UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

The Western and Eastern Concepts of the Self

The Western and Eastern Concepts of the Self

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

a. explain the Western concept of self;

b. enumerate and discuss the different Eastern conceptions of self;
c. compare Eastern and Western views of the self; and
d. examine your own conceptualization of self.

One of the most effective ways to learn about oneself is by

taking seriously the cultures of others.
It forces you to pay attention to those details of life which differentiate them from you.
- Edward T. Hall

The Western conceptualization of the self is divided into three periods of

historical development while the Eastern concepts of the self are presented based on
the four great systems of Eastern thoughts: Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and
Taoism.
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
The Western and Eastern Concepts of the Self
WESTERN CONCEPT OF THE SELF

Geertz (van Meijl, 2008) defines the Western concept of self as a “a bounded,
unique, more or less integrated motivational and cognitive universe, a dynamic
center of awareness, emotion, judgment, and action organized into a distinctive
whole and set contrastively both against other such wholes and against it social and
natural background…”

This construction of an autonomous, unitary, and stable self in the West is

grounded in a contrasting assumption that non-western (such as eastern) people do
not possess and individuated self that is differentiated from the “other.” For that
reason, the delusion of the separate self is likely to be stronger in individuals raised
in individualistic Western societies.

It is in this sense that the Western concept of self is holistically defined in

terms of the following aspects:

1. Western Self as Analytic

The Western way of thinking is analytic-deductive with emphasis on the

causal links (part-to-whole relationships). The whole is understood when
differentiated into parts. One must categorize and make distinctions to pursue cause.

2. Western Self as Monotheistic

The belief in one Supreme Being coexisting with the universe condenses the
supernatural and human capabilities into bipolarity of both qualities of existence
(e.g., beautiful/ugly; kind/cruel; sacred/profane; strong/weak; etc.) and categories of
identity or experience (e.g., God/Satan; body/soul; love/lust; sinner/saint, etc.)

3. Western Self as Individualistic

Western individualism exhibits the coexistence of favorable and unfavorable

conditions inherent I personal freedom. Although the right to individual freedom
provides opportunities for self-fulfillment, it also increases the likelihood of
experiencing alienation and frustration.

4. Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic

The Western way of thinking is focused on material “things” and favors a

rationalempirical approach over magical and superstitious explanations of immaterial
“things”
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
The Western and Eastern Concepts of the Self
David Ho (1995) describes the Western self as an individualistic self that is
deeply aware of itself, its uniqueness, sense of direction, purpose, and volition. The
self is located at the center within the individual through which the world is perceived.
The self is also seen as “an entity distinct from other selves and all other entities.”
This implies that the self belongs to the individual and to no other. As a consequence
of tis complete ownership of self, it becomes a sovereign subject possessing a sense
of personal control. If all things are well, the self achieves coherence and stability
over time. In an individualist perspective, the Western self is the measure of all
things (Ho, 1995; Garcia, 2013), that is, the source of all reflections.

Frank Johnson (1985) traces the earliest historical roots of the Western
concept of the self to works on philosophy, almost half a million years ago. By the
middle and nineteenth centuries, psychology has provided answers to philosophical
questions about the concepts of soul and mind. Experimental psychology came into
prominence during the mid-nineteenth century and put forth the concept of self within
the socialinteractionist framework. The growth of sociology, anthropology, and
psychology in the late nineteenth century saw the emergence of various concepts of
self, among them the Western concept.
The Historical Development of the Western Concept of Self

Stag Period Historical Development

e
1 🗸There were philosophical and theological attempts to
Pre- characterize the self through the concepts of soul and
Christian mind a=with emphasis on conscious experience of the
times until individual, distinction between physical and mental nature
1850 of man (mind-body dualism), and the causality of human
behavior.
2 1850- 1940 🗸 The establishment of experimental psychology in mid-19th
century led to a change in emphasis from abstract concepts
of soul and mind to observable and measurable aspects of
human faculties.
🗸 The concept of self re-emerged within the social-
interactionist frameworks in the early 1900s.
3 1940 – present 🗸There is multidirectional and continuous development of
concept of self:
a. Sociological and psychological theories of self
encompass all three levels of self, namely inner self,
interpersonal self, and social self.
b. Existentialists and phenomenologists, both in
philosophy and psychology, engaged in holistic
approach integrating the inner, interpersonal, and
social aspects of self.
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
The Western and Eastern Concepts of the Self
c. At present, there is convergence in some
conceptualizations of the self among psychologists,
anthropologists, sociologists, philosophers, and
linguists whose studies focus on the actual,
multivariate, and situational contexts of the self
employing new frameworks and methodologies.

EASTERN CONCEPT OF SELF

In the East, philosophy and religion are twisted together. Thus, the major
Eastern religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism are also
the common representatives of Eastern thought.

These Eastern intellectual traditions differ greatly in features and approaches

to various issues about selfhood. For this reason, the Eastern thought is described
as pluralistic (Garcia, 2013). Although these four systems of Eastern thought differ in
their approaches about the concept of self, they share the same goal – to teach how
to become a perfect person (Villaba, 1995).

The Self in Four Great Systems of Eastern Thought

 Hinduism

The Hindu concept of self is expounded in Vedanta, a major school of Indian

thought based on Upanishads, the classical Indian philosophical treatises.

It has been stated that Brahman is an absolute reality, and Atman (soul or
spirit), the true knowledge of self, is identical to Brahman.
Vedanta characterizes human suffering as the result of failure to realize the
distinction between the true self (permanent and
unchanging) and the non-true self (impermanent and The Many Faces
of Hindu Gods &
Goddesses changes continually).

The goal of the person is to have knowledge of the true reality – Brahman.
Selfrealization is being united to all-embracing Brahman. But the realization of true
selfhood will result in a complete dissolution of individual identity (Ho, 1995).

The law of karma is the most important doctrine of

Hinduism. All actions are subject to karma. Individual actions
will lead to either good or bad outcomes in one’s life. People
get exactly what they deserve. If you do good things, you will
be rewarded; if you do bad, you will be punished. Therefore,
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
The Western and Eastern Concepts of the Self
the individual is the only one responsible for the consequence s of his or her actions
(Garcia, 2008).

Hindus believe that Atman, being an immortal soul, continues to be

reincarnated from lifetime to lifetime until it is freed from the cycle of rebirth and
reaches a state of nirvana or non-birth (Garcia, 2008). Karma does not end with a
body’s death, so its influence may extend through incarnation of the soul. Individuals
cannot change the fact that they are exactly what they are supposed to be in life. In
the present lifetime, they can change what they will become in future lives.

 Buddhism

Siddharta Gautama, known as the Buddha, is the founder

of Buddhism. The root word of Buddhism is budh meaning
awake. To be awake may imply that opening the eyes would
lead to understanding more about the self and the world.
According to the teachings of Buddhism, every person has the
seed of enlightenment, hence, the potential to be a Buddha. But
the seed should be nurtured (Mansukhani, 2013).

The Four Noble Truths are the basic principles of

Buddhism:
Siddhartha Gautama,
the Buddha
1. Life is suffering.

2. Suffering is caused by attachment to desires.

3. Suffering can be eliminated.

4. Elimination of suffering is through the practice of the Eightfold Path (right

view, right aspiration, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort,
right mindfulness, and right concentration.

In Buddhist philosophy, man is just a title for the summation of the five parts
(matter, sensation, perception, mental constructs, and consciousness that compose
the individual, however each of the parts distinctly is not man (Villaba, 1995). Man
has no self (or no-soul). There is only nothing and all else is an illusion. There is
nothing permanent but change. The ignorance of the impermanence of everything is
the cause of life’s misery, births and rebirths. The perfect moral intellectual
knowledge becomes powerful in the sense that it eliminates the cause of one’s
misery and awakens one from the illusion of selfhood. The ideal is to experience
Nirvana (literally meaning, “blowing out,” as of a lamp), a state of transcendence
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
The Western and Eastern Concepts of the Self
devoid of self-reference. This state of transcendence can be achieved through
meditation (Ho, 1995).

 CONFUCIANISM

The Confucian doctrines are found in the Analects (Conversations of

Confucius). The core off Confucian thought is the Golden Rule or the principle of
reciprocity: “Do not do to others what you would not want others to do to you.”

Thus, the basic virtue or proper conduct is knowing how to act in relation to
others. The most important of relationships are the Five
Cardinal Relationships:

between ruler and minster

between father and son
between husband and wife Hence, the
self is known as a relational self.
between brothers
between friends

Another important feature in Confucian thought is the

individual’s greatest mission of attaining self-realization
wherein self-cultivation is instrumental.

Self-cultivation could be accomplished by knowing one’s role in society and

acting accordingly. Moral character is perfected by continuously taking every
opportunity to improve oneself in thought and action. There will be harmonious
relationships when individual follow the rules of proper social behavior. The
individual is set to respond to what is socially required rather than to one’s personal
needs and goals. Here, the self is a subdued self (Ho, 1995).

 TAOISM

Taoism is a Chinese counterculture. Taoists reject the Confucian ideal of a

relational self. To them, the self is an extension of the cosmos, not of social
relationships. The self is described as one of the limitless forms of the Tao (Ho,
1995).

The Tao is commonly regarded as Nature that is the foundation of all that
exists (Garcia, 2008). It is not bounded by time and space. The ideal is to identify
with the Tao. The perfect man has no self. Selflessness is attained when the
Confucius
distinction between “I” and “other” dissolves. Consequently, the individual may
behave spontaneously, just going with the flow of the Tao. The selfless person leads
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
The Western and Eastern Concepts of the Self
to a balanced life, in harmony with both nature and society (Ho,
1995).

Taoists believe that simplicity, spontaneity, and harmony

with nature should govern one’s life. Individuals must seek to
understand and act in accordance with the natural order. There
should be unity and harmony among opposing elements: the Yin and Yang (Abella,
Lao Tzu
2016). Hence, there is oneness of the Tao.

Dichotomy of Western and Eastern Conceptions of Self

In Eastern thought, the emphasis is relational rather than individualistic. The

self is considered not in isolation but in relation to others, society, and the universe.
Eastern thoughts aim at transformations in consciousness, feelings, emotions, and
one’s relation to other people and the world. The theories of Eastern philosophers
demonstrate a sociocentric view presupposing that the self exists as an entity within
the concrete situation or role occupied by the person (Robbins, 2012).

In contrast, Western thoughts tend to view the self as autonomous, unitary,

and stable (van Meijl, 2008). Nevertheless, Western thoughts about the self have
been examined by renowned theorists like Freud, Erikson, Bandura, Rogers, Jung,
James, Mead, Cooley, and others. They have conducted and emphasize the
importance of scientific methods to provide satisfactory answers to understanding
the self. Eastern theories offer a variety of techniques for cultivating a deeper
understanding of the self. However, they do not utilize the scientific techniques of
investigation.

It is vitally important that both East and West appreciate each other’s attempts
to understand the self. To do so can only enrich both (Engler, 2012). Thus, Quinto
(Garcia, 2013) seeks to place Western and Eastern theories of the self into
perspective by making some comparisons and contrast among them.

For instance, Asian thought looks at life in the three-mode cycle of birth,
death, and rebirth. On the other hand, the Western concept of life is linear as it is
concerned with absolute beginnings or endings in time and space. Asian thought
does not dichotomize between one’s way of thinking and one’s way of living. This
implies that one’s though, action, and speech should be in harmony. Asian thought
considers intuition as a valid means to gain wisdom; it does not rely mainly on
reason and logic which are the more popular sources of knowledge in the West.

Another distinction between Eastern and Western thoughts is about nature

and self. According to Sarza (2013), one unique feature of Eastern Philosophy is its
great reverence for nature. It is believed that nature promotes introspection into
one’s inner life and that wisdom and enlightenment can be attained by observing
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
The Western and Eastern Concepts of the Self
nature. On the other hand, Peacock (1986) mentions that modern Western culture
tends to set the individual against nature, that is, to struggle against nature which is a
dangerous enemy. This viewpoint can be traced from Christian theologies that
consider nature as fallen and evil. However, recently there are objections to this view
of nature opposing the human being. It has been argued that the individual and
nature are part of a single whole.

Comparative Matrix of Western and Eastern

Approaches to Understanding the Self

Dimension Western Thought Eastern Thought

There is a separation between Religion and are
Frame of
philosophy and philosophy
Reference
religion/spirituality. intertwined.
Examples of Scholasticism Hinduism
Schools of Rationalism Buddhism
Thought/Belief Empiricism Confucianism
Systems Phenomenology Taoism
Greek Triumvirate: Socrates,
Plato, Confucius
Notable Aristotle Lao Tzu
Philosophers Siddharta Gautama
René Descartes
(Buddha)
John Locke
Has made use of reason rather Has trusted intuition and is
Source of
than faith to pursue wisdom often associated with
Knowledge
religious beliefs
Modes of Analytic and deductive Synthetic and inductive
Cognition
Emphasis Distinctions and oppositions Commonalties and
harmonies
View of the
Linear Circular
Universe and Life
View of Self Egocentric Sociocentric
Subject-Object
Distinction Duality of self-as-subject Simultaneously subject and
(Bipolar Qualities (knower) and self-as-object object (The experience of self
of (known) as both the knower and known)
Self)
Theological View Monotheistic Polytheistic (Pluralistic)
Self-actualization through To achieve a balanced life and
Ideal
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
The Western and Eastern Concepts of the Self
personal growth find one’s role in society
Cultural Individualism Collectivism
Framework a. The self is a distinct and a. The self is an integrated part
autonomous entity; it is an of the universe and the
independent part of the universe society. b. Interdependence
and the society. and connectedness are core
b. Independence and self- values.
reliance are core values. c. No distinctions between
c. Prioritize personal goals personal and group goals, or if
over group goals there is a distinction, the personal
goals are subordinate to the
d. Characterized by
group goals.
exchange relationship
d. Characterized by
e. Uniqueness, sense of
communal relationship.
direction, purpose and volition
are the acknowledge features of e. Conformity and obedience
self. are essential social behaviors.
f. Duty towards all others is
important.
f. Personal success is important

Filipino’s Concept of Self:

The Philippines is a collectivist society and individuals tend to understand
themselves as part of a group. For Filipinos, the interests of the collective often
override the interests of the individual. Filipinos generally feel a strong sense of pride
towards their group and will celebrate their pride through sharing stories about their
family, barangay, or town.

How Filipino people’s concept of self is influenced by these perspectives of

the Self?
 The contrasting blend of Eastern and Western cultures has shaped the unique
Filipino concept of self.
 Filipinos are communal and love to share any food or materials they have.
 Filipinos love fiestas and family gathering.
 Under the guidance of the parents, the family structure makes every individual
dependent with each other.
 Each is expected to show respect, courtesy, and humility to the other.
 Hospitality and “hiya” are valued by an individual to maintain harmony with the
others.
 “Utang na loob”and Bayanihan System are their expressions of being
collectivistic.
 Loob and Kapwa: Filipino Philosphy (Magante, 2016)
 Non-individualistic, tied with group called “Sakop”
 Tayo-tayo (ato-ato) is a place where fellowship prevails
 Sakop can either be one’s relatives (or clan), fraternity members, barkada,
and the like.
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
The Western and Eastern Concepts of the Self
 For indigenous Filipinos, their concept of Sakop is tribe (katribo)
 Kapwa is “a recognition of shared identity, an inner self shared with others”
Virgilio Enriquez, 1992).
 Kapwa – the unity of the one-of-us-and-the-other – the Filipino Core value
(Enriquez, 1992).
 Kapwa, meaning “togetherness”, is the core construct of Filipino
Psychology
 Loob is defined as an inner being which is associated with the ideas of
leadership, power, nationalism, and revolution.
 A purified kalooban requires a special knowledge which was given more to
the leaders and less to the members.
 Loob must be continually purified and strengthened through sacrifice:
prayer and abstinence.
 Through sacrifice a “new man will emerge.

Let’s Reflect!

The Strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino character have their roots in
Western and Eastern Traditions. Write an introspection essay about your
character as a Filipino, using the following guide questions.

1. What are your Western, Eastern, and a Filipino characteristic that can help
you succeed in life?
2. Are you happy for having this combination?
3. How do you appreciate your uniqueness as Filipino? How do you feel as a
Filipino?

References:
Go-Monilla, M. J. A. and Ramirez, N. C. (2018). Understanding the self. C & E
Publishing, Inc. Images taken online from Google©