Depth��373
CHAPTER 9
Introduction to Network Security��431
CHAPTER 10
Wide Area Networking and Cloud Computing��489
CHAPTER 11
Network Operating System Fundamentals��533
CHAPTER 12
Network Management and Administration��599
iii
iv Brief Contents
CHAPTER 13
The Internet of Things (IoT)�� 667
CHAPTER 14
Troubleshooting and Support�� 721
APPENDIX A
Network Troubleshooting Guide�� 775
APPENDIX B
MTA Exam 98-366 Objectives�� 781
GLOSSARY�� 785
INDEX�� 807
Table of Contents
Introduction�� xvii
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Computer Networks�� ..1
An Overview of Computer Concepts�� 3
Basic Functions of a Computer��3
Storage Components�� 5
Personal Computer Hardware��7
Computer Boot Procedure�� 12
The Fundamentals of Network Communication�� 15
Network Components�� 15
Steps of Network Communication�� 18
Layers of the Network Communication Process�� 19
How Two Computers Communicate on a LAN: Some Details�� 20
Network Terms Explained�� 28
LANs, Internetworks, WANs, and MANs��28
Internet, Intranet, and Extranet��32
Packets and Frames��32
Clients and Servers��35
Network Models�� 37
Peer-to-Peer/Workgroup Model��37
Server/Domain-Based Model��39
Chapter Summary�� 47
Key Terms�� 48
Review Questions�� 48
Packet Tracer Labs�� 51
Critical Thinking�� 57
CHAPTER 2
Network Hardware Essentials�� 59
Network Repeaters and Hubs�� 61
Multiport Repeaters and Hubs��62
Network Switches�� 65
Basic Switch Operation��65
vi Table of Contents
Wireless Access Points�� 74

Basic AP Operation�� 75
Network Interface Cards�� 76
NIC Basics�� 77
Selecting a NIC��80
NIC Drivers��80
Wireless NICs�� 82
Routers�� 84
Routers Connect LANs��86
Routers Create Broadcast Domains�� 88
Routers Work with IP Addresses and Routing Tables��89
Key Terms�� 96
CHAPTER 3
Network Topologies and Technologies�� 115
Physical Topologies�� 116
Physical Bus Topology�� 117
Physical Star Topology�� 119
Physical Ring Topology�� 121
Point-to-Point Topology�� 122
Logical Topologies�� 125
Network Technologies�� 129
Network Technologies and Media��130
Ethernet Networks�� 131
Ethernet Standards��136
Additional Ethernet Standards��139
802.11 Wi-Fi�� 148
Wi-Fi Modes of Operation��148
Wi-Fi Channels and Frequencies�� 149
Wi-Fi Antennas�� 151
Wi-Fi Access Methods and Operation�� 152
Wi-Fi Signal Characteristics�� 153
Wi-Fi Standards�� 155
Wi-Fi Security�� 157
Token Ring Networks��158
Fiber Distributed Data Interface Technology��159
Table of Contents vii

Key Terms�� 160
CHAPTER 4
Network Media�� 173
Wired Networking�� 174
Criteria for Choosing Network Media�� 174
Coaxial Cable��178
Twisted-Pair Cable��178
Structured Cabling: Managing and Installing a UTP Cable Plant��185
Fiber-Optic Cable�� 197
Fiber-Optic Connectors�� 199
Fiber-Optic Installation��200
Fiber-Optic Cable Types��201
Cable-Testing Equipment��201
Wireless Networking�� 202
Wireless Benefits�� 203
Types of Wireless Networks�� 204
Wireless LAN Components�� 205
Wireless LAN Transmission�� 205
LAN Media Selection Criteria�� 210
Key Terms�� 212
CHAPTER 5
Network Protocols�� 223
TCP/IP’s Layered Architecture�� 224
Application-Layer Protocols�� 230
HTTP: Protocol of the World Wide Web�� 231
E-Mail Protocols: POP3, IMAP, and SMTP�� 231
FTP and TFTP��232
Server Message Block��232
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viii Table of Contents
Remote Desktop Protocol��232

Telnet and SSH��233
Simple Network Management Protocol��233
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol��233
Domain Name System��237
Transport-Layer Protocols�� 247

Role of the Transport Layer�� 247
TCP: The Reliable Transport Layer�� 250
Internetwork-Layer Protocols�� 252

Defines and Verifies IP Addresses��252
Routes Packets through an Internetwork��253
Resolves MAC Addresses from IP Addresses��253
Delivers Packets Efficiently��253
Protocols at the Internetwork Layer�� 254
Network Access-Layer Protocols�� 263
Key Terms�� 267
CHAPTER 6
IP Addressing�� 285
IPv4 Addressing�� 286
Binary Math�� 287
Ip Address Classes�� 292
Private Ip Addresses�� 295
Classless Interdomain Routing�� 296
Cidr Notation�� 296
Broadcast Domains�� 297
Subnetting�� 297
Calculating a Subnet Mask�� 298
Supernetting�� 304
Configuring Ipv4 Addresses�� 306
Configuring Multiple Ip Addresses��306
Configuring the Default Gateway�� 308
Ip Configuration Command-Line Tools�� 312
Network Address Translation�� 317
Table of Contents ix
Internet Protocol Version 6�� 319

Ipv6 Overview�� 320
Ipv6 Address Structure�� 320
Ipv6 Address Types�� 322

IPv6 Unicast Addresses��323
Multicast Addresses��327
Anycast Addresses�� 328
IPv6 Autoconfiguration�� 328

Autoconfiguration on Windows Hosts�� 329
Transitioning from IPv4 to IPv6�� 329

Dual IP Layer Architecture�� 330
IPv6-over-IPv4 Tunneling�� 330
Intra-Site Automatic Tunnel Addressing Protocol�� 331
6to4 Tunneling��332
Teredo Tunneling��332
Key Terms�� 335
CHAPTER 7
Network Reference Models and Standards�� 345
Introducing the Osi and Ieee 802 Networking Models�� 346
Role of a Reference Model�� 347
Structure of the Osi Model�� 349
Application Layer��353
Presentation Layer�� 354
Session Layer�� 354
Transport Layer��355
Network Layer��357
Data Link Layer�� 358
Physical Layer�� 359
Summary of the Osi Model�� 359
Ieee 802 Networking Standards�� 361

Ieee 802 Specifications��361
Ieee 802 Extensions to the Osi Reference Model�� 363
x Table of Contents
Key Terms�� 368

CHAPTER 8
Network Hardware in Depth�� 373
Network Switches in Depth�� 374
Switch Port Modes of Operation�� 376
Creating the Switching Table�� 376
Frame Forwarding Methods�� 378
Advanced Switch Features�� 379
Multilayer Switches�� 385
Routers in Depth�� 387
Router Interfaces�� 389
Routing Tables��391
Routing Protocols�� 393
Access Control Lists�� 397
Wireless Access Points in Depth�� 400

Basic Wireless Settings�� 400
Wireless Security Options�� 402
Advanced Wireless Settings��404
Network Interface Cards in Depth�� 404

PC Bus Options��404
Advanced Features of NICs�� 407

Key Terms�� 410
CHAPTER 9
Introduction to Network Security�� 431
Network Security Overview and Policies�� 432
Developing a Network Security Policy�� 433
Determining Elements of a Network Security Policy�� 433
Understanding Levels of Security�� 434
Table of Contents xi
Securing Physical Access to the Network�� 436

Physical Security Best Practices�� 437
Securing Access to Network Data�� 439

Setting Up Authentication and Authorization�� 439
Securing Data with Encryption�� 447
Securing Communication with Virtual Private Networks��449
Securing Wireless Networks�� 452
Network Security Devices�� 454

Protecting Networks with Firewalls�� 455
Using Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems�� 457
Protecting a Network from Malware�� 463

Viruses�� 463
Worms�� 464
Other Forms of Malware�� 464
Spyware and Spam�� 465
Malware Protection�� 466
Using an Attacker’s Tools to Stop Network Attacks�� 469
Discovering Network Resources�� 469
Gaining Access to Network Resources�� 473
Disabling Network Resources�� 474
Key Terms�� 478
CHAPTER 1 0
Wide Area Networking and Cloud Computing�� 489
Wide Area Network Fundamentals�� 490
WAN Devices��491
WAN Connection Methods�� 494
Circuit-Switched WANs�� 494
Leased Lines�� 497
Packet-Switched WANs�� 499
Ethernet WANs�� 505
WANs over the Internet�� 505
WAN Equipment�� 507
Wireless WAN Technologies�� 508
xii Table of Contents
Remote Access Networking�� 510

Making a VPN Connection in Windows�� 511
Making a Dial-Up Connection�� 512
Remote Access Networking via the Web�� 513
Cloud Computing�� 517
Software as a Service��518
Platform as a Service��518
Infrastructure as a Service��519
Private Cloud versus Public Cloud��519
Key Terms�� 520
CHAPTER 1 1
Network Operating System Fundamentals�� 533
Operating System Fundamentals�� 534
The File System��535
Processes and Services�� 538
The Kernel�� 540
Client and Server Operating System Overview�� 551
The Role of a Client Operating System��552
The Role of a Server Operating System�� 558
Centralized User Account and Computer Management�� 559
Centralized Storage�� 562
Server and Network Fault Tolerance�� 564
Additional Server Features�� 565
Operating System Virtualization�� 565
Hosted Virtualization�� 568
Bare-Metal Virtualization��575
Installing an OS�� 583
Planning for and Installing Windows Server�� 583
Planning for and Installing Linux�� 587
Key Terms�� 592
Table of Contents xiii
CHAPTER 1 2
Network Management and Administration�� 599
Managing User and Group Accounts�� 600
Account and Password Conventions�� 601
Working with Accounts in Windows��602
Working with Accounts in Linux�� 611
Storage and File System Management�� 618

Volumes and Partitions�� 619
The FAT File System��620
The NTFS File System��621
The Linux File System�� 627
Working with Shared Files and Printers�� 632

Sharing Files and Printers in Windows�� 633
Sharing Files and Printers in Linux�� 639
Monitoring System Reliability and Performance�� 641

Event Viewer�� 641
Performance Monitor�� 643
Enhancing Network Performance�� 645
Network Performance Monitoring�� 647
Backup and Fault Tolerance�� 651

Windows Backup�� 652
Protecting Data with Fault Tolerance�� 653
Key Terms�� 661
CHAPTER 1 3
The Internet of Things (IoT)�� 667
Introduction to the Internet of Things�� 668
IoT Use Cases��669
IoT Technologies��671
IoT Networking�� 675

IoT Networking Technologies Overview�� 676
Commercial and Industrial IoT Devices�� 679
A Sampler of Home Automation IoT Devices�� 679
Industrial IoT Devices�� 683
xiv Table of Contents
DIY IoT�� 686

Getting Started with IoT�� 687
Tools for IoT�� 691
IoT Software Development�� 692
Key Terms�� 708
CHAPTER 1 4
Troubleshooting and Support�� 721
Documenting Your Network�� 722
Change Management��723
Documentation and Troubleshooting�� 724
Documentation and IT Staffing�� 724
Documentation and Standards Compliance�� 724
Documentation and Technical Support��725
Documentation and Network Security��725
What Should Be Documented?�� 726
The Problem-Solving Process�� 728
Step 1: Determine the Problem Definition and Scope�� 730
Step 2: Gather Information�� 731
Step 3: Consider Possible Causes��733
Step 4: Devise a Solution�� 734
Step 5: Implement the Solution�� 734
Step 6: Test the Solution�� 736
Step 7: Document the Solution��737
Step 8: Devise Preventive Measures��737
Approaches to Network Troubleshooting�� 738
Trial and Error�� 738
Solving by Example�� 740
The Replacement Method�� 742
Step by Step with the OSI Model�� 742
Making Use of Problem-Solving Resources�� 744
Experience��745
The Internet�� 746
Network Documentation�� 748
Table of Contents xv
Network Troubleshooting Tools�� 751

Using ping and tracert�� 751
Network Monitors��755
Protocol Analyzers��755
Time-Domain Reflectometers�� 756
Basic Cable Testers�� 756
Advanced Cable Testers��757
Additional Tools��757
Common Troubleshooting Situations�� 762
Cabling and Related Components�� 762
Power Fluctuations�� 763
Upgrades�� 763
Poor Network Performance�� 763
Disaster Recovery�� 764
Backing Up Network Data�� 764
Backup Types�� 765
Business Continuity�� 767
Key Terms�� 768
appendix a
Network Troubleshooting Guide............................................775
appendix b
MTA Exam 98-366 Objectives��781
GLOSSARY�� 785
INDEX�� 807
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Introduction
Guide to Networking Essentials, Eighth Edition, serves the needs
of students, instructors, aspiring information technology profes-
sionals, and others who are interested in learning more about
networking technologies but might have little or no background
in this subject matter. This book’s extensive and broad coverage
of computer networking technologies and network operating
systems gives you a solid networking background to pursue a
number of certifications, including MTA Networking Fundamen-
tals, Network+, CCENT, CCNA, MCSA, and Security+. The eighth
edition maps to the MTA 98-366 Networking Fundamentals cer-
tification, and many instructors also use the book for Network+
and CCENT test preparation. With the extensive use of tables
that compare important properties of networking technologies,
this book also makes an excellent reference.
The eighth edition builds on the strengths of the seventh
edition, giving you easy-to-understand explanations of often
difficult concepts and a solid grounding in topics such as rout-
ing, switching, IP addressing, and virtualization. Many students
are learning computer concepts at the same time they’re learn-
ing about networking, so the first chapter includes a refresher
on computer components and terminology. This new edi-
tion covers the latest networking technologies and operating
systems, including new Ethernet and Wi-Fi standards, cloud
computing, Windows 10, Windows Server 2019, and recent Linux
distributions. In keeping with the latest trends in network-
ing, this edition includes an all-new chapter on the Internet of
Things (IoT), including use cases, network technologies, com-
mon IoT devices, and hands-on projects.
All-new Packet Tracer labs in this book use network simula-
tion software, so many of the labs that use physical equipment
such as switches and routers can be completed in a virtual
environment. Challenge labs give you an opportunity to apply
what you have learned from the chapter material and hands-on
projects in a format that might require additional research and
skills. For case projects, you use your knowledge and critical
thinking skills to devise solutions to networking problems.
The simulations in previous editions of Guide to Network-
ing Essentials are deprecated and are no longer offered as a
xvii
xviii Introduction
ownload from Cengage. However, the author has made them available on his Web
d
site for readers who still want to use them. These simulations with audio narrations
give you an innovative tool to help you grasp difficult networking concepts. They cover
topics ranging from basic LAN communication to Network Address Translation (NAT)
and Internet e-mail operation. Drag-and-drop exercises reinforce concepts of the OSI
model and network frame formats. These simulations are written in Flash, so Flash
must be enabled in your browser. You can access the simulations on the author’s Web
site at http://books.tomsho.com/sims.
Intended Audience
Guide to Networking Essentials, Eighth Edition, is intended for people who are getting
started in computer networking and want to gain a solid understanding of a broad
range of networking technologies. This book is ideal for would-be information technol-
ogy professionals who want to pursue certifications in a variety of computer net-
working fields as well as professionals in a managerial role who want a firm grasp of
networking technology concepts. To understand the material in this book, you should
have a background in basic computer concepts and experience using the Windows
operating system. This book is ideal for use in a classroom or an instructor-led training
environment and is also an effective learning tool for individual self-paced training.
Coping with Change on the Web

Sooner or later, all the specifics on Web-based resources mentioned in this book will
become outdated or be replaced by newer information. In some cases, entering a URL
shown in this book might lead to an updated URL; in other cases, it will lead nowhere,
resulting in the dreaded error message “Server not found.”
When that happens, please don’t give up! There’s always a way to find what you
want on the Web, if you’re willing to invest some time and energy. Most large or com-
plex Web sites offer a search engine. As long as you can get to the site itself, you can
probably use its search engine to help you find what you need. In addition, try using
general search tools, such as www.google.com or www.bing.com, to find related infor-
mation. The bottom line is if you can’t find something where the book says it should
be, start looking around. It’s likely to be somewhere!
Chapter Descriptions
Here’s a summary of the topics covered in each chapter of this book:
• Chapter 1, “Introduction to Computer Networks,” introduces many of the computer
and networking terms and technologies discussed in detail in later chapters.
• In Chapter 2, “Network Hardware Essentials,” you learn about the basic
operation of hubs, switches, access points, network interface cards, and routers.
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
Especial care is necessary to avoid using common steel wires, or
strands which have a frayed or broken wire, or wire that has been
kinked and then straightened or wire that has been locally heated or
wire that has been bruised. All these factors weaken steel rope much
more than is supposed ordinarily.
Wire Fastening or Terminal Connections.—Wire terminals are
of four classes:
1. Ferrule and dip in solder, then bend back the end. With or
without thimble; used on single wires or on strand; 50 to 94 per
cent. as strong as the wire.
2. Thimble and End Splicing.—The splice must be long and
complete. Used on cable; 80 to 85 per cent. as strong as the strand;
breaks at last tuck in the splice.
3. Socket.—Nearly 100 per cent. strong.
4. End Wrap and Solder.—Simple and serviceable; not used for
hard wire.
Present practice is rather toward elimination of acid and solder,
imperfect bends, flattening of cable on bends, and toward care in
avoiding all injury as kinking to wire, strand and cord due to
unskillful handling of material in the field.
Other Metals.—Other metals as aluminum, brass, bronze,
copper, monel metal (copper and nickel) are used for certain airplane
fittings for the reasons of lightness, non-corrosive qualities, or ease
of bending, etc. The trouble with these metals is that they are not
uniform and reliable in strength and in an important part the great
strength combined with minimum weight given by steel is not
equalled by any of these metals. Aluminum is used on the engine
hood and also for control levers and for the backs of the seats. In
other words, for parts and castings which require light metal
construction, but which are under no particular stress. Tin and
copper are used for ferrules of wire joints and for tankage. Copper
or brass wire are used for safety wires. Special Tobin bronze is used
for turnbuckles as the part must not only be strong but free from
any tendency to rust. Monel metal (nickel 60 per cent., copper 35
per cent., iron 5 per cent.) is strong and has the special property of
being acid- and rust-resisting. It has been used for metal fittings and
even for wires and for the water jacket of the motor. Until more
strength tests show greater uniformity of strength, it is to be
recommended with caution.
In dealing with metals like steel, it should be remembered that
they are subject to crystallization and fatigue.
Repeated jarring may cause a bar of steel to break easily at a
particular point, when the metal is said to have crystallized there.
Fatigue of a metal may be defined as loss of springiness which
may come from repeated bending and which lessens the strength of
metal. Above all, however, corrosion of steel must be guarded
against.
The above points should be clear, as in airplane work you are
dealing with a structure which is safe with perfect materials and
workmanship. The factor of safety, however, is not great enough to
permit carelessness, or defective material.
Linen.—The almost universal wing covering is fine, unbleached
Irish linen, stretched rather loosely on the wing frames and then
treated with dope.
The linen used weighs 3¾ to 4¾ oz. per square yard, and should
have a strength with the length of the cloth or “warp” of at least 60
lb. per inch of width. The strength in this direction is slightly greater
than that taken crosswise of the cloth or on the filler or weft. There
is a gain of strength and tautness by varnishing or “doping.”
In general, it is desirable to have wing material which will not sag
easily and have the fabric yield rather than break. This often reduces
stress and saves complete failure.
Dope.—The linen must be coated with a more or less waterproof
dope. Some form of cellulose acetate or nitrate with more or less
softening material is used and to these some suitable solvent as
acetone is added.
The cellulose acetate or nitrate in the dope acts as a waterproof
sizing, shrinks the cloth tight, and prevents it from changing in
tightness due to moisture. Spar varnish protects this layer from
peeling and makes the wing more waterproof. In service, varnish or
dope must be applied every few weeks.
The U. S. Army practice calls for four coats of cellulose nitrate
dope followed by two coats of spar varnish to prevent inflammability.
Cellulose nitrate is more elastic and durable than the acetate but is
also more inflammable.
Commercial dopes with various desirable properties are: Cellon,
Novavia, Emaillite, Cavaro, Titanine, etc.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] But has very high elastic limit.

CHAPTER VIII
ERECTING AIRPLANES
Airplanes shipped from the manufacturer or from another field
almost always suffer more or less from shipment or packing. Care
must be exercised in unpacking in order not to do any more
damage. Boxes should be placed with the part marked “Top”
uppermost. Cables and wires must be handled carefully in order not
to bend or twist them. Every bent or kinked wire or damaged
turnbuckle must be replaced, or at least brought to the attention of
an inspector.
The order of erection is as follows:
1. Assemble landing gear to fuselage and align landing gear
before putting on main panels.
2. Assemble tail.
3. Assemble engine section and align before attaching main
panels.
4. Assemble main panels.
1. Landing Gear Assembly to Fuselage.—The landing gear is
assembled by mounting the wheels on the axle, and bolting wheels
in place. The fuselage should now be elevated to receive the landing
gear. This may be accomplished in one of two ways—either by tackle
or by shims and blocking. For either method, first connect up the tail
skid. This is accomplished by pinning up the front end of the skid to
the spring-fitting, and then pinning in the other end to the tail-post
socket.
If block and tackle are used to raise the fuselage, pass a line
under the engine-bed supports or sills just to the rear of the radiator.
To this line attach hook of block. To avoid damaging or crushing
some part do not attach lifting device to any other point.
With the fuselage now resting on its attached tail skid, lift the front
end until the lower longeron clips clear the landing gear. When the
clips on the longerons line up with the clips on the ends of the struts
of the landing gear the bolts are passed down through the holes
thus aligned. This places the nuts on the down side of the
connection thus facilitating assemblies and inspection of
connections. The castellated nuts are then put on the bolts and
drawn up tight, until the drilled hole in the bolt is visible through the
castle of the nut. Then insert cotter-pin and spread the two leaves
backward over the nut. This locks the nut in place. When the landing
gear has been completely assembled to the fuselage, the tail of the
machine should be elevated and supported by a horse and blocking
until the upper longeron is level. This can be determined by placing
a spirit level on the upper longeron at the tail or on the two engine-
bed sills in machines where these sills are parallel to the top
longeron, as in Curtiss JN-4B.
2. Horizontal Stabilizer.—After the upper longeron is levelled
up, the horizontal stabilizer is assembled to the tail of the fuselage.
The horizontal stabilizer is fastened by means of bolts in the top
longeron and the tail post. The nuts are all drawn up tight and
cotter-pinned. The vertical stabilizer is next erected in place.
3. Vertical Stabilizer.—The vertical stabilizer is now fastened to
the horizontal stabilizer, first by means of the bolt which passes up
through the forward part of the horizontal stabilizer and then by
means of the flexible stay lines running from the top of the vertical
stabilizer. The forward bolt passes through the clip at the lower front
point of the vertical stabilizer. Draw the nuts up tight and lock with
cotter-pins. Flexible wire cables are attached to vertical stabilizer,
and turnbuckles are used to align and tighten cables. The vertical
stabilizer is further aided in its alignment by the bolt clip at its toe
and by the double clip at its heel. This rear double clip passes over
the two bolts which are attached to the tail post and which hold
down the horizontal stabilizer.
4. Rudder.—The control braces are first attached to the rudder.
These braces are so placed that the upper tips point toward the
hinge line. In this fashion the holes will match up. The rudder is
mounted on the tail post and vertical stabilizer by means of the
hinges. The hinge pins are inserted in the hinges, and cotter-pins
passed through the drilled holes in the bottom of the pins. The
cotter-pins should be spread backward as usual.
5. Elevators or Flaps.—These are first equipped with the control
braces which are also arranged so that the upper tips point toward
the hinge line. The elevators are mounted to the horizontal stabilizer
by means of the hinges and hinge pins. The hinge pins are kept in
their bearings by the cotter-pins, inserted through the drilled holes in
the bottom of the hinge pins.
6. Panel Assembly.—The panels are now to be assembled.
Before the main panels can be connected to the fuselage, the engine
section panel must be erected.
Engine Section Panel.—The engine section struts are first set into
place in their sockets on the engine section. Then the whole thing is
lifted up to place and the four struts are set into their sockets on the
upper longeron. The bracing wires are attached and the engine
section aligned by means of them (see alignment).
7. Main Panels.—The main panels are now to be assembled to
the machine. There are two methods for accomplishing this: first,
assemble panels, struts and wires, before attaching to fuselage;
second, assemble the upper plane to the engine section, and
complete assembly. The first method is the most advantageous,
since it permits the setting of the main panels at the correct stagger
and dihedral, and does not require as much adjustment as the
second method, which will be omitted.
Assembling Panels Together Before Fastening Them to
Fuselage.—All the main struts will be found to bear a number.
These numbers run from 1 to 8, on Curtiss JN-4. The numbers on
the Standard run from 1 to 12 including the center section struts.
The method used in numbering the posts is as follows: Starting at
post No. 1, with the outer post, on the left-hand side of the pilot, as
he faces his direction of travel, the posts are numbered successively
from No. 1 to No. 4; Nos. 1 and 2 being on the left side and Nos. 3
and 4 being on the right side. The rear posts are similarly numbered
from No. 5 to No. 8, Nos. 5 and 6 being on the left and Nos. 7 and 8
being on the right. This system of numbering does not include the
engine section struts. The plan shows the system graphically (see
Fig. 39).
The system of marking also insures that the struts are not
inverted in their sockets. This is accomplished by painting the
number on the strut, so that when viewed from the pilot’s seat, all
numbers can be read, i.e., the numbers are painted on that side of
the strut intended to face the fuselage. If a strut is inverted by
mistake, it can thus be quickly detected. The procedure of
assembling panels is as follows:
1. The upper left-wing panel is first equipped with mast, by
inserting the mast into its socket on the upper surface of the wing.
The mast wire is then connected up to the clips to the right and left
of the mast. Adjust the tension in this wire, by means of
turnbuckles, until the spar becomes straight.
2. Stand the upper left-wing panel and lower left-wing panel on
their “leading” or “entering” edges, properly supporting the panels in
cushioned blocks to prevent damage to the nose. Space the panels
apart, at a distance approximately equal to the length of the struts.
3. Next connect up the diagonal cross wires. These must be
loosely connected up, to permit the easy entering of the posts into
the sockets. The wires are connected before the posts or struts are
set in place, since with the latter in place, the connecting of the
wires to the lugs of the sockets is accomplished only with difficulty.
After these wires are thus connected, insert the posts and bolts into
place.
4. Connect up closely the “landing” (single) wires, and “flying”
(double) wires of the outer bay to hold the wings together as a unit.
The outer bay is thus completely wired, though but loosely.
5. The posts that are used for this left side are, according to the
diagram, No. 1, No. 2, No. 5, No. 6. No. 1 is the outer front; No. 2 is
the inner front; No. 5 is the outer rear; No. 6 the inner rear.
6. The wings, as above assembled, are now erected to the
fuselage. Extreme care should be exercised in transferring the wings
to the fuselage, not to strain or break them. In carrying the wings,
use wooden boards placed under the wings, and block up under the
wing beams (which can be easily located), so that these take the
strain of the load. Do not attempt handling assembled wings, using
the posts as carriers; or by attachments to the trailing or leading
edges. The wings should be suitably supported temporarily by
suitable sling at the outer upper post point (not beyond this point) or
by a horse, properly blocked under lower wing at outer lower post
point (not beyond this point) during fitting of wing to machine. The
wings will have the approximate stagger if assembled as above,
since the posts are in place, and the tension cross wires are adjusted
to almost correct length when shipped. Insert the hinge pins through
the hinges as now coupled up, lower hinges first.
The machine is now ready for alignment, perhaps the most
important of the rigger’s duties.
Alignment of Airplanes.—The proper alignment of a machine
largely determines the flying qualities of that machine.
The alignment of the fuselage should be done at the factory or in
the repair shop. However, the alignment of the whole machine
depends upon the correctness of the fuselage. Directions for aligning
and checking fuselage are, therefore, given.
The order in which the different parts of a machine should be
aligned is as follows:
1. Alignment of landing gear.
2. Alignment of center section.
3. Alignment of leading edge.
4. Getting both wings the same height.
5. Dihedral angle, if any.
6. Alignment of trailing edge (angle of incidence).
7. Stagger.
8. Droop.
9. Tightening and safetying all wires.
10. Length of struts, positions and fittings, warp in planes.
11. Alignment of ailerons.
12. Alignment of stabilizer.
13. Alignment of elevator flaps.
14. Alignment of rudder.
The tail of the machine should be raised until the fuselage is
nearly horizontal before starting the alignment.
1. Alignment of Landing Gear.—When a machine is being
assembled, it is easier to align the landing gear before the wings are
put on.
Take the weight off the landing gear by supporting the fuselage on
sawhorses.
The axle should be parallel with the lateral axis of the machine.
The center of the axle should be directly under the center of the
fuselage. This can be secured by either of two methods:
(a) By Measuring Cross Distances.—Loosen and tighten the cross
wires until the cross distances are exactly the same. Take all
measurements from similar points on the fittings to which the wires
are attached.
(b) With Level and Plumb Bob.—Level the fuselage crosswise.
Mark the exact center of the fuselage and drop a plumb bob. Mark
the exact center of the axle. Adjust the cross wires until the plumb
bob is over the center of the axle. Tighten the wires until fairly tight,
and safety them.
2. Alignment of the Center Section.—When assembling a
machine, the center section should be aligned before the wings are
put on.
When a machine is already assembled, the first thing to do is to
loosen all wires except the landing wires. This is very important, for
if one wire is tightened against another wire, an unnecessary and
possibly a dangerous strain may be put upon some member. The
bracing wires connecting tops of center section struts should be tight
enough to hold the shape of the center section when bracing wires
are tightened up.
Fig. 38.—Center section and undercarriage alignment.
(a) Machines Having No Stagger.—In machines having no stagger,

the struts of the center section should be perpendicular to the
propeller axis. As the upper longerons are usually parallel to the
propeller axis, they may be used as a base line.
Align one side of the center section first, then the other side, and
lastly the front.
From a point at the lower end of one of the front center section
struts (the center of a bolt head for example), measure forward on
the longeron a certain distance. From the same point (center of bolt
head) measure back on the longeron exactly the same distance.
Move the upper end of the strut forward or backward by loosening
one of the bracing wires and tightening the other, until the distance
from the two points on the longerons to some point on the center
line at the top of the strut (center of bolt head) are exactly the
same. The strut will then be perpendicular to the propeller axis.
Tighten both wires evenly until fairly tight. Measure the cross
distances (the diagonal distances between similar points at the
upper and lower ends of the front and rear struts), and align the
other side of the center section until its cross distances are the same
as those on the opposite side.
Align the front of the center section by loosening one cross wire
and tightening the other, until one cross distance is exactly the same
as the other cross distance.
(b) Machines Having Stagger.—In machines having stagger, the
shape and position of the center section strut fittings usually
determines the amount of stagger the machine was designed to
have (Fig. 38-a). The JN-4 has 10⅝-in. stagger, i.e., a plumb line
dropped from the leading edge of upper panel should be 10⅝-in.
from leading edge of lower panel.
Adjust the wires on one side of the center section until the struts
and that side are in their correct positions as shown by the shape of
the fittings. Tighten the wires, measure the cross distances, and
adjust the wires on the other side of the center section until the
cross distances are exactly similar to the first set.
A more accurate method is to drop a plumb line from the leading
edge of the center section and adjust until the line is at the correct
distance ahead of the point on the fuselage where the leading edge
of the lower wing meets it. This point may be determined by
measuring the distance from the inside of the front hinge to the
leading edge of the lower wing and then laying off this distance on
the body from the front of the hinge on the lower longeron. Better
still, if the hinges are at the same distance from the leading edge on
both top and bottom wings, the plumb line may be dropped from the
front side of the hinge on the center section and the stagger
measured back to the hinge on the lower longeron (Fig. 38-b). This
has the advantage of setting the plumb line out far enough to clear
the fuselage. Also the measurements are easily made.
Next, adjust the two front wires until one cross distance is exactly
the same as the other cross distance (Fig. 38-c).
3. Alignment of Leading Edge.—(a) Upper Plane.—The leading
edges of the upper and lower planes of one wing should next be
made perfectly straight. By standing on a step ladder, placed 15 to
20 ft. to one side, and sighting along the leading edge of the upper
plane, any bow or warp can be easily seen. This should be
straightened out by loosening or tightening the front landing wires.
The edge should be brought in exact line with the leading edge of
the center section.
(b) Lower Plane.—After the leading edge of the upper plane has
been made straight, sight along the leading edge of the lower plane.
If there is no warp in the plane, this edge should also be straight.
(c) Align the opposite wing in the same manner.
4. Getting Both Wings the Same Height.—Place a small tack
exactly in the middle of the leading edge of the center panel.
Measure from this tack to similar points at the lower ends of the
intermediate and outer struts (Fig. 39). Make these distances the
same on each side by raising or lowering one wing or the other, or
by raising one wing and lowering the other wing, all the while
keeping the leading edges of both wings perfectly straight.
5. Dihedral.—The method of setting the wings of a machine at a
dihedral angle is as follows:
Place two tacks in the leading edge of the upper plane, one tack
near the tip of each wing and exactly the same distance out from
the tack in the center section. Stretch a string tightly between the
two outer tacks, until there is no sag in the string.
A dihedral angle of 178° means that each wing has been raised
1°. To set the wings of a machine at a dihedral angle of 178° for
example:
(a) Find the natural sine of 1° (0.0175).
(b) Multiply this by the distance in inches between the center tack
and one of the outer tacks. The result will give the rise, in inches, of
the string over the tack in the center section.
Raise the wings equally, keeping the leading edges perfectly
straight, until the proper rise shows over the center section.
Fig. 39.—Alignment diagrams.
6. Alignment of Trailing Edge (Angle of Incidence).—(a)

Lower Plane.—The trailing edge should be brought parallel to the
leading edge. This can be done by bringing the rear spar in line with
the leading edge.
Stand squarely in front of the center of the machine 15 to 20 ft.
away. Sight under the leading edge of the lower plane; move
forward or backward until the fittings under the rear spar are just
visible. Raise or lower the trailing edge by loosening or tightening
the rear landing wires, until all of the fittings on the rear spar appear
equally under the leading edge.
(b) Upper Plane.—After aligning the trailing edge of the lower
plane, place a ladder in front of the center of the machine, and sight
under the leading edge of the upper plane. If there is no warp in this
plane, the trailing edge should align with the leading edge.
The objection to this method is that since there are no fittings
next the body on the rear spar, there is room for considerable error
in the angle of incidence.
Reversing the process and finding the angle of incidence at each
set of struts secures the alignment of the trailing edge and removes
the liability to error. To set wings at correct angle of incidence
proceed as follows (Fig. 39): Place the airplane in rigging position,
i.e., level up the top longeron or engine bearers. Set the corner of
the straight-edge against the center of the rear spar, level up the
straight-edge, and measure from the top of the straight-edge to the
center of the front spar or to the lowest point of the leading edge.
This must be done next the body and under each set of struts. (It is
useless to make such a measurement between the struts because of
possible warping of the wings.) Unless the wings have a washout or
washin the measurements must agree, thus making the angle of
incidence the same all along the wing. Then the trailing edge must
necessarily be parallel to the leading edge.
7. Stagger.—The stagger should be the same all along the wing
as it is for the center section. With the machine in rigging position
drop a plumb line from the leading edge of the upper wing in front
of each set of struts. The distance from the plumb line to the lower
edge should equal the stagger. If there is too much, tighten the
diagonal wire running from the lower rear socket to the upper front
socket, being sure that the other diagonal wire is loosened
somewhat. For too little stagger tighten the latter and loosen the
former wire.
Check up the dihedral and alignment of the trailing edges to see if
these have been disturbed while setting the stagger. If not, the
droop may be put in.
8. Droop.—To correct for the torque of the propeller, one wing of
a machine is slightly drooped.
In single-motored tractor types, if the propeller turns to the right,
when looking from the rear, the left wing is drooped, and vice versa.
The outer rear landing wire of the wing to be drooped should be
loosened until the trailing edge, between the outer and intermediate
struts, appears to be about an inch (for machines of not more than
100 hp.) lower than the rest of the trailing edge. The practice with
the Curtiss JN-4B is to loosen the inner rear landing wire on the left
wing ¼ in. and loosen the outer rear landing wire ½ in. after the
angle of incidence and stagger have been adjusted so that
corresponding wires on the right and left wings are the same length.
9. Tightening and Safetying All Wires.—(a) After the wing is
drooped, all flying wires should be tightened to the same tension,
and just taut enough to take out all sag.
(b) Next tighten all drift or cross wires between the front and rear
struts to the same tension.
(c) Drift wires from the wings to the fuselage, and from the wings
to the landing gear, if any, should be tightened last.
(d) Safety all turnbuckles. A wire too loose will vibrate when the
machine is in the air.
The flying and drift wires should be so tightened that when they
take the weight of the machine in the air, there will be no sag in the
landing wires.
10. Length of Struts, Positions of Fittings, Warp in Planes.
—The above instructions are given for machines that are true, that
is, machines having no bends, warps, or bows in the spars and
leading or trailing edges.
(a) Similar struts should be of the same length.
(b) Similar fittings occupying similar positions should be spaced
the same. If difficulties are encountered in getting the
measurements to tally, check up the lengths of the struts and the
positions of the fittings.
(c) If the planes of a machine are warped, the machine should be
so aligned that the warp is equally divided between both planes.
11. Alignment of Ailerons.—Before aligning ailerons, place the
shoulder yoke or wheel controlling the ailerons in the center of its
path of movement.
(a) Trailing-edge Ailerons.—Trailing-edge ailerons should be set ¾
inch lower than the trailing edge of the plane to which they are
attached.
(b) Interplane Ailerons.—Interplane ailerons should be set so that
they are both in the same plane, when in neutral position.
In machines having interplane ailerons, nose heaviness and tail
heaviness may be corrected by setting the trailing edges of the
ailerons up or down.
The proper amount to raise or lower the trailing edges can be
determined only by experimenting with each particular type of
machine.
(c) The control wires should be just tight enough to eliminate any
lost motion.
12. Alignment of Stabilizer.—Support the weight of the tail on
the tail skid.
The rear edge of the stabilizer should be perfectly straight, and
should be parallel with lateral axis of the machine.
Stand behind the center of the stabilizer, and align its rear edge on
the leading edge of the upper plane by sighting. Tighten wires and
safety turnbuckles.
13. Alignment of Elevator Flaps.—Set the elevator control in
its mid-position. Adjust the elevator control wires until the flaps are
in their neutral position and both are in the same plane. The wires
should be just tight enough to eliminate any lost motion. Safety
turnbuckles.
14. Alignment of Rudder.—Set the rudder control (wheel, foot
pedals, or foot bar) in its mid-position. Adjust the rudder control
wires until the rudder is in its neutral position. The control wires
should be just tight enough to eliminate any lost motion. Safety the
turnbuckles.
15. General.—All connections having been made, carefully go
over each shackle, pin, and turnbuckle, and see that all pins are
properly in place, all nuts on bolts tight and all cotter-pinned. Try out
all controls for action and freedom of movement. See that no brace
wires are slack, yet not so taut that when plucked they “sing.”
16. Overall Adjustments.—As a final check, the following
overall measurements should be taken (see Fig. 39).
The straight lines AC and BC should be equal to within ⅛ in. The
point C is the center of the propeller, or in the case of the pusher the
center of the nacelle. A and B are points on the main spar and must
be at the same distance from the butt of the spar. They must not be
merely the sockets of the outer struts as these may not be
accurately placed. AC and BC must be taken from both top and
bottom spars; two measurements on each side of the airplane.
Similarly FD and FE should be equal to within ⅛ in. F is the center
of the fuselage or rudder post. D and E are points marked on both
top and bottom rear spars just as A and B were marked on front
spars.
If these measurements are not correct, it is probably due to some
of the drift or antidrift wires being too tight or too slack. These must
then be located and corrected.
WING COVERING AND PATCHING
The wings are covered with best quality Irish linen which must
have a tensile strength of at least 50 lb. per inch width, undoped,
and 70 lb. when doped.
The linen strips are sewed together on a sewing machine in such a
way that when folded together they form a sort of bag which just
slips over the wing frame. The seams then run diagonally across the
wing. The bag is stretched up loosely and tacked temporarily along
the leading edge. The edges are folded under a little and sewed
together along the leading edge of the wing and the temporary tacks
are removed. To hold the covering up to the ribs, thread is looped
through from one side of the panel to the other around the ribs. The
rough surfaces made by the thread along the ribs and the edges are
covered over with strips of linen pasted on with dope. To make a
smooth job, the edges of these strips are frayed out ⅛ in.
Three or more coats of dope are applied and rubbed down after
each coating is dry. This is then covered over with one or two coats
of varnish to make it more weatherproof and smooth. Varnish also
prevents the dope from peeling off.
Dope shrinks the linen and makes it fit up tight to the framework.
Breaks in the fabric are patched by first removing the dope around
the break with dope remover and then sticking on a patch with
dope. This is applied with a rag instead of a brush in order to
prevent the patch from becoming white. Ten to sixteen coats of
dope are then applied over the patch, each coat being allowed to dry
before the next is applied.
FAULTS IN FLIGHT, DUE TO IMPROPER ALIGNMENT AND HOW TO
CORRECT THEM
An airplane pilot may experience difficulty with the flying qualities

of his machine. Consequently he should know something about the
conditions which are responsible for the various kinds of
unsatisfactory flying qualities which are more or less characteristic of
airplanes.
In the chapter on “Principles of Flight” the reader has been made
acquainted with such terms as stability, instability, longitudinal
stability, etc. For the purposes of rigging, however, it will be well to
review these terms again.
Stability is a condition whereby an object disturbed has a natural
tendency to return to its first and normal position. Example: a
weight suspended by a cord.
Instability is a condition whereby an object disturbed has a natural
tendency to move as far as possible away from its first position, with
no tendency to return. Example: a stick balanced vertically on your
finger.
Neutral stability is a condition whereby an object disturbed has no
tendency to move farther than displaced by the force of the
disturbance, and no tendency to return to its first position.
Now in order that an airplane may be reasonably controllable, it is
necessary for it to possess some degree of stability longitudinally,
laterally and indirectionally.
Longitudinal stability is its stability about an axis transverse to the
direction of normal horizontal flight, and without which it would pitch
and toss.
Lateral stability is its stability about its longitudinal axis, and
without which it would roll sideways.
Directional stability is its stability about its vertical axis, and
without which it would have no tendency to keep its course.
Whenever an airplane does not fly properly, aside from conditions
arising from engine or propeller trouble, either its longitudinal,
lateral, or directional stability is affected. When its longitudinal
stability is affected we call this condition longitudinal instability;
likewise, regarding lateral stability and directional stability, referring
to these conditions respectively as lateral and as directional
instability. The effect of alignment errors will be treated under the
foregoing respective heads.
Alignment Errors, Longitudinal.—
1. The Stagger May Be Wrong.—The top surface or wing may have
drifted back a little owing to some of the wires, probably the
incidence wires, having elongated their loops or having pulled the
fittings into the wood. If the top surface is not staggered forward to
the correct amount, then consequently the whole of its lift is too far
back, and it will then have a tendency to lift up the tail of the
machine too much. The airplane will then be said to be nose-heavy.
A ¼-in. error in the stagger will make a very considerable difference
in the longitudinal stability.
2. The Angle at Which the Main Surfaces Are Set Relative to the
Fuselage May Be Wrong.—This will have a bad effect especially in
the case of an airplane with a lifting tail plane or horizontal stabilizer.
If the angle of incidence is too great, the machine will have a
tendency to fly “tail-high.” If the angle is too small the airplane may
have a tendency to fly “tail-down.”
3. The Fuselage May Have Become Warped Upward or Downward.
—This would give the tail plane or horizontal stabilizer an incorrect
angle of incidence. If it has too much angle, it will lift too much, and
the airplane will be “nose-heavy.” If it has too little angle, it will not
lift enough and the airplane will be “tail-heavy.”
4. The Tail Plane May Be Mounted upon the Fuselage at a Wrong
Angle of Incidence.—If this condition exists, it must be corrected by
making a change at the fittings. If nose-heavy, the tail plane should
be given a smaller angle of incidence. If tail-heavy, it should be
given a greater angle of incidence; but care should be taken not to
give it too great an angle, because the longitudinal stability entirely
depends upon the tail plane being set at a smaller angle of incidence
than is the main surface, and if that difference is decreased too
much, the airplane will become uncontrollable longitudinally.
Sometimes the tail plane is mounted on the airplane at the same
angle as the main surface, but it actually engages the air at a lesser
angle, owing to the air being deflected downward by the main
surfaces.
Alignment Errors, Lateral.—The machine manifests a tendency
to fly one wing down. The reason for such a condition is a difference
in the lifts of the right and left wings, assuming the motor torque is
already taken care of by washout. That may be caused as follows:
1. The Angle of Incidence of One Wing May Be Wrong.—If it is too
great, it will produce more lift than on the other side of the airplane;
and if too small, it will produce less lift than on the other side—with
the result, in either case, the airplane will try to fly one wing down.
2. Distorted Surfaces.—If some part of the surface is distorted, the
lift will not be the same on both sides of the airplane, which, of
course, will again cause it to fly one wing down.
3. The Ailerons May Be Set Slightly Wrong.—This may be due to
one control cable being longer than the other, or one of the aileron
horns being bent or twisted. This condition can easily be detected by
setting the aileron control—in neutral and checking up the position
of the ailerons.
Alignment Errors, Directional.—If there is more resistance on
one side of the airplane than on the other the airplane will, of
course, tend to turn to the side having the most resistance. This may
be caused by the following conditions:
1. The Angle of Incidence of the Right and Left Surfaces May Be
Unequal.—The greater the angle of incidence, the greater the
resistance. The less the angle, the less the resistance.
2. If the Alignment of the Fuselage, Vertical Stabilizer, the Struts
or Stream-line Wires Is Not Absolutely Correct.—That is to say, if
they are turned a little to the right or left instead of being in line
with the direction of flight—then they will act as a rudder and cause
the airplane to turn off its course.
3. If Any Part of the Surface Is Disturbed It Will Cause the
Airplane to Turn off Its Course.—If, owing to the leading edge, spars,
or trailing edge becoming bent, curvature is spoiled, that will result
in changing the amount of resistance on one side of the airplane,
which will then develop a tendency to turn off its course.
Additional Flight Defects.—In addition to the foregoing the
following conditions may also exist which cause trouble when flying
as well as when landing:
Airplane Climbs Badly.—Such a condition, apart from engine or
propeller trouble, is probably due to excess resistance somewhere.
Flight Speed Poor.—This condition apart from engine or propeller
trouble, is probably due to (1) distorted surfaces, (2) wrong angle of
incidence, or (3) dirt or mud, resulting in excessive skin friction and
weight.
Inefficient Control.—This is probably due to (1) wrong setting of
the control surfaces, (2) distortion of control surfaces, or (3) control
cables being badly tensioned.
Will Not Taxi Straight.—If the airplane is uncontrollable on the
ground it is probably due to (1) alignment of the undercarriage
being wrong, (2) unequal tension of shock absorbers, (3) tires
unequally inflated, (4) axle bent, (5) tight wheel and axle, (6) loose
spokes causing wheel to wobble.
CHAPTER IX
TRUING UP THE FUSELAGE
Before an airplane is assembled for the first time after leaving the
factory, and especially after it has made its first few “breaking-in”
flights, the fuselage or basic framework should be carefully
examined and checked up. This is done in order to determine
whether or not the fuselage became distorted from rough usage
during shipment (which is always likely) or from taking sets due to
the flying stresses to which it was subjected for the first time during
the “breaking-in” flights. It frequently happens that rough landings
and “stunt” flying cause distortions of the fuselage frame and other
parts of the airplane so that it is very necessary to make a careful
inspection immediately after to ascertain not only what twists, bows
and stretching of vital parts have resulted, but also to detect fittings,
wires, etc., which may have been pulled loose or broken. The
extreme importance of having your airplane adjusted correctly and
carefully, and to know that it is in the proper condition can not be
reiterated too often. And, since the fuselage is the foundation from
which, so to speak, the entire apparatus is built up, it is doubly
important that it should always be in correct adjustment.
When the fuselage is built in the factory it is placed on a long
table whose surface is perfectly horizontal and which has metal
strips inlaid. This table in reality is a big face plate especially
arranged, as described, for fuselage truing in the factory. The
fuselage, of course, has had none of its coverings applied when it is
placed on the table, nor are the accessories such as controls and
engine in place. On this table then the builders begin to do the
necessary adjusting and this is no simple or quick job. Working from
a perfectly smooth horizontal surface it is, of course, easy to detect
warpings, twists, etc., of the framework. These are first remedied by
tightening or loosening of cross wires, etc., as the case may be.
Then, when the fuselage is reasonably square and level, lengthwise
and crosswise, as determined by the eye, check measurements are
taken by rule, trams and level and final adjustments made to bring
the various parts in final proper relation to one another. For instance,
the rudder post must be perfectly vertical, as determined by a plumb
line, when the engine bearers or the top longerons are level. The
various fittings such as those for horizontal and vertical stabilizers
and the engine sections and side panels must all conform accurately
to one another so that the airplane as a whole, when it is
assembled, will not contain any inherent defects such as tail planes
with slightly distorted angles of incidence, left main panels ahead of
right or over or under right main panels, fittings so located that an
initial strain must be imposed upon them by forcing them together,
etc.
After the fuselage has been lined up in the factory as described
briefly above, it is permitted to set for a week or so and then it is
checked up again and such additional slight corrections made which
would be necessitated by the sets which had occurred. The
additional fittings required are then applied and the fuselage finally
covered and sent away to have the engine and instruments applied.
When checking and truing a fuselage on the flying field after the
airplane has been assembled and flown the process is not quite so
simple as when the fuselage is checked up and trued in the factory,
largely owing to the lack of ideal factory facilities and also because
so many fittings, coverings, etc., are in the way which one must
always be cautious about removing. In general, the method of
procedure may be outlined as follows, but it must be obvious that
one can not in a series of written notes touch upon all the possible
queries and combinations of fuselage distortions which may occur
and the ways for detecting and correcting them. A certain amount of
experience in the field accompanied with some fixed habits of
inspection, and everlasting curiosity about the perfections of your
machine, and a willingness and readiness always to pitch in and help
correct the defects found, will soon develop in you the ability to
diagnose easily and quickly and remedy intelligently whatever
trouble you may run across.
For satisfactory fuselage checking and truing let us say in the field
shop, a certain minimum equipment of tools is necessary. This
equipment is:
At least two sawhorses about 3 to 4 ft. high for mounting the fuselage in flying
position.
Several wooden wedges (show taper) for easy adjustment of fuselage for cross
and lengthwise level.
About 25 yd. of strong linen line for checking center lines.
2 carpenter levels about 2 to 3 ft. long.
4 perfectly formed steel cubes about 1¼ to 1½ in. in size.
1 plumb bob.
1 small screw jack.
1 pair of wood clamps.
1 straight edge about 12 ft. long.
Several small Crescent adjustable wrenches.
Several pliers with wire-cutting attachment.
Pins for manipulating turnbuckles.
1 steel tape.
1 foot rule, 6 ft. long.
1 small brass hammer.
A small work bench equipped with a 3-in. or 4-in. vise.
The fuselage which is to be trued is mounted on the horse with

the wedges between the top horse rails and the lower longerons.
These horses or trestles should be so arranged that about three-
fourths of the fuselage toward the tail sticks out unsupported. In this
way it will take, as near as possible, its normal flying position. It is
always desirable, in fact quite necessary, especially when checking a
fuselage for the first time, to have the airplane’s specifications as
well as a detailed drawing of the fuselage and an assembly of the
airplane as a whole available. The reason for this, of course, is quite
obvious.
The engine bearers and the top longerons are the basic parts from
which the fuselage as a whole is lined up. Consequently the first
thing which is done, when inspecting the fuselage for alignment, is
to test the truth of these parts. This is done by sighting the top
longerons lengthwise to see if they are bowed downward, upward,
inward or outward. As near as possible the fuselage is made level on
the trestles. The steel blocks or cubes referred to in the tool list
above are placed on the longerons and the straight edge and level
placed on these, first crosswise and then lengthwise. A string is
stretched over the top of the fuselage touching the top cross braces
and brought as close as possible to the center of these pieces. This
string should stretch from the rudder post as far forward as possible.
Then the cross wires or diagonal brace wires are sighted to see how
close their intersections agree with this center-line string.
Furthermore, the level is placed on the engine bearers and they are
tested for cross level and longitudinal level. If the engine is mounted
in place, but one point on the bearers will be available for this
purpose, but the check should nevertheless be made. It may also be
found that the longitudinal level of the engine bearers can be tested
from underneath by placing the steel cubes mentioned above on the
top of the level and then holding the level up against the bottom of
the bearers. As a rule, if the fuselage is warped it should be possible
to detect this with the eye, but when engine bearers are out of line
this can only be detected with certainty by the use of the level.
Let it be assumed that the fuselage is out of true. The first parts
to tackle are, of course, the engine bearers. If they should not be in
line they must first be brought so, and afterward kept in this
condition. The diagonal wires at the front of the fuselage should be
adjusted to make this correction. If the bearers are badly out of line
it will, perhaps, be wisest to remove the engine, or at least loosen it
up from the bearers before doing any adjusting for the reason that it
may become strained by serious pulling on the bearers. After the
bearers are in place, it will be safe to bolt the engine fast again.
With the engine bearers temporarily disposed of, the fuselage
proper is tackled. Here the first thing to do is to get the top surfaces
of the longerons level crosswise. Use the spirit level and the two
steel cubes mentioned in the tool list for this purpose. Start at the
front of the fuselage in the cock pit. Adjust the internal diagonal
wires until the level bubble is in its proper place. Then measure
these first two sets of diagonal wires, getting them of equal length.
Continue this process throughout the length of the fuselage until the
rear end is reached, always working from the front.
Lastly, before proceeding to the next operation, try the engine
bearers for level again. If out, make the proper adjustments.
If the centers of the crosswise struts are not marked, this should
first be done before going further. Then stretch a string from No. 1
strut, or as far forward as possible to the center of the rudder post.
All center points on the cross struts, if the fuselage is true
lengthwise, should lie exactly on this string. If not, adjust the
horizontal diagonal wires, top and bottom, working from the front,
until the center-line points all agree. Always check by measuring
diagonal wires which are mates. These should be of equal length. If
not, some wire in the series may be overstressed. In order to pull
the center points on the cross struts over, always stop to analyze the
situation carefully, determining which are the long diagonals and
which the short ones from the way the fuselage is bowed. Then
shorten the long ones and ease off on the short ones, being careful
never to overstress any of the wires.
The last thing to do is to bring the longerons or the center line of
the fuselage into level lengthwise. For this purpose a long straight-
edge, the two cubes, and a spirit level are of advantage, although
simply stretching a string closely over the top of the longeron may
suffice. Then as in the case of removing a crosswise bow in the
fuselage, here too, we manipulate the outside up and down diagonal
wires in bringing the top longerons into their proper level position
lengthwise, always working from the front.
After all this is done it is well to make some overall checks with
steel tape or trams to see how various fittings located according to
the drawings, agree with one another. Since there is a right and a
left side, distance between fittings on these sides may be compared.
And, finally, the engine bearers should be tried again. In short no
opportunity should be neglected to prove the truth of the fuselage
as a whole and in detail.
It might be pointed out that an excellent time to check the
fuselage is when engine is being removed or changed. In fact this
time in general is a good one to give the airplane as a whole, a
careful inspection.
After all the necessary corrections have been made and all the
parts of the fuselage brought into correct relation with one another,
the turnbuckles are safety wired and then served with tape to act as
a final protection. The linen covering is reapplied if it had previously
to be removed and the level, empennage wires, panels etc., are
placed in position and aligned as pointed out in the notes on
assembly and alignment.
CHAPTER X
HANDLING OF AIRPLANES IN THE FIELD
AND AT THE BASES PREVIOUS TO AND
AFTER FLIGHTS
No unimportant part of the operation and maintenance of

airplanes is their handling in the field, and at the various bases
previous to, between, and after flights. This phase of the entire
subject contemplates the transportation of airplanes in knockdown
condition either by railway or truck, their unloading and unpacking,
to a certain extent their assembly, their storage in hangars and
sheds, their storage and disposition in the open, their disassembling
and packing for transportation, etc.
The Unloading and Unpacking of Airplanes.—The personnel
required to unload an airplane properly boxed and crated from a
railway car, is 15 men and two non-commissioned officers. The tools
needed for this purpose are:
1 ax.
2 crowbars.
6 lengths of iron pipe about 2 in. in diameter, 3 ft. long.
6 lengths of iron pipe about 2 in. in diameter, 4 ft. long.
100 ft. manila rope, 1 in. in diameter.
A regular flat-bed moving truck or ordinary truck with a flat-bed

trailer should be provided for handling the machine from the car to
the field erecting shop.

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IPv6 Autoconfiguration��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 328

Transitioning from IPv4 to IPv6������������������������������������������������������������������������� 329

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Securing Access to Network Data�������������������������������������������������������������������� 439

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Storage and File System Management������������������������������������������������������������ 618

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Fig. 38.—Center section and undercarriage alignment.

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