PRINCIPLES OF

GENERAL
SURGERY

Dr. WAEL METWALY

 ‫اللهــــم‬
‫‪ ‬اللهم اجعل هذا العمل خال ً‬
‫صا لىجهك الكزيم‬
‫‪ ‬اللهم سدوى علما ‪ ....‬واجعل هذا العلم نافعا ً لكل مه يدرسه‬
‫‪ ‬اللهم ارسقىى مه هذا العمل رضا ومغفزة وعحقا ً مه الىار ما حييث وبعد الممات‬
‫‪ ‬اللهم اجعل هذا العمل صدقة جارية ال يىقطع بها عملى بعد مىجى‬

‫اللهم آميه‬
‫اللهم آميه‬
‫وائل متولى‬
 CONTENTS
Chapter Page
 WOUNDS ………………………………………………………… 1
 HEMORRAHGE, SHOCK & BLOOD TRANSFUSION ………. 11
 BURNS & SURGICAL NUTRITION …………………………….. 23
 WATER & ELECTROLYTE BALANCE ………………………… 35
 SURGICAL HEMOSTASIS ………………………………………. 41
 SURGICAL INFECTIONS ………………………………………... 47
 HAND INFECTIONS & ANTIBIOTICS …………………….……. 61
 TUMORS & TRANSPLANTATION ……………………………… 69
 BREAST DISORDERS ……………………………………….…… 79
 THYROID & PARATHYROID DISORDERS …………………… 115
 ARTERIAL DISORDERS ………………………………………… 151
 VENOUS DISORDERS ………………………………………….. 181
 LYMPHATIC DISORDERS ……………………………………… 201
 PERIPHERAL NERVES ……………………………..………….. 215
 SKIN & SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUES ………………………….. 233
 MUSCLES, TENDONS & FASCIAE ……………………………. 245
 HEAD SURGERY ………………………………………………… 253
 NECK SURGERY ………………………………………………… 279

With my best wishes

Dr.
Wael Metwaly
Clinic : 01116063635 Mob.: 012 22466443
E-mail : dr_wael_metwaly @ yahoo.com
Wounds

0
 WOUNDS
DEFINITION
It is forcible loss of continuity of soft tissues, mainly due to mechanical trauma
CLASSIFICATION
A- Opened wounds " in which the skin continuity is interrupted "
INCISED WOUNDS
- Caused by sharp cutting instrument.
- It has clean cut edges with little or no tissue damage.
- It is more liable for bleeding & less liable for infection.
LACERATED WOUNDS
- Caused by blunt heavy instrument
- It has crushed edges with severe tissue damage
- It is less liable for bleeding & more liable for infection
ABRASIONS
- Partial denuation of the superficial layer of the skin
due to friction of skin with rough surface.
STAB OR PUNCTURED WOUNDS
- Caused by pointed objects as daggers.
- It is the most dangerous type.
MISSILE WOUNDS
- They have an inlet & may have an exit.
- The damage is due to the following factors :
1- Direct damage by missile track.
2- Shock waves preceding missile.
3- Temporary cavitational effect.
4- If bone affection; bone fragments act as secondary missiles.
- The degree of damage depends on its velocity :
(a) Low velocity missile
produces direct laceration
(b) High velocity missile It is more lethal.
produces tissue necrosis several centimeters
on either side of the track due to the cavitation effect.
BITES (Animal or Human)
- They are very liable for infection
B- Closed wounds " in which the skin surface is intact "
CONTUSION (Ecchymosis)
- It is bluish skin patches caused by blunt trauma.
- It is extravasation of blood from injured small vessels with no swelling.
-Treated by fomentation
(cold in 1st 24 hours then hot after that)

1
 HEMATOMA
- It is a localized extravascular collection of blood
- Types :  Subcutaneous hematoma.
 Sub-periosteal hematoma.
 Intra-muscular hematoma.
- Fate :  Resolution by absorption
 Localized by fibrosis.
 Infection  abscess.
 Calcification e.g. myositis ossificans
-Treated by fomentation + antibiotics
+ Pressure bandage (if small) or evacuation (if large)
COMPLICATIONS OF WOUND
1- General complications
 Shock : hypovolaemic, septic or neurogenic
 CRUSH SYNDROME
[ Traumatic anuria ]
- Results from massive crushing of big muscles   myoglobin from
crushed muscles enter the circulation  acute renal tubular necrosis
 acute renal failure
- The crushed muscles swell (oedema) inside their fascial coverings
  compartmental pressure  compression on vessel  acute
limb ischemia

Normal cut section of leg After revascularization

-Treatment :
 Anti-shock measures.
 Forced diuresis by I.V mannitol.
 Fasciotomy to prevent compartmental syndrome.
2- Local complications
 Infection :
 Non specific : Staph, Strept ……etc.
 Specific : Tetanus & gas gangrene.
 Injuries of important structures :
Nerves, vessels, muscles, tendons, solid organs ….etc.
 Retained foreign bodies.

2
TREATMENT
A- First aid treatment
" Pre-hospital management "
 Ensure patent airway if patient is unconscious
 Control of bleeding by compression
 Sterile dressing to prevent contamination.
Transfer the patient to hospital
B- Definitive treatment
 Assessment of injury for associated visceral, arterial & nerve injury .
 3 Anti (Anti-shock, Antibiotics & Anti-tetanic serum) + Analgesic
 Stabilization of any orthopedic fractures.
Transfer the patient to operating room

According to the onset of wound

WOUNDS WITHIN HOURS

There is no contamination & no Risk for infection so we do 

 Incised wounds
1ry suture + suture of all structures including nerves & tendons
 Lacerated wounds
Excision of the edges then 1ry suture. Nerves & tendons
repair are postponed 4 - 6 weeks

WOUNDS WITHIN HOURS

The wounds are potentially contaminated so we do 

 Incised or lacerated wounds
Excision of the edges + systemic A.B + repeated dressing
to allow the granulation tissues to fill the wound.
It becomes clean within 4 - 6 days  we do delayed 1ry suture

WOUNDS AFTER HOURS

The wounds are contaminated so we do 

 Incised or lacerated wounds
Depridement ( no excision of edges) + systemic A.B + repeated dressing
to allow the granulation tissues to fill the wound.
When it becomes clean  we do 2ry suture

N.B.: 1- Missile injuries : incise the skin i.e. NO excision

Then incise the deep fascia & excise the dead tissues
2- Amputation :
Indicated in severely lacerated wounds, uncontrolled infection
or vascular gangrene.

3
 WOUND HEALING
COMPONENTS OF WOUND HEALING
Wound contraction
- This process of contraction helps to diminish
the size of wound.
- It starts immediately & continues for the next
2 - 3 weeks.
Granulation tissue formation
- This is later on replaced by fibrous tissue
Epithelialization
STAGES OF WOUND HEALING ( 3 Phases )
Hemostasis & inflammation phase
● Injury of blood vessels leads to aggregation
of platelets & activation of coagulation
● This is followed by chemotaxis of leucocytes,
macrophages & lymphocytes.
● Macrophages play an important role in
phagocytosis & wound debridement.
● This phase lasts for about 5 days, but may be
prolonged if there is wound infection
Proliferation phase
● This phase is characterized by the proliferation
of fibroblast that secrete collagen fibers.
● Endothelial cells with fibroblasts form the
granulation tissue.
● Epithelial cells proliferation.
Maturation & remodeling phase
● Deposition of collagen fibers become thicker.
● The process of remodeling continues for about
one year.

4
TYPES OF WOUND HEALING
Healing by 1ry intention
● This occurs with clean wounds,
● There is little amount of granulation tissues
& minimal fibrosis.
So the final result is a fine linear scar.
Healing by 2ry intention
● This occurs with septic wounds,
● There is marked amount of granulation tissues
& marked fibrosis.
So the final result is an ugly scar.
Healing by 3ry intention
● This occurs after 2ry suture or delayed 1ry suture.
● The aim is to lessen the fibrosis & to obtain a fine
linear scar similar to 1ry intention.
FACTORS AFFECTING WOUND HEALING
General factors
 Age : Wound healing is slow with elderly
due to  protein turn over rate.
 Nutritional status as 
● Vitamin C deficiency   Proto-collagen maturity.
● Protein deficiency   Collagen synthesis.
● Vitamin A deficiency   Epithelialization.
● Ca+, zinc, copper & manganese
play a minor role in wound healing.
 Cortisone administration as it inhibits fibroblast proliferation.
 Irradiation  end arteritis obliterans  ischemic wound.
 Chronic diseases :
like uremia, diabetes & malignancy delay healing
Local factors
 Poor vascularity   healing e.g. below knee wounds.
 Tension by tight sutures or hematoma  ischemia of the edges.
 Foreign body & necrotic tissues impair wound healing.
 Infection : Bacteria competes with fibroblasts for oxygen,
also bacteria secretes collagenolytic enzymes
e.g. hyalurindase enzyme which destroy collagen
 Immobilization : because movement delay healing.
 Adhesion to bony surface : prevent wound contraction.
5
COMPLICATIONS OF WOUND HEALING
1- Wound failure ( wound dehiscence )
BURST ABDOMEN
 Aetiology :
Failure of abdominal wound to heal
 Pathology : ( at 6 - 8lh post-operative day )
- Warning (Red) sign = serosanginous discharge soaks
the dressing.
- If intestine prolapses through wound = Evisceration .
- If intestine doesn't prolapse through wound = Dehiscence
Treatment:
[A] Preoperative care :
- Cover the prolapsed bowel by a sterile dressing
- Ryle tube for suction and I.V fluids & antibiotics.
[B] Operative :
The protruded intestinal loops are washed with saline
& returned to abdomen, the omentum is spread over
the intestine, then the abdominal wall is closed as one
layer by prolene (tension sutures)
[C] Post-operative care : Abdominal binder is used.
2- Stretching of the scar
3- Contracture
This is a pathological shortening of scar tissue
resulting in deformities
4- Post-operative wound infection
5- Hypertrophic scar
 Definition : It is an excessive amount
fibrous tissue confined to scar
 Aetiology : Extra-stimulus to fibrous tissue
formation during healing such as
infection or excessive tension.
 Treatment : Excision + plastic repair
6- Keloid formation
 Definition : It is a localized overgrowth of
fibrous tissue which extends
beyond the original wound into
normal tissues
 Aetiology : It occurs after wounds, bums
or surgical operations..
 Treatment : It is difficult because of high rate of recurrence
 Pre & post-operative irradiation to  recurrence.
 Intra-lesional steroid injections.
 Surgical excision with intra-operative steroid injections.

6
 MAJOR TRAUMA
MULTIPLE-INJURY PATIENT
MECHANISM OF INJURY
& THE MULTIPLE INJURY
1- Penetrating injuries
 Low velocity injuries :
caused by knife & other sharp objects.
 High velocity injuries :
caused by a missile
2- Blunt injuries
e.g. Road traffic accident
CAUSES OF TRAUMA MORTALITY
1- Immediate deaths
The deaths occur within few minutes due to major trauma or injuries
of the heart or major blood vessels or rupture of the major airway.
2- Early deaths
The deaths occur within few hours due to intra-cranial hemorrhage,
massive intra-abdominal or intra-thoracic hemorrhage, or major fractures.
3- Late deaths
The deaths occur within few weeks due to sepsis or multiple organ failure.
MANAGEMENT OF MAJOR TRAUMA & THE MULTIPLE INJURY-PATIENT
A- First aid treatment
" Pre-hospital management "
 Ensure patent airway if patient is unconscious
 Control of bleeding by compression
 Sterile dressing to prevent contamination.
Transfer the patient to hospital
B- Definitive treatment
" Hospital management "

The American College of Surgeons developed the

Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS)
ATLS protocol has 3 elements :
1- Primary survey / resuscitation
A = Air way maintenance.
B = Breathing.
C = Circulating i.e control bleeding.
D = Disability i.e. support any fracture.
E = Exposure of the patients.
2- Secondary survey
3- Definitive treatment of individual injuries

7
1- Primary survey / resuscitation

A- Airway
1- CLEAR AIRWAY
- Vomitus, blood or foreign material should
be removed, this is followed by chin lift
or jaw thrust.
2- AIRWAY CONTROL
1- Oro- pharyngeal tube to prevents backward falling of the tongue
2- Endotracheal tube is indicated with 
a. Apnea.
b. Inhalation injuries.
c. Maxillofacial trauma
d. Closed head injuries

3- CERVICAL CONTROL
- Cervical spine immobilization is done using
a backboard and a rigid collar

B- Breathing
ASSESSMENT
 Inspection for chest movement, respiratory rate,
cyanosis, open chest wound & expansion.
 Palpation for subcutaneous emphysema and flail
segments.
 Percussion for hyperresonance or dullness
 Auscultation for air entry & adventitious sound.
LIFE - THREATENING CONDITIONS & THEIR TREATMENT
 Flail chest : Immobilized by cotton pad & adhesive
plaster from sternum to spine
 Tension pneumothorax : Deflated by needle which
is inserted in 2nd inter-costal space
 Massive hemothorax : Under water seal drainage

C- Circulation
ACTION
 Control of bleeding by local compression, elevation or packing
 Anti-shock measures ( discuss )
 ECG monitoring.
 CPR for cardiac arrest.

D Disability
- Common causes of neurological deficits related to trauma are 
Head injury, hypoxia, shock , alcohol or drug abuse

8
 E. Exposure & Environment
- Clothes of the trauma victim are removed using a sharp large scissors.
- Warmth using blankets to prevent hypothermia.
- Insert  Urethral catheter ( Foley's ) to monitor urine output.
this is contraindicated if there rupture urethra
 Nasogastric tube ( Ryle's ) to decompresses the stomach
& to prevents vomiting & aspiration
N.B.: Proper history taking ( AMPLE )
- Allergies - Medications - Past medical history
- Last meal (time) - Events of injury
2- Secondary survey
- The secondary survey is to be done after resuscitation
efforts, after radiological assessment
as plain x-rays, CTscan, MRI …..etc.
- It includes examination of 
 Head & neck
 Face & spine
 Chest & abdomen ( diagnostic peritoneal lavage ) are indicated
in blunt abdominal trauma
 Perineum ( including rectal & vaginal examinations if females )
 Nervous system
 Pupils for size, equality & reaction to light
 GCS
 Cranial nerves
 Sensation & motor activity in limbs
 Limbs

3- Definitive treatment of individual injuries

N.B TRIAGE

Definition Detection of severity of trauma which may be :

1- Black triage = Victim unlikely to survive because of severity
2- Red triage = Victim can be helped by immediate intervention
3- Yellow triage = Victim transported can be delayed
4- Green triage = Victim with relatively minor injuries

9
 Hge, Shock &
Blood transfusion

10
 HEMORRAGE
CLASSIFICATIONS
1- Site of bleeding
 External : The bleeding is visible as it occurs through the skin
as in wounds or from body orifice as in epistaxis.
 Internal as in hemothorax or hemoperitoneum.
 Interstitial : The bleeding occurs into the tissues forming a hematoma.
2- Types of bleeding vessels
 Arterial : The blood is bright red in color & comes in pulsatile jets.
The bleeding is more from proximal than distal end.
 Venous : The blood is dark red in color & comes in steady flow
The bleeding is more from distal than proximal end.
 Capillary : The blood is bright red in color & comes as oozing.
3- Time in relation to onset of trauma
 Primary : It occurs at the time of trauma.
 Reactionary : It occurs within 24 hours due to slipped ligature.
 Secondary : It occurs within 7-14 days due to sepsis which
dissolves the clot & erodes the arterial wall.
4- Aetiology of the bleeding
 Traumatic as accidents " The most common "
 Pathological as 
 Atherosclerotic e.g. ruptured aortic aneurysm
 Inflammatory e.g. bleeding peptic ulcer
 Neoplastic e.g. hematuria in renal cancer
 Bleeding tendency as hemophilia

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE

CLINICAL PICTURE

CLASSES OF HEMORRHAGE

MONITORING SHOCKED PATIENT

TREATMENT

11
 SHOCK
SHOCK is a patho-physiological condition that leads to inadequate
tissue perfusion through the microcirculation with impaired
cellular metabolism

HYPOVOLAEMIC SHOCK
AETIOLOGY
It is due to diminished blood Volume 2ry to 
 Blood loss as in hemorrhage.
 Plasma loss as in bum.
 Fluid loss as in severe vomiting & diarrhea.
PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE
Hemorrhage is the classic example of hypovolaemic shock
There are 2 aims
A- Stopping the bleeding by 
 Immediate vasoconstriction.
 Retraction of intima of bleeding vessels.
 Subsequent clot formation.
B- Maintaining effective circulatory volume by 
 NEURAL FACTORS
Stimulation of the sympathetic system with the following effects :
● Constriction of vein displaces blood to heart.
● Constriction of arterioles   peripheral resistance.
It involves the arterioles of the skin not brain & heart.
●  Rate & strength of cardiac contraction.
 ENDOCRINAL FACTORS
Mediated through the following mechanisms :
● Catecholamine   heart rate & myocardial contraction
then constriction of arterioles of skin & viscera.
● The rennin-angiotensin aldosterone system :
Angiotensin II (powerful vasoconstrictor)   Na &
water retention
●  (ACTH, cortisol, growth hormone & glucagon) 
Hyperglycemia which  extra-cellular fluid
 TRANS-CAPILLARY REFILL
● Constriction of arterioles   capillary hydrostatic pressure
& promotes movement of fluid from interstitium into capillaries.

12
CLINICAL PICTURE
Hemorrhage is the classic example of hypovolaemic shock
Symptoms
● Weakness & fainting especially with standing.
●The patient feels cold & thirsty.
Signs
Patients vary from anxious to drowsy & usually remain alert.
● PULSE ( Rapid & weak )
- Rapid due to  Adrenaline  direct stimulation of S.A.node
- Weak due to hypotension
● ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE ( Hypotension )
because in hemorrhage   blood volume   venous return
and so   cardiac output   A.B.P
● TEMPERATURE ( Subnormal (
due to  metabolism as a result from hypoxia & hypotension
● RESPIRATORY RATE ( Tachypnea i.e. Air hunger)
due to hypoxia which stimulate the respiratory center (R.C)
● SKIN ( Pale, cold & sweaty )
due to sympathetic overtone which leads to 
- Vasoconstriction of skin capillaries i.e. pale skin.
- Vasoconstriction of skin arterioles i.e. cold skin .
● URINE OUTPUT Oliguria
due to renal hypoperfusion +  ADH

The patient is rapidly treated by adequate volume replacement,

 These signs will rapidly return to normal

The patient is not rapidly treated by adequate volume replacement,

The followings will occur 
The MOSF ( Multi-Organ Systemic Failure )
● Lung : A.R.D.S (Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome)
● Heart :  Myocardial contractility from coronary ischemia
● Liver : Liver hypoperfusion  hepatic dysfunction & Jaundice.
● Stomach : Gut hypoperfusion  stress ulceration  hematemesis
● Small intestine : Gut hypoperfusion  T.N.F (Tumor Necrosis Factor)
which released from hypoperfused ischemic gut
● Kidney : Renal hypoperfusion   G.F.R  acute tubular necrosis
 A.R.F (Acute Renal Failure)

13
CLASSES OF HEMORRHAGE

Parameter Class I Class II Class III Class IV

up to 15 % 15 – 30 % 30 – 40 % > 40 %
Blood loss ( 750 ml ) ( 750 - 1500 ml ) (1500 - 2000 ml ) ( > 2000 ml )
Normal to Anxious to Restless to Drowsy to
Mental status anxious restless drowsy unconscious
Capillary refill Normal > 2 Sec
Pulse/min 90 -100 /min. 100 -120 /min. 120 -140 /min. > 140 /min.
Normal in
A.B.P Normal Low
supine only
Temperature Normal Cold
R.R Normal 20 - 30 /min. 30 – 35 /min. > 35 /min.
Skin Normal Pale
Normal
Urine output > 30 ml/h 30 - 20 ml/h 20 - 10 ml/h 10 - 0 ml/h

MONITORING THE SEVERLY SHOCKED PATIENT " I.C.U "

The aim is to check the adequacy of replacement
● Pulse : normally = 60 - 90/min
● A.B.P : normally = 90 - 150 / 60 - 100 mmHg
● Respiratory rate : normally = 16 - 20/min
● Temperature : normally = 36.5 - 37.2
● Urinary output by Foley's catheter.
● Central venous pressure (C.V.P) : normally = 5 - 10 cm H2O
● Pulmonary artery wedge pressure (P.A.W.P)
by Swan-Ganz catheter to estimate pulmonary artery pressure
● Hb %, haematocrite value. electrolytes, urea & creatinine
● Blood gases as PO2 normally = 80 - 100 mmHg
PCO2 normally = 35 - 45 mmHg

N.B.: Irreversible shock

 It is a complete vascular collapse with hypotension unresponsive to
volume replacement or drugs intervention.
 It is related to  The duration & volume of hemorrhage.
 The age of patient.
 The fitness of patient.
 Before the conclusion that irreversible shock has occurred,
The cause of unresponsive to therapy, may be due to 
 Continuous internal blood loss.
 Inadequate volume replacement.
 Acute myocardial insufficiency.

14
TREATMENT
Hemorrhage is the classic example of hypovolaemic shock
1- Stop the bleeding
● 1 ry Hemorrhage
 Proximal pressure is applied over the artery against bone.
 Cover the wound by clean dressing i.e. packing
N.B.: Tourniquets are contraindicated because of its complications
unless the limb is going to be amputated.
 Operative procedures, through control of bleeding points
by legation or diathermy coagulation.
● Reactionary Hemorrhage
- Re-exploration & control the bleeding as above.
● 2ry Hemorrhage
 The wound is packed with antibiotics & sterile dressing.
 Antibiotics are given systematically.
 If the bleeding is not controlled in this ways 
do re-exploration of the wound & legate the bleeding vessels
in the wound itself.

2- Restore the blood volume " Depending on the classes "

● Class II Hemorrhage ( 15 – 30 % blood loss )
 The replacement solution is Ringer's lactate.
 The amount is 3 times the estimated deficient blood.
 The administration : 2 litters are given as a bolus & the response
is monitored, then if there is definite improvement the remaining
1 litter is given more slowly.
● Class III ( 30 - 40 % blood loss ) & Class IV ( > 40 % blood loss )
 The replacement therapy is blood transfusion.
 The amount is equal the estimated deficient
 The administration :the transfusion is continued till recovery but
if no improvement search for internal bleeding to be aspirated,
then continue the transfusion till recovery.
3- Other procedures
● Positioning :
- Elevate both legs while maintaining the trunk of the patient
in supine position.
● Analgesia :
- Morphia but it is contraindicated with head injuries or respiratory distress
● Pulmonary support :
- Oxygen is administrated through a facemask, nasal catheter or
endotracheal tube.

15
 SEPTIC SHOCK
INCIDENCE
● The most serious type of shock & the most difficult to treat.
● The mortality rate > 30 % & exceeding 80 % if with MOSF
AETIOLOGY
Predisposing factors
 Extremes of age.
 D.M, malnutrition, malignancy or uremia.
 Patient under corticosteroids or immunosuppressive drugs.
Source of gram -ve organism
" E. coli, Klebsiella & Pseudomonas "
 Sepsis following operation of genito-urinary, intestinal tract
& hepato-biliary especially when surgery is urgent.
 Septic peritonitis.
 Major trauma or burn with sepsis.
PATHO-PHYSIOLOGY
Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome
Gram -ve organisms produce endotoxins which stimulate
the macrophages to release Cytokines
CYTOKINES CAUSE THE FOLLOWING PROBLEMS

I. Platelets & leukocytes adherence to the vascular

endothelium which leads to 
● Impairment of microvascular perfusion i.e. microvascular thrombosis.
● More release of cytokines & oxygen free radicals
 more damage to vascular endothelium.
II. Damage of the barrier function of the intestinal mucosa
● Allowing passage of intestinal pathogens into the circulation  Toxemia.
III. Excessive production of Nitric oxide by vascular endothelium
● Which is potent smooth muscle relaxant  peripheral vasodilatation
 aggravation of the shock.
Acid-base imbalance
Shock is accompanied by metabolic acidosis, which caused by  lactic acid
& associated renal failure.
Cellular derangement
Because of hypoxia, cellular functions start to deteriorate & finally cell death
Poor perfusion of vital organs leads to
Multi organ systemic failure
i.e. irreversible septic shock

16
CLINICAL PICTURE
Hyperdynamic ( warm ) septic shock
● It is a systemic inflammatory response.
 Heart rate = Tachycardia
 A.B.P = Hypotension
 Temp. = > 38 °C " Fever " + chills
 Respiratory rate = Tachypnea
 Skin = warm & dry extremities
 Urine output = Oliguria
● Proper treatment at this stage, the patient will survive.
Hypodynamic ( cold ) septic shock
● It follows the above stage if not treated properly.
● The clinical picture " same as hypovolaemic shock "
 Heart rate = Tachycardia
 A.B.P = Hypotension
 Temp. = Subnormal
 Respiratory rate = Tachypnea
 Skin = Cold clammy skin
 Urine output = Oliguria
● Multi-Organ Systemic Failure ( MOSF )
MONITORING THE SEVERLY SHOCKED PATIENT " I.C.U "
As hypovolemic shock +
● Bacteriological studies.
● Blood picture : marked leucocytosis.
● Location of septic source by x-ray (abdomen - chest), U/S & CT scan.
TREATMENT
It is better to treat these patients in Intensive Care Unite " I.C.U "
● Immediate recognition & early eradications of the source of sepsis
e.g. resect gangrenous parts & drain intra-abdominal abscess .
● Antibiotics : the choice of drug depend on the possible suspected organism.
a combination of Cephalosporin, Amino-glycosides, Metronidazole
can cover all known organisms.

● Correction of fluid imbalance by Ringer's lactate, plasma or blood.

● Oxygen mask or mechanical ventilation if PO2 < 60 mmHg
● Medications as 
- Vasopressor drugs as Norepinephrine
- Inotropic drugs as Dopamine
N.B.: Steroids are not indicated in treatment of septic shock
Frequent monitoring by 
Pulse, A.B.P, temp., R.R, urine output, CVP, ECG, P.A.W.P
& arterial blood gases

17
 CARDIOGENIC SHOCK
AETIOLOGY
● There is inadequate blood flow to vital organs due to inadequate cardiac output,
despite a normal venous return due to 
 Acute myocardial infarction (commonest cause)
 Massive pulmonary embolism
 Severe arrhythmia
CHARACTERIZED BY
 Manifestation of the cause
 Congested neck vein
 High C.V.P
TREATMENT
 Treat the cause
 Drug to improve myocardial contractility e.g. inotropics
 Vasodilators to  after load &  cardiac output

NEUROGENIC SHOCK
AETIOLOGY
● There is paralysis of vasomotor fibers  peripheral pooling of blood & inadequate
venous return due to 
 VASOVAGAL ATTACK
- due to hearing bad news or sever painful stimuli
- there will be extensive vasodilatation in the splanchnic area & excessive
vagal stimulation of the heart leading to bradycardia.
 HIGH TRANSACTION OF SPINAL CORD
e.g. spine fracture, or following spinal anesthesia
CHARACTERIZED BY
 Hypotension
 Normal pulse or slight bradycardia
 Warm dry skin
TREATMENT
 The patient should be flat with elevated legs
 I.V crystalloid solution as Ringer's lactate
 Vasodilators may be prescribed.

ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK
● The patient develops bronchospasm, laryngeal edema & respiratory distress
● There is massive vasodilatation & there is hypotension.
● Treated by Corticosteroids + Antihistaminic drugs

ENDOCRINAL SHOCK
● This may occur in patient with Addison disease or those receiving continuous
Cortisone therapy.
●They are subjected to any stressful situation

18
 BLOOD TRANSFUSION
PRECAUTIONS
 Blood should be warmed before transfusion
to  the incidence of hypothermia & Arrhythmia.
 Medication should never be added
to blood used
 Blood left out of refrigerator for > 30 min should
not be used
 Blood typing (ABO) & cross matching must be done
BLOOD COMPONENTS
 Packed red cells
- Very useful in anemic patients especially with heart diseases as it
improve oxygenation ability without over loading the circulation
 Fresh plasma
- It is rich in platelets & coagulation factors.
 Fresh frozen plasma
- It is removed from fresh blood then frozen
& stored at 40 °C
- It is good source of all the coagulation factors.
 Platelet concentrates
- It is rich in platelets & coagulation factors.
 Cryoprecipitate
- It is prepared from fresh frozen plasma
& stored at 40 °C
- It is good source of factor VIII & fibrinogen..
INDICATIONS OF BLOOD TRANSFUSION

Product Indication Precautions Storage life

Class III & IV ABO & Rh 21 days

Whole blood
hemorrhage incompatibility
Packed RBCs Severe anaemia ABO & Rh 21 days
- Bleeding
Fresh frozen
- Hypoalbuminemia ABO 1 year at ( - 40 C)
plasma
- Ascites & burns
Platelets Thrombocytopenia ABO 24 – 72 hours

Fibrongen Fibrinogen depletion ABO 1 year at ( - 40 C)

Factor VIII Hemophilia A 2 years

Factor IX Hemophilia B

Albumin - Hypoalbuminemia 2 years

19
COMPLICATIONS
I- In the donor
 Neurogenic shock.
 Anemia if repeated are taken.
 Local thrombophlebitis in the veins.

II- In the recipient

A. IMMEDIATE COMPLICATIONS

 Overloading the circulation " Heart strain "

● It occurs in elderly persons especially if a large volume of
blood is administrated too rapidly or blood is given
faster than the heart can accept it
● Diagnosed by left side heart failure + pulmonary edema.
● Treatment :
It is recommended to transfuse packed red cells
but if it occurs do 1- Oxygenation.
2- Patient is placed in semi-sitting position.
3- Drugs as digitalis, morphia & lasix.
 Hemolytic reactions :
● It occurs due to presence of antibodies in the recipient blood
which destroy the donor's R.B.Cs i.e. hemolysis.
N.B.: Human error is frequently involved in such accident
● Diagnosed by 
- In conscious patient :
Fever, rigors, flushing, distended neck veins, chest & flank pain
- In anesthetized patient :
Tachycardia. hypotension & unexplained bleeding .
- In major hemolytic reactions : Jaundice, A.R.F & hemoglobinuria.
● Treatment :
1- Stop the transfusion immediately then repeat typing
2- I.V Ringer's lactate + mannitol to wash kidney
 Pyrogenic reactions :
● It occurs due to minor bacterial contamination in the transfusion apparatus.
● Diagnosed by chills & fever, headache, malaise & anorexia
● Treatment : prophylaxis is the main treatment.
 Allergic reactions :
● It occurs due to recipient response to allergens in the donor's blood.
● Diagnosed by mild itching & urticaria to severe laryngeal edema
& bronchial asthma.
● Treatment :
1- Stop the transfusion immediately then repeat typing
2- Anti-histaminic administration.
3- Corticosteroids administration

20
  Thrombophlebitis :
● It occurs in the vein used for transfusion.
 Air embolism :
● It occurs due to blood transfusion under pressure applied to its surface

B. COMPLICATIONS DUE TO MASSIVE BLOOD TRANSFUSION

Massive = Transfusion of 2500 ml of blood at one time

 Danger of cold blood : Hypothermia & cardiac arrhythmias.

 Citrate toxicity :
● It occurs in patient with liver disease or in shock.
the liver cannot metabolize citrate   citrate which will
combine with Ca++  hypocalcaemia  tetany.
● Diagnosed by tetanic manifestations.
● Treatment :
Administration of I.V 10 cc (10 %) Ca gluconate.
 Metabolic acidosis :
● The PH of 14 days banked blood 6.7 - 6.9 due to hypoxia
of RBCs  anaerobic metabolism  lactic acid.
 Coagulation failure :
● It occurs due to deficiency of coagulation factors & platelets in
stored blood  bleeding tendency.
 Hyperkalemia :
● It occurs due to prolonged storage of blood, there is progressive
loss of K+ from RBCs into plasma. so with blood transfusion
several units of these K+ may produce arrhythmia or even
cardiac arrest
 O2 carrying capacity of RBCs

C. LATE COMPLICATIONS
● Transmission of infections as 
- Viral hepatitis (B or C)
(The most feared complication)
- AIDS, syphilis, malaria & septicemia.

21
 Burn,
Plastic surgery &
Surgical nutrition

22
 BURN
DEFINITION
Coagulative destruction of tissues.
AETIOLOGY
1- Physical burns
- Thermal : exposure to flame or scald caused
by boiled liquids.
- Electric : burn due to electricity.
- Exposure to Irradiations.
2- Chemical burns
- Acids or alkalis.
- Corrosives as potash.
- Caustics.
3- Inhalation burns
- due to exposure to hot gases.

CLASSIFICATION
1- According to the percentage of surface area involved

So classified into 
Head & neck = 9 % Front of trunk = 18 %
Each upper limb = 9 % Back of trunk = 18 %
Each lower limb =18 % Perineum = 1 %

● Major burn :
> 30 % of body surface area.
● Intermediate burn :
(15 – 30 % in adult & 10 – 30 % in children)
● Minor burn :
(< 15 % in adult & < 10 % in children)

2- According to depth
 1st Degree burns :
- Only epidermis is damaged  erythema
of skin. so they heal rapidly e.g. sun burns
 2ND Degree burns :
- The epidermis & portion of dermis are damaged
- If no infection, the healing occurs by epithelialization
from the epithelial remnants
of hair follicles & sweat glands.
- But if infection occurs, these epithelial
remnants will be destroyed & so
changed to be a full thickness burn

23
 This degree is subdivided into 
1- SUPERFICIAL PARTIAL THICKNESS BURN
Which is usually heal in 10 -15 days.
2- DEEP PARTIAL THICKNESS BURN
Which is usually heal in 15 - 30 days.
 3TH Degree ( full thickness ) burns :
- This is a complete destruction of epidermis
& dermis
- The patient should be prepared for grafting.
HISTOPATHOLOGY
Temperature > 45°C
- Results in protein denaturation which exceeds the capacity of cellular repair.
Thermal injury results in 3 zones
1- THE CENTRAL INNER ZONE ( Zone of coagulation )
- This forms the inner layer of the visible burn eschar.
2- THE INTERMEDIATE ZONE ( Zone of stasis )
- This area surround the zone of coagulation.
- It contains viable tissues that may die over
the next 48 hours post-bum, if tissue oxygenation
& adequate nutrition are not maintained.

3- THE OUTER ZONE (Zone of hyperemia)

- This area contains inflammatory mediators
as prostaglandins
- Tissues in this zone normally recover within
7-10 days unless subjected to infection
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Pathological sequelae of burns
-  Capillary permeability  loss of fluid & protein in the damaged area
- Excessive loss of water by evaporation.
- The burnt area will be colonized by bacteria
D.D Between partial & full thickness burn
Partial Full
Thickness burns Thickness burns
Appearance Moist due to exudated plasma Dry
Pain Very painful Painless
Pin-prick test +ve " Pin-prick test " –ve " Pin-prick test "

EPILATION TEST If the hair pulls easily & painlessly, the burn is a deep one

24
COMPLICATIONS
Systemic complications
 Shock :
● Neurogenic : Immediately after burn
due to pain from exposed nerve endings.
● Hypovolaemic : 1st 48 hours
due to plasma loss from burnt surface.
● Septic : After one week from infection.
 Respiratory system :
● Asphyxia & laryngeal edema from inhaled smoke.
● Pneumonia, emphysema & pulmonary edema.
● Finally ARDS (Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome)
 CVS :
● Anemia & hypoproteinemia.
●  Cardiac output up to 50 % from fluid loss   tissue hypoxia
 Renal system :
● Oliguria from renal hypoperfusion.
● Fluid & electrolytes imbalance.
● Finally ARF (Acute Renal Failure)
 GIT :
● Acute true stress ulcer of stomach & duodenum
● Acute gastric dilatation & paralytic ileus
● Finally MOSF ( Multi-Organ Systemic Failure )
 Endocrinal system :
●  Catecholamine from stress.
●  Cortisol & A.D.H secretions  Na+ & H2O retention
Local complications
EARLY COMPLICATIONS

 Infection due to bacterial colonization  septicemia or septic shock

 Burns in face & neck
 Edema & suffocation, so urgent tracheostomy is done
 Bums in limb & chest
 Constricting eschar, so urgent escharectomy is done
 Burns in perineum
 Reflex urine retention, so urinary catheter is inserted

LATE COMPLICATIONS

 Contractures across joints

 Scar : Hypertrophy or Keloid formation

. Marjolin's ulcer which is malignant transformation

25
MANAGEMENT OF BURNS
A- First aid treatment
" Pre-hospital management "
 Ensure patent airway if patient is unconscious
 Burn is washed with saline or tap water to  pain
 Sterile dressing to prevent contamination.
Transfer the patient to hospital
B- Definitive treatment
" Hospital management "
 Assessment of burn " minor, intermediate or major"
 3 Anti (Anti-shock, Antibiotics & Anti-tetanic serum) + Analgesic
 Stabilization of any orthopedic fractures.
According to the assessment there are " 2 possibilities "
MINOR BURNS No hospitalization but 
 Wash of burnt area with saline or tap water to  pain
 Puncture of vesicles.
 Remove necrotic epithelium.
 Clean with anti-septic solution (savlon or betadine).
 Apply silver sulphadiazine ointment
 Dressing with vaseline gauze
INTERMEDIATE OR MAJOR BURNS

A- General treatment
I- Resuscitation & prevention of shock:
1- A wide bore I.V cannula is inserted rapidly
for fluid therapy
2- Ryle's tube for suction
3- Foley's catheter to check the urine output.
II- Resuscitative fluid therapy
1- Evans formula
 1st Day :
1 m/Kg normal saline X % burn
+ 1 ml/Kg colloid " plasma or blood" X % burn
+ 2000 cc glucose for caloric requirement
 2nd Day :
0.5 m/Kg normal saline X % burn
+ 0.5 ml/Kg colloid " plasma or blood" X % burn
+ 2000 cc glucose for caloric requirement
2- Parkland's formula
4 ml/kg Ringer's lactate x % burn /day

26
N.B: ● In all Formulas, the maximum percentage of burn calculated is 50 %
otherwise serious over-perfusion will occur
● 1/2 of the above calculated amount is given during 1st 8 hours
then 1/4 at 2nd 8 hours, then 1/4 at 3rd 8 hours
● How to judge the adequacy for resuscitation?
 Regular follow up of vital signs.
 The urine output should be > 30 ml/hour.
 C.V.P in critical cases.

B- Local treatment
I- Early excision :
● In full thickness burn :
Excision of burnt tissues
+ covering by suitable skin graft
● In circumferential burn
with constricting eschar as chest & limb
linear excision is indicated i.e. Escharectomy.

II- The exposure ( opened ) method :

● Technique : The exposure method requires isolation of the patient in
completely aseptic atmosphere.
● Indications :  Burns of the face, neck & perineum
 Burns involving one side of Trunk.
● Advantages :  More comfortable to patient.
 Avoid repeated dressing.
  Bacterial growth by surrounding dry air.

III- The occlusive ( closed ) method :

● Technique :  Clean the burnt area with aseptic solution.
 Apply silver sulphadiazine ointment
 Dressing with vaseline gauze
● Indications :  Circumferential burns.
 Burns in the limbs.
● Advantages :   Fluid loss by evaporation.
  Edema of the tissues by compression.
  Pain by covering exposed nerves.

N.B.: Management of special sites of burn

 Burns of head & neck :
Steroid to  laryngeal odema ± tracheostomy
 Burns of perineum :
Urinary catheter to avoid reflex urine retention.

27
 C- Later care
I- Autologous skin grafting :
● Thiersch grafts are commonly used to
cover the large raw areas.
II- Biological dressings :
● Indication : If autograft are not enough .
● Advantages :  The wound will be less painful.
 Minimize fluid & protein loss.
 Control infection.
● Examples :  Allograft ( cadaver's skin )
 Xenograft ( pig's skin )
 Amniotic membrane .
PROGNOSIS OF BURNS
1- Burn factors
- Extent : Mortality is about 50 % if the extent of burn is 50 %
- Depth : Mortality is high with deep burn.
- Site : Burns of the face are the worst
- Type : High voltage electric burns are the worst
2- Patient factors
- Age : Extremes of age (children & elderly) have bad prognosis.
- Concomitant diseases e.g. DM & coronary heart disease.
3- Treatment factors
- Patients who are treated in specialized centers have better prognosis

1- Electric burns (A form of thermal injury):

 Tissue damage is due to the passage of the electric current
through blood & bones.
 Severity of the burn is divided into high & low tension injuries
according to the voltage responsible for injury
2- Chemical burns
 Tissue damage is due to corrosive as potash .
 Severity of the burn is determined by the concentration of the agent
& duration of skin contact & its mechanism of action.
3- Inhalation burns
 Tissue damage is due to hot gases & suspected in facial burns
 Severity of the burn is depends on site of affection
- Upper respiratory tract  laryngeal edema
- Lower respiratory tract  pneumonia

28
 PLASTIC SURGERY
1- Aesthetic surgery
 To improve the appearance
 Examples : 1- Rhinoplasty 2- Face lifting 3- Eyelids surgery
4- Liposuction 5- Breast reconstructive surgery

2- Principles of skin coverage 

I- SKIN GRAFTS
DEFINITION
A segment of skin, including the epidermis &
variable thickness of dermis, separated from its
blood supply in donor area & then transplanted
to raw recipient area.
AETIOLOGY
 Burns & trauma
 Follow surgical resection of tumors

D.D Split thickness Full thickness

" Thiersch graft " " Wolfe graft "
Epidermis & part of dermis Epidermis & whole dermis
- Cosmetically better.
- Good intake.
- Better sensation.
Advantages - Donor sites
- Resist to trauma strongly.
heal spontaneously
- Minimum contracture.
- Cosmetically poor.
- Bad intake.
- Poor sensation.
Disadvantages - Donor sites
- Resist to trauma weakly.
must be closed surgically
- Maximum contracture.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SURVIVAL OF SKIN GRAFT

 The vascularity of the recipient raw area.
 Graft thickness : The thinner is the better.
 Graft size : The smaller is the better.
EXAMPLE  Skin graft is done after subfascial legation of perforators
in leg venous ulcers to accelerate healing.

29
 II- SKIN FLAPS
DEFINITION
A segment of skin transferred from one side of the
body to another area with their blood supply.
TYPES
1- Skin flaps
RANDOM PATTERN FLAP
No anatomically recognized blood supply,
So it should has a length : width 2 :1
AXIAL PATTERN FLAP
Supplied by a known artery & have no limitation
as regard the length : width ratio,
So they have a wider area for rotation
e.g. forehead flap based on superficial temporal artery
DISTANT PEDICLE FLAPS
These keep the recipient site attached to the donor site by a pedicle for
2 - 3 weeks in order to allow revascularization, before separating the
base from the donor site e.g. cross finger flap
2- Myocutaneous flaps
They are flaps which receive their blood
supply from underlying muscle.
e.g. pectoralis major myocutaneous
flap in head & neck
3- Fascio-cutaneous flaps
To avoid the functional deficit of muscle transfer
& the bulky flap. Fascio-cutaneous flaps are used
in the same way as above.

4- Microvascular free flaps

Transfer a flap totally by microvascular
anastomoses of its artery & vein
to a new vessels at recipient area.

III- TISSUE EXPANDERS

 Tissue expanders are inflatable silicon implants.
 Over several weeks the expander is gradually
inflated with saline through a subcutaneous port.
 The overlaying skin is gradually stretched to
accommodate a larger area.
 Finally, the tissue expander are removed.

30
 SURGICAL NUTRITION
PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Maintaining a healthy nutritional status requires the following
daily balanced supplementation

Kg For ( 70 Kg ) person
Water (ml) 35 2340
Carbohydrate (gm) 2 140
Fat (gm) 3 210
Protein (gm) 0,7 50
Nitrogen (gm) 0,7 7
Na+ (mmol) 1 70
K+ (mmol) 1 70

MALNUTRITION IN SURGICAL PATIENT

CAUSES OF MALNUTRITION SURGICAL PATIENT
Starvation
 Social causes as poverty.
 Dysphagia e.g. carcinoma of the esophagus.
 Loss of appetite e.g. carcinoma of the stomach.
 Repeated vomiting e.g. pyloric stenosis.
 Malabsorption e.g. extensive inflammatory bowel disease.
 Extended postoperative restriction of oral intake.
Hypercatabolism
 Major trauma & burns
 Major surgical operations
 Severe acute pancreatitis
 Major sepsis e.g. peritonitis & septicemia
EFFECTS OF MALNUTRITION ON THE OUTCOME OF SURGERY
 Impairment of wound healing may lead to burst abdomen
 Immunosupression with  susceptibility to infection
 Delay physical recovery &  hospital stay
  Tolerance to radiotherapy & chemotherapy

31
DIAGNOSIS OF MALNUTRITION
Anthropometric measures
 Recent nutritional weight loss > 10 %
 Body weight < 80 % of the ideal for height
 Triceps skin fold thickness measured by a caliber
is an indication of fat loss
Laboratory tests
 Serum albumin < 3.5 gm/L = severe protein loss
 Measurement of daily nitrogen balance.
Immune functions
 Total lymphocyte count < 1.2 X 109/L.
 Impaired hypersensitivity reaction.

NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT
A- Enteral nutrition
INDICATIONS
patients in whom oral intake is inadequate
as (comatosed patients, severe dysphagia,
burns or head & neck surgery)
ROUTE OF ADMINISTRATION
 Nasogastric tube.
 Gastrostomy tube.
 Jejunostomy tube.
ADMINISTRATION FORMULAE
 Through gastrostomy  liquid diets, Juice or milk
 Through Jejunostomy  isotonic sterile formula at a slow rate,
otherwise the patient develops colic, distention & diarrhea
COMPLICATIONS
 Mechanical complications :
- Pharyngeal or esophageal mucosal irritation or ulceration by feeding tube.
- Obstruction of the feeding tube .
- Tube displacement
 G.I.T complications :
- Nausea, vomiting, aspiration pneumonia, distention, colics & diarrhea
 Metabolic complications :
- Glucose intolerance, electrolyte imbalance & malnutrition

32
 B- Parenteral nutrition
INDICATIONS
 In malnourished or hypercatabolic patient in whom the intestine
fails to absorb nutrients e.g. inflammatory bowel disease
 Preoperative administration to severely debilitated patients
for 2 weeks to  postoperative morbidity & mortality.
ROUTE OF ADMINISTRATION
Central venous line through  Internal jugular vein
or  subclavian vein
ADMINISTRATION FORMULAE
 Carbohydrates : 25 % glucose.
 Protein : L-amino acids solution.
 Fat emulsion : Intralipid 10 % & 20 % isotonic produced from soya oil

N.B: The amount needed daily or weekly vary according to ;

the degree of malnutrition, age & acid-base balance.

MONITORING
 Measuring the body weight daily
 Balance of daily input & output
 Daily laboratory : - Full blood picture, blood urea, K+, Na+ & CL-
- Serum albumin & sugar.
 Twice weekly laboratory : - Liver functions tests.
- Blood coagulation studies.
- Serum trace elements.
COMPLICATIONS
 Nutritional & metabolic complications :
- Over or underfeeding of the patient
- Hyponatremia, hypokalemia, hyperglycemia.
 Catheter complications :
- Displacement of the catheter outside the vein
- Puncture of pleura  pneumothorax .
- Injury to subclavian or carotid arteries + brachial plexus
- Air embolism if the infusion set accidentally detached from the catheter .
- Venous thrombosis.
- Central venous catheter infection  thrombophlebitis  septicemia.

33
Fluid, electrolyte balance
& Acid-base regulation

34
 FLUID BALANCE
PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
BODY WATER
- Total body water varies from 45 -75 % of body weight.
(2/3 of the water is intracellular & the other 1/3 is extracellular)
- Water source is either exogenous or endogenous.
- Water loss is usually through lungs, skin, feces & urine.
BODY WATER IMBALANCE

Water depletion Water excess

( Pure dehydration ) ( Water intoxication )
  Intake :   Administration of electrolyte
as difficulty of swallow free water to Na depleted patient.
or comatosed patient.
 Over-infusion of 5 % glucose to
  Loss : as in fever & uses post-operative patient.
Causes of osmotic diuresis
  Intake as neurosis.
 Unreplaced losses : as 
loss from lungs after  Colo-rectal washout by water
tracheostomy enema instead of saline

- If water    volume & - If water    volume &

 osmolarity  ADH & finally  osmolarity  ADH & finally
Pathology  water re-absorption from  water excretion from
kidney. kidney.
(A) Moderate ( water excess )
  Urine volume.
  body weight.
 Thirst & weakness.   Serum Na+ concentration.
Clinical   Haematocrite Value.
  Tissue turgor.
picture (B) Marked ( water excess )
 Oliguria  Brain edema  from drowsy
to convulsions up to coma.
 Nausea & vomiting

 Either  o r    According to 
 Replaced the deficit by equal  Moderate : only restriction
volume of Na free water of water intake.
In severe cases at least 1/2
Treatment the estimated deficit  Marked : forced diuresis
replaced over 12hours. by mannitol
 In severe cases
 Replaced by I.V glucose 5 %.
IV 5% Nacl solution

35
 ELECTROLYTE BALANCE
PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
SODIUM
- The main extracellular cation
that plays main role in maintaining blood volume .
- Adrenal corticoids, mainly aldosterone control the reabsorption of sodium.
POTASSIUM
- The main intracellular cation
ELECTROLYTES IMBALANCE

Hyponatremia Hypernatremia

 G.I.T loss :as vomiting & diarrhea  Excessive saline transfusion

in the early post-operative
  Na loss in urine : with renal
failure, salt losing nephropathy  Na+ resorption with
 (Aldosterone or cortisone)
 E.C.F loss :
- Externally with burns  Inability to excrete Na+
Causes - Internally e.g. peritonitis, with sever illness.
ascites, tissue edema.. .etc
 Abnormal renal retention of
 Hypovolemia . Na+ with Heart
or liver failure
 Adreno-cortical insufficiency
 Restricted Na* in diet

 Sunken eyes & depressed  Slight puffiness of the face

fontanels in infants. as early signs.
 Dry coated tongue.  The only reliable
clinical sign is
 Dry skin & lax S.C tissue. EDEMA &
Clinical
 Collapsed skin veins. ASCITES
picture
 Hypovolemia  tachycardia,  Weight gain
hypotension & shock.  Hypertension
 C.V.P
 Oliguria.

 Replacement by   Na+ restriction in diet

Normal saline (Nacl 0.9 %)
 Careful use of diuretics
Treatment or Ringer's lactate
 If associated blood loss :
Blood transfusion is given.

36
 Hypokalemia Hyperkalemia
[

 Vomiting e.g. pyloric obstruction  Renal failure.

 Diarrhea e.g. ulcerative colitis  Acidosis.
Causes  External GIT fistula.  Diabetic patient
 K+ losing diuretics e.g. furosemide
 Alkalosis & hyperaldosteronism

 Most patients are asymptomatic.   Cell excitability for muscle

 Malaise & weakness  Hypotension
Clinical  Paralytic Ileus & distention  Bradycardia
picture
 ECG changes :  ECG changes :
Prolonged QT interval, depressed Wide QRS complex &
ST segment & inverted T wave peaked T wave

 Estimation of K+ deficit can be  I.V Ca gluconate :

obtained from the total body K+ as ca antagonized K+.
capacity  I.V Na H2CO3  Alkalosis
Treatment  It should be consider that K is +
 Intracellular K+
dangerous as hyperkalemia   20 gm glucose + 10 units
cardiac arrhythmias, regular insulin infusion.
so it must be given slow IV infusion

Hypocalcaemia

 Hypoparathyroidism
Causes  Acute pancreatitis
 Acute alkalosis.

 latent ( Ca+ =7 – 9 mg % )
 Chevestic's sign
& Trousseau's sign
Clinical
 manifest ( Ca+ < 7 mg % )
picture
 carpo-pedal spasm .
 ECG changes :
Prolonged QT interval

Treatment slow I.V ca gluconate 10 cc 10 %.

37
 ACID-BASE REGULATION
PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
- The normal PH is ( 7.4  0.04 )
- Renal regulation by H2CO3 reabsorption & H+ excretion.
- Respiratory regulation by CO2 elimination

Metabolic acidosis
DEFINITION This is a condition where there is a base deficit
or acid excess other than H2CO3
AETIOLOGY
A- Over production of an organic acid occurs in 
 Diabetic ketoacidosis
 Lactic acidosis of sepsis &shock.
B- Impaired renal excretory mechanism as in 
 Acute renal failure
 Chronic renal failure
C- Abnormal loss of bicarbonate as in 
 Diarrhea, pancreatic or small intestinal fistula.
 Uretero-sigmoid anastomosis .
DIAGNOSIS
● Nausea, vomiting & drowsiness.
● Air hunger " Kussmaul's respiration "
TREATMENT
 If mild to moderate acidosis  treat the cause
 If Severe acidosis  I.V H2C03 = Body weight ( K g) X 0.3 X base deficit

Metabolic alkalosis
DEFINITION This is a condition where there is an acid deficit
or base excess.
AETIOLOGY
 GIT loss of H+ as excessive vomiting or suction of gastric secretion.
 Renal loss of H+ with aldosterone or hypoparathyroidism.
 Bicarbonate retention : either a or b
a- Na H2CO3 administration
b- Milk-alkali syndrome.

38
 DIAGNOSIS
● Cheyne-stokes respiration (slow & deep) with periods of apnea
● Tetany i.e  level of ionized Ca+
TREATMENT
 If mild with (no hypokalemia)  I.V Nacl infusion
But if hypokalemia  I.V KCL

 If severe (Not responding to the above measures)

Give I.V Ammonium chloride & hydrogen chloride very slowly
 If Tetany  (10 %) Ca. gluconate I.V slowly.

Respiratory acidosis Respiratory alkalosis

The condition is due to  Co2

[

Definition The condition is due to  Co2

associated with  pH associated with  pH

(1) Respiratory depression : (1) Hyperventilation :

 Drug as opiate  Hysteria
 CNS lesion  Hyper-pyrexia
 Cardiac arrest (2) Brain stem lesion :
(2) Respiratory muscles disorders :  Bacterial sepsis
Causes  Myasthenia  Ventilators
 Flail chest (3) Patient undergo
 Obesity. neurosurgical procedures
(3) Impaired alveolar functions : may be hyperventilated 
 COPD cerebral blood flow.
 Pulmonary edema

● Restless & cyanosed patient. ● Tetany in severe alkalosis

Clinical ● Post-operative hypertension, ● Respiratory arrest.
picture tachycardia & hypercapnia.
The best for sure diagnosis is The Best for sure diagnosis is
serum PH & PC02 serum PH & PCO2.
 Improve ventilation  If hysteria  Instruct the
+ patient to breath into a bag.
 Aiding renal compensation  Sometimes  CO2 addition
Treatment to inspired gas mixture but
the danger is in mistake of
a compensatory metabolic
acidosis.

39
 Surgical
haemostasis

40
 SURGICAL
SURGICAL HAEMOSTASIS
HAEMOSTASIS
DEFINITION
The mechanism by which the body attempt to stop bleeding after injury
or cutting of blood vessel
PHYSIOLOGY
A- 1ry Haemostasis
 Vasoconstriction of disturbed vessel
 Platelets plug formation
 Tamponade of bleeding by surrounding tissue tension
B- 2ry Haemostasis
Coagulation is activated by 2 mechanism

Intrinsic pathway
Intrinsic pathway Extrinsic pathway

Subendothelial collagen VII

Tissue factor

XII XIIaa
XII

VII a
XI XI a

Ca++

IX IX a

Ca++ & VIII

X Xa

Ca++ & V

Prothrombin
o-thr Thrombin ( II a )

Fibrinogen Fibrin monomer

XIII
Stable Fibrin Polymer

41
 DEFECTS OF HAEMOSTASIS
A- Congenital disorders
Hemophilia A & B
- These are due to deficiency of factors VIII & IX respectively.
- Hemophilia A is the most common congenital coagulopathy.
- Inheritance in (both sex) & linked from (females to males)
- Management :
Infusion of factor concentrate within 1 hour before surgery
and for 10 days thereafter

B- Acquired disorders
These are more common than congenital ones
 Hepatic disorders.
 Vitamin K deficiency.
 Disseminated intravascular coagulation
 Anticoagulants.
 Massive blood transfusion.
 Platelets disorders.

Examples of acquired haemostatic disorders

Hepatic disorders
AETIOLOGY
Coagulation factors deficiency
  Concentration of all clotting factors except factor VII
which is synthesized in other organ
 Dysfibrinogenaemia : defective polymerization of the fibrin clot.
  Antithrombin III level, this contributes to intravascular
coagulation in cirrhotics.
Platelets deficiency
 Thrombocytopenia due to destruction e.g. hypersplenism
 Abnormal function due to less active platelets .
Fibrinolysis
  synthesis of inhibitors of fibrinolysis,
e.g., alpha 2 anti-prothrombin.
 Impaired clearance of plasminogen activators .

42
TREATMENT
 Vitamin K administration.
 Fresh frozen plasma (2-3 units) replaces the missing coagulation factors
 Desmopressin (0.3 ug/k) can raise the levels of factor VIII
 Tranexamic acid or other fibrinolysis inhibitors
may be useful in upper GIT hemorrhage.

Vitamin K deficiency
AETIOLOGY
 Inadequate diet
 In debilitated patients given prolonged broad spectrum antibiotics
(reduce colonic bacteria)
 Cholestatic jaundice.
 Malabsorption
 Oral anticoagulants.

FUNCTION Vitamin K is a co-factor in the synthesis of factor II, VII, IX & X.

INVESTIGATION Both the PT & PTT are prolonged.
TREATMENT
 Vitamin K by slow IV infusion (5-10 mg),
or daily injections for 3 days (10-20 mg/day).
 In an emergency, factor concentrates (II, VII, IX & X).
 Fresh frozen plasma may be needed.

Disseminated intravascular coagulation (D.I.C)

AETIOLOGY
 Septicemia.
 Severe shock, trauma & burns.
 ABO incompatible transfusion.
 Malignancies, especially metastatic carcinoma of
the lung, pancreases, prostate & leukemia.
 Obstetric accidents (eclampsia, amniotic embolism & retained dead fetus)
DIAGNOSIS Suspected by 

 Diffuse bleeding from wounds, incisions, drain and venopuncture sites.

 Widespread bruising, purpura & mucosal bleeding.

43
INVESTIGATION
 Thrombocytopenia
 Both the PT & PTT are prolonged
TREATMENT
 Treatment of the underlying cause
to stop the cycles of coagulation/fibrinolysis,
e.g. draining an abscess & antibiotics for infection
 Replacement of consumed coagulation factors & platelets with
fresh frozen plasma & platelet transfusion ,
 Blood transfusion to restore circulating blood volume & oxygen
carrying capacity since hypoxia exacerbates DIC .
 Heparin to stop the thrombotic component is not widely advocated.

Anti-coagulants therapy
Can cause bleeding if the dose is not properly adjusted

Massive blood transfusion

With stored blood ( look chapter blood transfusion)

Platelets disorders
Thrombocytopenia
Disorders of platelets functions
 Drugs as aspirin & NSAID inhibit cycloxygenase & prostaglandin synthesis,
thus they interfere with platelet adhesiveness .
 Dipyridamole (Persantin) reduces platelet adhesiveness .
 Uremia & hypothermia can cause platelet dysfunction.

PRE-OPERATIVE EVALUATION OF HAEMOSTASIS

HISTORY
Personal history
Age e.g. childhood (Hereditary disorder)
Present history
History of abnormal bleeding from multiple sites
Past history
History of liver disease, chrome renal failure, massive blood
transfusion & drug intake.
Family history
Suggests Hemophilia (A or B)

44
 N.B.: Characters of the bleeding
 Defect 1ry hemostasls : The bleeding is superficial
e.g. skin, mucous membrane... etc.
 Defect 2ry hemostasls : The bleeding is deep
e.g. muscle... etc.

EXAMINATION
 Cutaneous signs of liver disease, e.g. jaundice & spider naevi.
 Skin & mucous membranes are examined for bleeding,
 Musculoskeletal system e.g. muscle hematoma & hemarthrosis.
 Abdomen e.g. hepatomegaly & splenomegaly.
 Lymph node enlargement may be caused by lymphoma, chronic
lymphocytic leukemia & IMN
TESTS OF HAEMOSTASIS
Tests for 1ry haemostasis
 Platelet count & bleeding time
 Bone marrow aspiration & biopsy:
 Tests of platelet function (adhesion, release, aggregation)
Tests for 2ry haemostasis
 Prothrombin time (PT) measures the time of clotting though the extrinsic
pathways which involve factor VII & factors X,V,II and fibrinogen
 Partial thromboplastin time (PTT) measures the time of clotting through
the intrinsic pathway which involve factors XII,XI,IX & VIII

45
 Surgical
infections

46
 SURGICAL INFECTIONS
ACUTE NON SPECIFIC INFECTIONS
1- Post-operative wound Infection ( SSIs )
2- Boil ( Furuncle ) 6- Bacteremia & septicemia
3- Carbuncle . 7- Abscess
4- Cellulites . 8- Necrotizing fasciitis
5- Erysipelas. 9- Hydradenitis suppurativa

1. Postoperative wound infection

SURGICAL SITE INFECTIONS (SSIS)

- Contaminated microbe may be derived from :
 The patient himself ( endogenous)
 The patients environment (surgical team, Instruments, dressing ...etc)
PREDISPOSING FACTORS
General factors
 Poor general condition.
 Systemic diseases that impair host defense as diabetes or uremia .
 Drugs that cause immunosuppression as corticosteroids .
Local factors
 Poor blood supply
 Poor surgical Techniques e.g. rough handling of tissues
 Presence of foreign bodies as prosthetic implants.
 Nature of the operation e.g. operationfor unprepared colon.
 Defect in the sterilization technique in the operating theatre.
TYPES OF SURGICAL WOUNDS
1- Clean
There is no gross contamination from endogenous or exogenous sources
e.g. herniorrhaphy or thyroidectomy wounds .
 The risk of infection is 1 - 2 %
2- Clean contaminated
Wounds involve regions of that may contain low numbers of resident organisms
e.g. urological procedures or surgery on prepared colon.
 The risk of infection is 2 – 5 %
3- Contaminated
An unprepared region of the body with numbers of endogenous organism
e.g. surgery on unprepared colon.
 The risk of infection is 5 – 30 %

47
CLINICAL PICTURE
Usually appears between the 5th & 10th days post operatively
 Postoperative fever.
 The wound is swollen tender and red.
 Fluctuant areas or crepitus can occasionally be felt.
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

A- Other causes of postoperative fever

e.g. chest infections, DVT ...etc.
B- Other causes of wounds swelling
e.g. hematoma.
PROPHYLAXIS
 Any predisposing factor should be controlled e.g. diabetes, malnutrition
 Prophylactic antibiotics are indicated in 
 Clean contaminated or contaminated surgery.
 In wounds where foreign material is implanted
 Before any elective colorectal surgery.
Mechanical & chemical preparations of the bowel are recommended
 Proper surgical technique :
e.g. gentle handling of tissues, adequate haemostasis.
TREATMENT
 The wound should be opened & stitches removed to allow pus drainage.
 Antibiotics guided by culture & sensitivity tests.
 Possible sources of hospital infection should be traced & corrected.

2. BOIL ( FURUNCLE)
INCIDENCE
More common in diabetics & whenever there is lack of
personal hygiene
AETIOLOGY
This is a staphylococcal infection
of a hair follicle or a sebaceous gland
PATHOLOGY
Necrosis of the central part occurs & it is discharged together with pus
TREATMENT
 Antibiotics effective against staph. organisms. (Incision may be needed).
 Icthiol ointment & warm foments
 Painting the surrounding skin with an antiseptic to prevent infection of the
neighboring glands or hair follicles
Always suspect diabetes mellitus in patients who develop recurrent boils

48
 3. CARBUNCLE
INCIDENCE
Acute non specific infection of skin & S.C tissue
ending by infective gangrene .
AETIOLOGY
 Organism : Staphylococcus aureus
 Predisposing factors : Patient > 40 years with DM
or Immunosuppressed.
 Mode of infection : Lack of cleanliness at hairy areas of face,
nape of neck, back & dorsum of hand .
PATHOLOGY
- Infection start in hair follicle then extends to S.C. tissue.
- Staph. aureus releases potent necrotoxin  necrosis & sloughing of
overlying skin  gangrene
CLINICAL PICTURE
 Symptoms :
 Patient complains of furuncle that resist treatment
& extends to other hair follicles
 Severe pain aching in nature (not throbbing)
 Multiple discharging openings.
 Signs :
 The skin is dusky in color.
 Indurated swelling with marked diffuse tenderness.
 The swelling shows multiple sinuses discharging sloughs (no pus).
COMPLICATIONS
 Spread of infection leads to cellulites & lymphangitis
 Septicemia & pyaemia.
 Cavernous sinus thrombosis, if the carbuncle is in the face.
 Meningitis & epidural abscess, if the carbuncle is in the back.
INVESTIGATION
Culture & sensitivity test for the discharge.
TREATMENT
General treatment
 Improve general health (diet, vitamins…. etc.).
 Control of D.M if present.
 Systemic antibiotics according to culture & sensitivity test.
Local treatment
 Local antibiotics
 Glycerin magnesia to help separation of sloughs.
 Excision of sloughs.

49
 4. CELLULITIS
DEFINITION
This is an invasive non suppurative infection of
the loose connective tissue
AETIOLOGY
 Organism : Gram +ve organism mostly streptococci
into the superficial skin structure.
 Mode of infection : May be trivial, e.g. scratch or prick
CLINICAL PICTURE
 The affected area is red, indurated, hot & painful
 It spreads rapidly & the Advancing edge is ill defined.
 No suppuration except at portal of entery.
TREATMENT
 Rest & elevation.
 Local hot packs.
 Antibiotics (penicillin group)

5. ERYSIPELAS
DEFINITION
This is a rapidly spreading non-suppurative infection of
the lymphatics of the skin.
AETIOLOGY
 Organism : Specific strains of hemolytic streptococci
 Mode of infection : Through minute scratch or abrasion.
CLINICAL PICTURE Similar to cellulitis but 
 The affected area is rose-pink
 The Advancing edge is well defined, slightly raised & often shows minute
vesicles just behind the spreading margin..
 There may be islets of inflammation beyond the spreading margin
separated from the main area by apparently normal skin.
TREATMENT Similar to cellulitis but 
The patient must be isolated because the disease is very contagious

6. BACTEREMIA & SEPTICEMIA

Bacteremia Presence of bacteria that are not multiplying in the blood.

Septicemia Presence of multiplying organisms in the blood stream + leucocytosis

N.B. Toxemia Presence of toxins in the circulation

Pyaemia Presence of septic emboli in the circulation.

50
 7- ABSCESS

DEFINITION
An abscess is a localized suppurative inflammation.
AETIOLOGY
 Organism : The commonest are staphylococci
 Mode of infection : Through producing coagulase enzyme
that helps localization of the acute inflammatory processes.
PATHOGENESIS
The organism reach the tissues by 
 Direct spread through wounds, scratches & abrasions
 Lymphatic spread from a septic focus in their drainage area.
 Blood spread as in bacteremia or pyaemia.
PATHOLOGY
An abscess consists of 3 zones 
 A central zone of coagulative necrosis
 An intermediate zone of granulation tissue
forms a proactive layer against the spread
of bacteria & their toxins.
 A peripheral zone of acute inflammation fades
gradually into healthy surrounding tissues.
FATE
An acute abscess may end in one of the followings 
 Resolution occurs if resistance is high or treatment is started early
 Pointing & rupture is the commonest.
 Spread of infection either locally, lymphatics or blood stream.
 Chronicity : A dense fibrous tissue around the incompletely
resolved abscess
CLINICAL PICTURE
General Fever, headache, malaise & anorexia
Local
 Starts as painful mass with edematous red skin.
 The draining L.Ns : Firm & tender
 When pus formed :
 The pain becomes throbbing.
 The fever becomes hectic.
 The covering skin shows pitting edema.
 Fluctuation can usually be elicited.
TREATMENT
Before suppuration
Proper antibiotic therapy, rest & hot application
After suppuration
Once pus forms, the only treatment should be drainage.

51
 8- NECROTIZING FACIITIS

AETIOLOGY
 Organism : Mixed microbial flora
as staphylococci & streptococci
 Predisposing Factors:
Immunocompromised patients
. e.g. diabetic patient
 Mode of infection : Through a puncture wound, leg ulcer or a surgical wound.

PATHOLOGY
 The infectious process spreads alone
the fascial planes which leading to
thrombosis of the vessels
 There is ischemic changes lead to
superficial skin necrosis
CLINICAL PICTURE
General
 Fever, headache, malaise & anorexia
 The patient is alert.
 Tachycardia.
Local  The skin shows 
 Hemorrhagic bullae & necrosis.
 Odema & inflammation.
 Anaesthetic parts
TREATMENT
Surgical Debridement (under anesthesia)
Medical Penicillin together with Gentamycin or Amikacin

9- HYDRADENITIS SUPPURATIVA

AETIOLOGY
 Organism : Mixed microbial flora
as staphylococci & streptococci
CLINICAL PICTURE
 It affects the apocrine sweat glands, perineum
or the axilla, produces multiple abscesses
TREATMENT
 drainage of abscesses followed by
careful hygiene, painting with disinfectants
and antifungal applications may be enough.
Otherwise, excision of the apocrine sweat-bearing skin followed by skin grafting

52
 ACUTE SPECIFIC INFECTIONS
1- TETANUS
DEFINITION
Tetanus is acute specific anaerobic infection that mediated by neurotoxin of
Clostridium tetani & leads to nervous irritability & muscular contractions
AETIOLOGY
Organism Clostridium tetani
- Gram +ve anaerobic bacilli, spore forming
with drum stick shape
- Naturally the organism living in small intestine
of horses.
- The spores present in street dirt. This spores resist
to antiseptics, heat or boiling for 5 min.
predisposing factors
The anaerobic organisms flourish more in wounds with low oxygen tension
As  Deep wounds especially if contused.
 Tissue anoxia from hemorrhage & shock.
 Associated pyogenic infections which
consumes local oxygen
Mode of infection
 The organism exist normally in bowels of animal
 Tetanus neonatorum from infected umbilical stump.
PATHOGENESIS
The organism produce powerful neurotoxin  blood  B.B.B  CNS  motor
end plate & motor cells  hyper-excitability of motor cells.
So, any minor stimuli  violent generalized spasm
CLINICAL PICTURE
The incubation period in non immunized patient = 24 hours - 15 days
but in immunized patient = 11 days - several weeks

A- Stage of toxemia
 Temperature i.e. rigors, irritability, headache & G.I.T disturbance.
B- Stage of tonic rigidity
 Pain & tingling in the area of injury.
 Spasm of facial muscles " risus sardonicus "
= Bitter smile & limitation of jaw movement
" trismus " = lock Jaw.
 Neck stiffness, difficulty in swallowing due to
affection of muscles of deglutition.

53
 C- Stage of colonic spasm " convulsion "
 Severe muscle contraction with incomplete muscle relaxation
due to minor stimuli as bright light, noise ……etc
 Back is arched backwards i.e. " opisthotonus "
 Spasm of diaphragm & Intercostals muscles
leads to longer periods of apnea.
 Marked tachycardia is a grave sign.
  Temp, with profuse sweating.
SPECIAL TYPES OF TETANUS
 Acute tetanus : It affects the unimmunized patient with short incubation
period, marked toxemia & death in few days.
 Chronic tetanus : It affects the immunized patient with long incubation
period, mild toxemia.
 Local tetanus : It occurs in immunized patient, the spasms are restricted
to the muscles around the wound.
 Splanchnic tetanus : It affects only muscles of deglutition  dysphagia
or muscles of respiration  dyspnea.
 Cephalic tetanus : It is a rare type due to wound of face or scalp,
the toxin is absorbed by the facial nerve which becomes
edematous & compressed within the bony canal, so that
paresis of facial muscles occurs.
 Cryptogenic tetanus : This is a mild form may occur without an overt wound.

 Surgical tetanus : It occurs postoperative due to catgut used in the sutures.

COMPLICATIONS
 Tear in the muscles & avulsion fracture of bone.
 Toxic myocarditis & toxic nephritis.
 Liver failure
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
 Trismus : Differentiated from tempro-mandibular arthritis.

 Meningitis : Neck muscles affected first with turbid CSF

 Strychnine poisoning : The spasms are entirely colonic with complete

relaxation between attacks .
 Tetany : Carpo-pedal spasm +  serum Ca .

 Rabies : History of dog bite + spasm occurs mainly on seeing or drinking water.
The muscles of deglution & respiration are mainly affected
LABORATORY FINDINGS
Leucocytosis may be present.

54
PREVENTION ( Tetanus is a preventive disease )
Every child should be actively immunized by a routine (D.P.T)
vaccines at 2,4,6, months then a booster dose of tetanus
toxoid is taken every 7 - 10 years..

According to this facts,

there are 3 possibilities for prevention :
 IF patient previously received 3 or more doses of toxoid
& the last one within 10 years
 A booster dose of tetanus toxoid is needed on exposure
to tetanus prone wounds  0.5 ml I.M
 IF patient previously received less than 3 doses
 With clean minor wounds  only tetanus toxoid is needed
on exposure to tetanus prone wounds.
 With wounds having high risk of tetanus  both tetanus toxoid
& tetanus immunoglobulin (T.I.G) is given .
 IF Patient ( not ) previously immunized
 With clean minor wounds  only tetanus toxoid is needed
but 3 doses with 4 - 6 weeks interval.
 With wounds having high risk of tetanus  both tetanus toxoid (3 doses)
& tetanus immunoglobulin (T.I.G) is given + strong antibiotics.
TREATMENT
A- Neutralize toxins with ( T.I.G ) 3000 - 6000 unites I.M.
 It is given in the proximal portion of the wounded extremity
 Repeated doses may be needed, since the half life of antibodies 3 weeks
& the established tetanus often lasts longer.
B- Excise & debride the wound under anesthesia
 The wound must be left open & washed by " hydrogen peroxide "
C- The patient
 Should be protected from sudden minor stimuli,
so the patient is isolated in a dark quiet room & nutrition is maintained
by a naso-gastric tube
 Proper sedation is used as barbiturates but cautiously as they often
cause cardio-respiratory failure.
 Tracheostomy : If respiratory problems is associated.
 Penicillin-G : 10 - 40 million units / day
PROGNOSIS
The mortality rate = 30 – 60 %.

55
 2- GAS GANGRENE
Clostridial myositis
DEFINITION
Gas gangrene is acute specific anaerobic infection caused by gas forming
Clostridium group leads to gas formation & end by infective gangrene.
AETIOLOGY
Organism Clostridium group
- Gram +ve anaerobic bacilli, all of them are motile
& Non capsulated except clostridium welchii.
- Naturally the organism living in small intestine
of animal & man.
- They are 2 groups : saccharolytic or proteolytic group.
predisposing factors
The anaerobic organisms flourish more in wounds with low oxygen tension
As  Deep wounds especially if contused.
 Tissue anoxia from hemorrhage & shock.
 Associated pyogenic infections which
consumes local oxygen
 Contaminated above knee stump by stool if patient suffer from
fecal incontinence.
Mode of infection
The organism exist normally in bowels of man & animal
PATHOGENESIS
Systemic effects
 Blood hemolysis  pallor & ting of Jaundice.
 Degenerative changes of liver & kidney may occur .
Local effects According to type of organism :
SACCHAROLYTIC ORGANISMS
[ Cl. welchii, Cl. spticum, Cl. edematiens ]
They ferment glycogen of devitalized or (ischemic) muscles  liberation
of (CO2 + H2)  hemolysis of blood  liberation of blood pigments which
stain the dead muscles by a brick red color.
PROTEOLYTIC ORGANISMS
[ Cl. histolyticum, Cl. sporogenes ]
They ferment proteins of devitalized or (ischemic) muscles  liberation
of (ammonia & (H2S) Hydrogen sulphide )  hemolysis of blood  iron
from hemoglobin which combines with the (H2S)  iron sulphide which
stain the dead muscles by greenish black color.

56
CLINICAL PICTURE
The incubation period varies from few hours to few days
General examination
 The patient shows pallor, fever & tachycardia.
 An icteric Jaundice & oliguria.
 In severe cases patient is shocked
Local examination
 The wound is swollen & seen under tension with
crepitus sensation .
 A sanguineous discharge with characteristic foul
odor may exude from the wound.
 The affected muscles don't contract or bleed if cut.
 The affected muscles show red or greenish discoloration
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS From other clostridial infections 
 Simple contamination : Localized to site of infection

 Gas abscess : As simple contamination but no muscle affection.

 Clostridial cellulitis : Superficial & localized to S.C tissue.

 Localized myositis : Localized to one group of muscles.

LABORATORY FINDINGS
Gram +ve may on stained smears of exudates.
PREVENTION
 Adequate debridement of wounds with excision of dead muscles.
 Strong antibiotics especially penicillin.
 Adequate circulatory support in severe injuries is required
to avoid tissue hypoxia.
N.B.: Anti-gas gangrene serum not used in modern surgery
TREATMENT
General treatment
 Fresh blood transfusion.
 Strong antibiotics : Penicillin l0 - 40 million Unit/ day I.V.
 Hyperbaric oxygenation
- It is oxygen drenching in a pressure chamber.
- It inhibits bacterial invasion.
- It is given at 3 atm for 1 - 2 hours and is
repeated every 6 -12 hours 3 - 5 exposures
are usually necessary

57
 Local treatment
 The wound is opened & all dead tissues are excised.
 Tight fascial compartment are decompressed.
 The deep fascia & skin are left open.
 Daily debridement is necessary under anesthesia.
 Amputation :
 When there is diffuse myositis & complete loss of
blood supply
 When adequate debridement leaves a useless limb.
 Diverting colostomy :
 When the source of the clostridial infection is an
associated injury of the colon or rectum.
 In an extensive perineal infections.
PROGNOSIS
The mortality rate = 20 %.

3- ACTINOMYCOSIS
AETIOLOGY
 Organism : Actinomycetes,
which are gram-positive, They are anaerobes
and part of the normal flora of the human
oropharynx & tonsils..
 Mode of infection :
In most cases the endogenous organism gain
access through abrasions in the mucous membrane

PATHOLOGY
 The disease is characterized by inflammatory
nodular masses, which may liquify to form
abscesses and sinuses.
CLINICAL PICTURE 4 clinical types :

1- Facio-cervical type ( 60 % )
• This is the commonest type.
• A hard painless, non-tender mass appears in the
parotid region, associated with trismus & thickening
of the lower jaw.
• Multiple nodules then appear with softening and
formation of abscesses and sinuses discharging
pus and sulphur granules.

58
 2- Abdominal type ( 20 % )
• An indurated mass affects the appendix
or ileocecal region and later invades the
abdominal wall resulting in multiple sinuses.

• Occasionally the liver is affected by blood

spread from the ileo-cecal region
• The liver becomes enlarged
& multiple abscesses are formed.
3- Thoracic type ( 15 % )
• The disease occurs by aspiration from the upper
air passages or by direct spread from the neck.
• Later in the course of the disease the sinuses
perforate the pleural cavity & the chest wall,
often involving the ribs or vertebrae.

4- Cutaneous type (5 % )
Rarely affected by direct inoculation.
TREATMENT
Surgical Excision or drainage
Medical Penicillin for many weeks.

COMPLICATIONS OF SURGICAL INFECTIONS

1. Spread of infections :
a) Direct spread as necrotizing infections & abscesses.

b) Lymphatic spread producing lymphangitis

c) Blood spread produces bacteremia & septicemia.

2. Fistulae & sinus tracts

3. Necrosis or gangrene of the affected part.
4. Immuno-suppression so suppressed wound healing.
5. Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome ( SIRS )

59
Hand infections
& Antibiotics

60
 HAND INFECTIONS
Due to the use of the hand & its exposure to contamination,
the frequency of hand infection is high
Proper treatment is needed to preserve the function of hand.
CLASSIFICATION
A- Cutaneous & S.C infections
 Paronychia (Acute & chronic)
 Pulp space infection
 Web space infection
B- Fascial spaces infections
 Midpalmar space infection .
 Hypothenar space infection .
 Theanar space infection
C- Synovial sheath infections
 Acute digital tenosynovitis
 Ulnar bursitis .
 Redial bursitis.
D- Bone & joints infections
CLINICAL PICTURE
History Usually manual workers with history of prick or usually house wives.
Generally The condition presents with pain, swelling, & fever.
Locally  Redness, tenderness, hotness & dorsal edema overlying skin.
 Firm & tender L.Ns.
 The fingers can't be approximated because adduction pain
INVESTIGATION
 Plain x-ray if the presence of a foreign body is suspected.
 Blood sugar tests for those with recurrent infections, may reveal
the presence of diabetes mellitus.
TREATMENT
 Early administration of strong antibiotics.
 Early drainage of infection " don't wait for fluctuation "
 Incision (never crosses hand crease) & under general anesthesia.
 Incision is done under tourniquet to have bloodless field
 Early restoration of function by movement to avoid stiffness of joints.
 General & local rest in elevated position .

61
 CUTANEOUS & S.C INFECTIONS
I. Paronychia
1- Acute paronychia
DEFINITION
Acute suppurative infection of the nail fold.
INCIDENCE
The commonest type of hand infections.
AETIOLOGY
After trauma or removal of excess skin
CLNICAL PICTURE
As general +
Localized painful swelling of the nail fold
TREATMENT
As general +
Unilateral
Triangular incision in the skin fold
to raise nail fold.
Bilateral
Incision of the skin at the both angles of
nail fold, raising the nail fold

2- Chronic Paronychia

DEFINITION
Chronic inflammation of the nail fold
INCIDENCE
Common with washer women.
AETIOLOGY
It a fungal infection.
CLNICAL PICTURE
As general +
Localized painful swelling of the nail fold
with trophic changes.
TREATMENT
As general +
 Anti-fungal treatment
 Avoid water.
 Nail extraction.

62
 II. Pulp space infection

SURGICAL ANATOMY
 Pulp space is closed compact space between
skin & periosteum of terminal phalanx
 It is shut from the middle pulp by a transverse
septum attached to bone.
 It is filled with fat & partitioned by incomplete
fibrous septa

AETIOLOGY
Infection mainly by staph, organism through direct inoculation
by a pin prick or extension from paronychia
CLNICAL PICTURE
As general +
Localized painful swelling over the distal pulp
COMPLICATIONS
 Tenosynovitis (tenderness over proximal fingers & palm)
 Arthritis (limited movement of all Joint of hand)
 Lymphangitis & lymphadenitis
 Extension to mid or proximal pulp spaces
TREATMENT
As general +
 Incision over the inflamed point, & all
septa are incised to transform it into one
single cavity evacuating all pus inside.

III. Web space infection

SURGICAL ANATOMY
 Web space is S.C. spaces between the 4 digital
slips of palmar apponeurosis .
 It is bounded by :
 Proximal phalanges on each side
 Palmar skin infornt
 Dorsal skin behind
 It is filled with fat & crossed by the lumbrical muscles
+ neurovascular bundle.

AETIOLOGY
Infection mainly by staph, organism through direct inoculation
by a pin prick or extension from mid or proximal
pulp space infection.

63
CLNICAL PICTURE
As general +
Localized painful swelling over the web space
COMPLICATIONS
 Tenosynovitis (tenderness over proximal fingers
& palm)
 Arthritis (limited movement of all Joint of hand)
 Lymphangitis & lymphadenitis
 Extension to mid palmar spaces, hypothenar or thenar spaces
TREATMENT
As general +
 Transverse incision on palmar surface of web, near its
free border, then a sinus forceps are opened in a longitudinal
direction (to avoid damage to the digital nerves & vessels)
 Counter incision may be done posteriorly if the abscess
communicates with a dorsal pocket.

FASCIAL SPACES INFECTIONS

I. Mid-palmar space infection

SURGICAL ANATOMY
 It is bounded by :
 Anteriorly by palmer apponeurosis.
 Medially by medial septum separating
it from the hypothenar space
 Laterally by the lateral septum separating
it from the thenar space.

AETIOLOGY
Infection mainly by staph, organism through direct inoculation
by a pin prick or extension from web space infection
between middle & ring fingers.
CLNICAL PICTURE
As general +
Localized painful swelling over the the mid-palmar
cavity i.e. ( Frog's hand )
TREATMENT
As general +
 Transverse incision is done in distal palmar crease.
 To avoid injury of deep important structures, the incision is made
through the skin only & then a sinus forceps is introduced inwards &
is gently opened to let out pus ( Hiltons method )

64
 II. Hypothenar space infection
AETIOLOGY
Infection mainly by staph, organism through direct inoculation
by a pin prick or extension from web space infection
between little & ring fingers.
CLNICAL PICTURE
As general +
Localized painful swelling over the the hypothenar space
TREATMENT
As general +
 Vertical incision along the medial border of the 5th
metacarpal bone is done. The small muscles of the
little finger are reflected and the space is entered by
a sinus forceps i.e. (Hiltons method (

III. Thenar space infection

AETIOLOGY
Infection mainly by staph, organism through direct inoculation
by a pin prick or extension from web space infection
between index & middle fingers.
CLNICAL PICTURE
As general +
Localized painful swelling over the the thenar space
TREATMENT
As general +
 Transverse incision at the distal end of the thenar
eminence at the web then the space is open by a
sinus forceps i.e. (Hiltons method (
 Vertical incision on the lateral aspect of the back of
the 2nd metacarpal bone, this is the incision commonly used

SYNOVIAL SHEATH INFECTIONS

Teno-synovitis

SURGICAL ANATOMY
 The middle 3 fingers are surrounded by 3 tendon
sheath which extend from the distal phalanx to the
head of the corresponding

AETIOLOGY
Infection mainly by staph, organism.
extended from cutaneous & S.C tissue

65
PATHOLOGY
 Synovitis is associated with excessive clear
synovial fluid which turned to be turbid by pus.
 The sheath will be distended.
 The nutritional element to tendons will be impaired
by inflammatory thrombosis of vessels
CLNICAL PICTURE
As general +
 Symmetrical swellings of fingers .
 Semiflexion of all joints ( Hook sign (
 Extension of inter-phalangeal joints is
very painful, while metacorpo-phalangeal
joints is slightly painful
TREATMENT
As general +
 Transverse incision over distal crease
then aspirate the pus by a catheter & inject antibiotics.

ANTIBIOTICS
CHOICE OF THE SUITABLE ANTIBIOTICS
 2 Factors should be considered;
1- The patient
 Age, sex if female (pregnancy & lactation)
 The condition of renal & hepatic function
i.e sites of antibiotics metabolism
 History of allergy to antibiotics.
 Uses of other drugs which  side effects of antibiotics
e.g. oral contraceptives.
2- The pathology & causative organism
GUIDE LINES FOR ANTIBIOTICS PRESCRIPTION
 An initial diagnosis is essential before stating antibiotic therapy.
 Length of antibiotics course based on pathology & clinical improvement.
 To change from antibiotic to another based on culture & sensitivity
COMPLICATIONS OF ANTIBIOTICS
 Hypersensitivity reaction commonly with penicillin including urticaria,
fever & asthma .
 Vitamin B deficiency due to alternation of bowel flora especially with
prolonged used
 Specific toxicities :
e.g. nephrotoxicity, ototoxicity ....etc.

66
ANTIBIOTICS IN COMMON USE
A- B-Lactam antibiotics
PENICILLINS
 Penicillin G : effective mainly against gram +ve bacteria such as streptococci
 Ampicillin: effective mainly against gram-ve bacteria & enterococci.
 Amoxicillin with a lactamase inhibitor (Clavulanate) serves to extend the
spectrum against gram +ve, gram-ve bacteria, aerobic & some
anaerobic organisms.
B - Cephalosporins
1ST GENERATION as Cephalothin, have a activity against gram +ve bacteria

2ND GENERATION as Cefuroxime have less anti-gram +ve activity & much better
gram-ve aerobic activity.
3RD GENERATION as Ceftazidime, have anti-gram -ve activity & pseudomonas
with variable gram +ve activity
C- Aminoglycosides
 This group includes Gentamycin & Amikacin which effective mainly against
gram-ve aerobic bacteria with little activity against gram +ve bacteria
 They all have considerable ototoxicity & nephrotoxicity.
D- Quinolones
 This group includes Ciprofloxacin & Norfloxacin which effective mainly against
gram-ve aerobic bacteria, they commonly used in U.T.I
E- Glycopeptides
 These agents (e.g. Vancomycin) have activity against gram +ve bacteria &
more potent than other agents .
F- Tetracycline & Chloramephenicol
 This group has anaerobic activity
G- Trimethoprim-sulhamethoxazole (Septrin)
 These agent against gram-ve aerobic bacteria & some infections observed in
immunosuppressed patients as with Pneumocystis carnii
H- Metronidazole
 It has excellent anaerobic activity but no effect on aerobic organisms
I- Erythromycin
 It is a Marcolide drug that has activity against gram +ve bacteria & usually used
in patients allergic to B-lactam agents
J- Clindamycin
 These agent have excellent anaerobic activity & some gram +ve activity as well

67
 Tumors &
Transplantation

68
 TUMORS
HISTOGENIC CLASSIFICATION OF TUMORS
BENIGN MALIGNANT
Epithelial tumors
 Squamous epithelium - Papilloma - Squamous cell carcinoma
- Basal cell carcinoma
 Columnar epithelium - Adenoma - Adenocarcinoma
 Transitional epithelium - Papilloma - Transitional cell carcinoma
Connective tissues
 Adipose - Lipoma - Liposarcoma
 Fibrous - Fibroma - Fibrosarcoma
 Cartilage - Chondroma - Chondrosarcoma
 Bone - Osteoma - Osteosarcoma
 Smooth muscle - Leiomyoma - Leimyosarcoma
 Striated muscle - Rhabdomyoma - Rhabdomyosarcoma

Neuroectoderm
 Nerve cells - Ganglioneuroma - Neuroblastoma
 Melanocytes - Pigmented nevus - Malignant melanoma
 Meninges - Meningioma - Malignant meningioma
 Nerve sheaths - Neurofibroma - Neuroflbrosacoma
Hemopoietic & - Leukemias
Lymohoreticular tissue - Lymphomas
Blood vessels - Hemangioma - Hemangiosarcoma
Lymph vessels - Lymphangioma - Lymphangiosarcoma

AETIOLOGY OF CANCER
1- Onchogenesis
Agents that damage genes that initiate the malignant transformation.
 Chemical agents  Physical agents
 Viruses  Diet
2- Another category:
Agents not damage genes but enhance the growth of tumor cells
e.g. Hormones 1- Estrogen stimulate growth of cancer breast
2- Androgen stimulate growth of cancer prostate
3- Chemical agents
a. Tobacco smoke ( mainly of cigarettes )
e.g. cancer lung, esophagus, urinary bladder & pancreas.
b. Occupational agents :
e.g. - Asbestos  Mesothelioma of lung
- Aromatic amines  Transitional cell carcinoma of urinary bladder
4- Physical agents
a. Mechanical irritation :
e.g. gall stones  cancer gall bladder.

69
 b. Ionizing radiation :
e.g.  &  rays  cancer in man & animal.
c. Ultraviolet rays :
e.g. cancer skin.
5- Viruses
a. Human papilloma viruses :
Sexually transmitted  cancer cervix & anus.
b. Hepatitis B & C  Hepatocellular carcinoma.
6- Diet
a. Fat  Cancer colon & rectum.
b. Alcohol  Cancer upper digestive tract & hepatocellular carcinoma.
7- Idiopathic
STAGES OF CANCER DEVELOPMENT
 Hyperplasia : The cells look normal but reproduce to too much cells.

 Metaplasia : Change of type of epithelium into another type.

 Dysplasia : The cells becomes a typical in size & shape.

 In situ : The cells not invade the basement membrane.

 Invasion : The cells begin to invade the neighboring tissue

 Metastasis : The cells tend to reach blood & lymphatics

GRADING OF CANCER
Grading in a measure for tumor aggression
 Well differentiated tumors : The least aggression.
 Moderately differentiated tumors.
 Poorly differentiated tumors : The most aggression
STAGING OF CANCER ( T.N.M )
(T) = Extent of 1ry tumor in size & depth.
(N) = Presence or absence of lymph nodes.
(M) = Presence or absence of metastasis.
SPREADING OF CANCER
Properties that allow metastasis
 Defective cell adhesions :
Cancer cells lack of adhesive proteins which bind the cells to another.
 Tumor angiogenesis :
Cancer cells access to circulation through newly formed capillaries.
 Production of proteolytic enzymes :
Which digest the basement membrane allowing invasion.

70
 Mode of metastasis
 Local spread : To neighboring organs & tissues.

 Lymphatic spread : 2 types 

 Permeation : Malignant cells invade the endothelium
of lymphatics then grow inside the lymph vessels,
 Embolization : Malignant cells carried as an emboli to draining L.Ns.
 Blood spread : Malignant cells invade to capillaries as an emboli to
lung, bone, liver & brain.
 Transcoelomic spread : Travel along cavities e.g. peritoneum

DIAGNOSIS OF CANCER
A. Screening
- Some people may have a higher risk of developing a certain
malignant tumor
- So certain screening programs are done to detect the neoplasm
as early as possible.
- A common example is to do soft tissue mammography for
females who have a higher chance of developing breast cancer .
B. Radiological
- Various radiological techniques including contrast studies,
ultrasound & C.T
C. Endoscopy
- This is very useful for diagnosis of most lesions of the
respiratory, gastro-intestinal & urinary.
D. Histology
- Needle or operative biopsies essential for tissue diagnosis.
E. Cytological examination
- Fine needle aspiration cytology is now a well established line of
investigation which is commonly used to diagnose lesions of the
thyroid, breast.. .etc
F. Tumors markers
- Many malignant tumors secrete certain oncofetal proteins which can be
established. This may help in the diagnosis of certain tumors
EXAMPLES INCLUDED 

 -feto-protein is raised in hepatocellular carcinoma & testicular tumor.

 CEA (Carcino-Embryonic Antigen) is raised with cancer colon & stomach
 Prostatic specific antigen is raised in prostatic carcinoma.
 CA 15 - 3 is raised in carcinoma of the breast.
 CA 125 is raised in carcinoma of the ovaries.
 CA 19 - 9 is raised in carcinoma of colon.
 Thyroglobulin is raised in carcinoma of thyroid

71
TREATMENT OF CANCER
(A) Early ( potentially curable, operable ) cancer
 Treatment is radical.
 Adjuvant (complementary) treatment of systemic modalities
such as chemotherapy is indicated if there is a high possibility
of systemic microscopic spread in distant sites.
(B) Late ( incurable, inoperable ) cancer
 There are distant metastases.
 Cure is not possible.
 Treatment aims to palliate of the patient's symptoms so as to provide
him with a reasonable life quality.
 Treatment is also essentially by systemic modalities as
chemotherapy & hormones.
 Surgery or radiotherapy is sometimes needed to palliate local symptoms.
The individual modalities of treatment include 
1- SURGERY
Primary tumor
Radical surgery aims at excision of the primary tumor
with as wide a safety margin.
Lymph nodes
The treatment of lymph nodes varies from tumor to another
 G.I.T. malignancies : Lymph nodes are routinely resected
 Breast cancers : They are either resected or irradiated
 Head & neck malignancies : The nodes are treated only
if they prove to contain malignant deposits.
Advantages
Surgical excision is both quick & effective.
Disadvantages
Surgery may produce functional & cosmetic disabilities.
2- RADIOTHERAPY
Indications
1- Cancer of the larynx so as to preserve the voice.
2- Early cancer prostate & early cancer breast
Methods
1- Powerful X-rays, gamma rays, electrons, or
heavy particles are directed to the tumor.
2- The radiation may be aimed at a tumor from outside the body
( Teletherapy ), or it may be delivered by placing radioactive
needles at the cancerous site ( Brachytherapy ).

72
 Advantages
1- Curing the cancer without sacrificing the patient's ability to function.
2- Radiation can destroy microscopic extensions of cancerous tissue
around that a tumor that a scalpel might miss.
3- Radiation is a safer option for older.
Disadvantages
1- Some tumors as squamous cell carcinoma are sensitive to
Irradiation. But adenocarinoma is much less sensitive.
2- Radiation is commonly associated with burns of the skin or
enteritis, which are difficult to treat.
3- Compared to surgery, radiotherapy is slower as it usually
takes 5 to 8 weeks.
3- CHEMOTHERAPY
Indications
1- Main line of treatment of leukemia.
2- Metastases.
Methods
- Better results are obtained from
combination chemotherapy
rather than using one agent.
Advantages
- The drugs travel the circulation & can reach malignant cells any
where in the body. Many malignancies including leukaemias,
lymphomas and testicular cancer are now successfully treated by
new conbinantion of chemotherapy.
Disadvantages
- The available chemotherapeutic drugs often kill many healthy
cells & thus bring on serious effects, so causes anemia, leucopenia
& thrombocytopenia.
4- HORMONE THERAPY
Examples are 
- Anti-estrogen with cancer breast that is +ve for estrogen receptors.
- Anti-androgen with cancer prostate.
- Thyroxin to suppress TSH for patient with papillary cancer thyroid.
5- IMMUNOTHERAPY
• Non-specific
The tuberculosis vaccine BCG stimulates the immune system as in
transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder.
• Specific
This method is still of limited use.

73
 TRANSPLANTATION
BASIC IMMUNOLOGY
Types of graft
 AUTOGRAFT Same individual.

 ALLOGRAFT Same species.

 ISOGRAFT Identical twins.

 XENOGRAFT Different species

Major histocompatibility complex

 Glycoprotein molecules on the surface of all somatic cells act as
" self- markers " which are responsible for triggering the immune
reaction leading to allograft rejection.
 These molecules were originally detected on leukocytes and are
therefore, named Human Leukocyte Antigens (HLA)
 These HLA are genetically controlled by loci on the short arm of
chromosome 6. This area on chromosome 6 is termed major
histocompatibility complex
 The important antigens in transplantation are 
CLASS I HLA A, B & C antigens

CLASS II HLA D antigens

These antigens are capable of stimulating the recipient immune
mechanism & triggering lymphocytes sensitization, starting rejection
of the transplanted organs.

TRANSPLANTATION IMMUNOLOGY
Pre-transplantation assessment ( Histocompatibility tests )
ABO BLOOD GROUP & CROSSMATCHING
- This is essential for all allograft.
- The aim is to prevent hyperacute rejection.
HLA CROSSMATCHING
- This is essential for renal & pancreatic transplantation
- Donor's lymphocytes are mixed with the recipient's serum.
- The aim is to minimize genetic disparity & later graft rejection.

74
The Donors
LIVING DONOR
- Only if paired organ or vascularised segmental part like the liver.
CADAVER DONOR
- With proved total brain death by 
 Deep coma ( No response to external stimuli ).
 Bilateral dilated fixed pupils .
 Absence of all reflexes .
 Inability to maintain the vital signs for 3 minutes
without artificial means.
 Flat EEG in all channels.
Organ preservation
COOLING ( 0 – 4 OC )
to reduce tissue metabolism
PERFUSION OF A SPECIAL SOLUTION
to maintain a normal metabolic activity.
Immunosuppressive therapy
To prevent rejection 
A- INDUCTION IMMUNE SUPPRESSION
Given prior to transplantation in order to avoid rejection.
 Large doses of corticosteroids.
 Azathioprine.
 Anti-thymocyte globulin.
B- MAINTENANCE IMMUNE SUPPRESSION
 Small doses of Steroids.
 Azathioprine.
 Cyclosporine A
C- ANTI-REJECTION TREATMENT
 Large doses of Steroids.
 Monoclonal antibodies again T-lymphocytes
Complications of immunosuppression
1- Infection : Bacterial, viral, or fungal in urinary tracts, surgical
wounds or catheters .
2- Nephrotoxicity with Cyclosporine A.
3- Bone marrow depression
4- Complications of corticosteroids .
5- Neoplasia : Immunodeficiency may predispose to cancer development.

75
 THE REJECTION PROCESS
Cellular mechanism
THESE STEPS CAN BE SUMMARIZED AS FOLLOWING

Allo-antigen ( process by macrophage )   T-helper   Interleukin 2

  Cytoxic T lymphocytes which attack the transplanted tissues directly
& causing rejection
Humoral mechanism
The present of complement-fixing cytotoxic antibodies, prior totransplant-
ation, produces hyperacute allograft rejection
Types of graft rejection
Onset Mediators Treatment
Hyperacute Immediate Humoral Graft removal
Acute 1st month Cellular High dose steroids
Chronic Several months Cellular or humoral Retransplantation

ORGANS TRANSPLANTATION
1. Renal Transplantation
INDICATIONS
All cases of end-stage renal diseases
which may be secondary to 
 Glomerulonephritis
 Hypertension .
 Diabetes
 Chronic pyelonephritis .
 Lupus nephritis.
 Obstructive uropathy
 Congenital nephrotic syndrome
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
 The grafted kidney is placed in an extra-peritoneal position
in the iliac fossa.
 The arterial anastomosis is performed between the renal
artery & external iliac artery
 The venous anastomosis is performed between the renal
vein and external iliac vein
 The ureter of grafter kidney is anastomosed to patient's U.B
COMPLICATIONS
 Complications of immunosuppression (see before)
 Recurrence of original disease in the grafted kidney
 Technical complications as vascular occlusion, urinary leakage,
ureteric stricture or wound infection.

76
 2. Hepatic Transplantation
INDICATIONS
In children
 Cirrhosis due to biliary atresia, congenital hepatic fibrosis & cirrhosis.
 Metabolic as glycogen storage disease & alpha1 antitrypsin deficiency.
In adults
 Cirrhosis : 1ry & 2ry biliary cirrhosis,
chronic active hepatitis,
sclerosing cholangitis &
alcoholic cirrhosis
 Metabolic : Hemochromatosis,
Wilson's disease &
Budd-chiari syndrome.
 Neoplastic : Fibrolamellar tumor
& hepatocellular carcinoma on top of liver cirrhosis.
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
 The liver of the recipient is removed then
the grafted liver (cadaveric) is placed in
same position.
 The following anastomoses are
performed 
- Supra-hepatic & intra-hepatic I.V.C.
- Portal vein of recipient to donor,
- Hepatic artery of recipient to donor,
- Common bile duct of recipient to donor .
N.B. Nowadays, segmental liver transplantation from living donors are
being successfully performed.
This will overcome the problem of shortage of available liver donors

COMPLICATIONS
 Complications of immunosuppression (see before)
 Recurrence of original disease in the grafted liver
 Technical complications as vascular occlusion, bile duct leakage,
and bleeding,

77
 Breast
disorders

78
 BREAST
DISORDERS
EMBERIOLOGY

The Breast is a modified sweat gland which is developed

from an ectodermal ridge " mammary ridge " which
extends between the anterior pectoral fold & the groin.
Normally it disappears all through except in the front of the
chest where solid columns of epithelia pass deeply
 milk duct

ANATOMY

 Extent
 Above : at 2nd rib.
 Below : at 6th rib.
 Medially : at lateral border of sternum.
 Laterally : at anterior axillary line.

79
The actual extent of the breast is important for the surgeon who aims at
removal of the whole breast for malignancy.
SO It actually extends:
 Above to the clavicle.
 Below to below the costal margin.
 Medially to the middle line.
 Laterally to the posterior axillary line.

Axillary tail of Spence : ( 3rd rib )

It is a prolongation from upper outer part of gland up to axilla. it is
considered the only part which is deep to pectoral fascia through
foramen of Langer. so it drains directly into posterior axillary L.Ns

 Areas ( 6 areas )
- Upper inner quadrant - Lower inner quadrant.
- Upper outer quadrant - Lower outer quadrant.
- Retro-areolar part - Axillary tail.

 Architecture

 Breast consists of (15 - 20) lobes which are arranged in radiating manner
& each is drained by a lactiferous duct. the ducts converge at the nipple.
A lobe is made up of (20 - 40) lobules, each of which consists of
(10 - 100) alveoli

 The supporting tissues :

- The ducts are attached to underlying pectoral fascia by band of fibrous tissue to
the skin called ( Cooper's ligament ). This ligament can be involved in fibrotic
lesions leading to skin dimpling
- The ducts are surrounded by contractile myoepithelial cells which are
stimulated by oxytocin & move milk towards the nipple.

80
  Nipple : ( 4th intercostal space )
On its top 15 – 20 opening, its normal direction is
downward, forward & laterally

 Areola :
Thick skin, pink in nulipara, blackens brown with
pregnancy. contains sweat & sebaceous glands
of montogomory.

 Muscle flour It lies on 3 muscles

1- PECTORALIS MAJOR MUSCLE
- Origin :
- Sterno-costal head :
Ant. surface of sternum, upper 6 costal
cartilages.
- Clavicular head :
Medial 1/2 of front of clavicle.
- Insertion :
Lateral lip of biciptal groove.
- Nerve supply :
Medial & lateral pectoral nerve.
- Action :
Flexion, adduction & medial rotation
N.B : PECTORALIS MINOR MUSCLE
- Origin :
3rd ,4th ,5th ribs
- Insertion :
Coracoid process of scapula.
- Nerve supply :
Medial pectoral nerve.
- Action :
draws the scapula downwards & forwards.
2- SERRATUS ANTERIOR MUSCLE
- Origin :
8 digitations with upper 8 intercostal muscles
- Insertion :
Medial border of the scapula .
- Nerve Supply :
Nerve to serratus anterior
- Action :
Keeps the stability of the scapula with use of upper limb
3- EXTERNAL OBLIQUE MUSCLE
- For Anatomy : See chapter Hernia

81
 Arterial supply
 Axillary artery  lat. thoracic artery
 Internal mammary artery  2,3,4 perforators.
 Intercostal perforators.

 Venous drainage
 Axillary vein
 Internal mammary vein
 Intercostal veins
( which drain into Azygos system which communicates with
valveless vertebral veins )
This explains early vertebral metastasis with cancer breast

 Lymphatic drainage
 Classic description
1. Sub-areolar plexus of Sappey :
from nipple & areola then drains to deep plexus.

2. Deep plexus (over pectoralis)

from sub-areolar plexus & deep part of the gland then drain to axillary L.Ns
& Internal mammary through the pectoralis muscles.

 Modern description
Lymphatics drain through axillary L.Ns & Internal mammary L.Ns

I. Axillary L.Ns
These nodes receive about 75 % of breast lymph. There are on average
35 lymph nodes in the axilla that are arranged into :

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 1. THE ANTERIOR ( PECTORAL ) GROUP
 SITE : under cover the pectoralis major along the lateral thoracic
vessels at the lower border of the pectoralis.
 DRAINS : - chest wall.
- whole breast except tail.
- ant. abdominal wall above level of umbilicus.
2. THE POSTERIOR ( SUB-SCAPULAR ) GROUP
 SITE : along the subscapular vessels.
 DRAINS : - axillary tail.
- post. abdominal wall above level of umbilicus.
3. THE LATERAL ( HUMERAL ) GROUP
 SITE : along the axillary vein (upper part of humerus).
 DRAINS : all the upper limb.
4. THE MEDIAL ( CENTRAL ) GROUP
 SITE : central part of axilla (embedded in the axillary fat).
 DRAINS : {1},{2},{3}
5. THE APICAL GROUP
 SITE : extreme apex of axilla.
 DRAINS : {1},{2},{3},{4}

II. Other associated L.Ns

1. Internal Mammary L.Ns
2. Inter-pectoral L.Ns of Rotter between 2 pectoral muscles
III. Further lymphatic spread
Connection of the lymphatics of the lower inner quadrant of the breast with the
peritoneum. Lymphatics pierce rectus sheath  spread to liver leading to liver
nodules. then through (falciform ligament)
 umbilical nodules (Josef sister's nodules)
N.B.: Some malignant cells will lead to
Malignant ascites,
Krukenberg's tumor
& Malignant nodules
in the douglas pouch.

From prognostic point view axillary L.Ns are classified by 

Pectoralis minor muscle into 3 levels
 Level I  L.Ns below the muscle
 Level II  L.Ns behind the muscle
 Level III  L.Ns above the muscle
The prognostic importance with treatment of cancer breast with adjuvant therapy

83
 I- CONGENITAL ANOMALIES
1. The Breast
1. Amazia :
absence of breast (unilateral or bilateral)
2. Polymazia :
accessory breast along mammary ridge
they may function during lactation

3. Micromasia :
Small breast treated by augmentation mammoplasty

4. Diffuse hypertrophy :
Big breast treated by reduction mammoplasty
5. Infantile gynaecomastia :
Diffuse enlargement of the male breast which may be unilateral or bilateral.
It is caused by the effect of circulating maternal sex hormones. The condition
is usually reversible within 6 months, and therefore, requires no treatment

2. The Nipple
1. Athelia :
absence of nipple (very rare).
2. Polythelia :
accessory nipple along mammary ridge
an accessory nipple may be mistaken
for a mole or a wart.

84
 3. Congenital retraction of the nipple :
 It must be differentiated from acquired retraction

Congenital retraction Acquired retraction

 History dating since birth. recent.
 Side bilateral < 3/4 of cases unilateral.
 Mass no breast mass presence of breast mass
 Sulcus absent present

Don't Forget
[ Causes of acquired nipple retraction ]
due to "excessive fibrosis''
1. Mammary duct ectazia.
2. Chronic breast abscess.
3. Carcinoma of the breast.

II- TRAUMATIC DISEASES

( that may be clinically difficult to DD from carcinoma )

usually follow a blunt trauma

1. Traumatic fat necrosis

 Trauma  death of some fat cells  liberation of fatty acids which combine
with calcium from local tissue fluid  calcium soaps

 Calcium soaps :
 cyst containing " thick oily fluid "
 hard mass If we do biopsy the cut section will show
"characteristic chalky white appearance".
 Treatment : Excision & biopsy.

2. Breast hematoma
 Trauma  blood clot  organization  fibrosis
 Fibrosis  hard mass.
 Treatment : Excision & biopsy.

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 III- INFLAMMATORY DISEASES
A- Acute inflammatory mastitis
1- Acute lactational mastitis
& Acute breast abscess

Mastitis from milk engorgement

 Incidence : 1st month of 1st lactation.
 Aetiology : due to obstruction of duct by dry inspissated milk or epithelial debris.
 Clinical picture :
 Symptoms :
 General : Toxic symptoms [ Fever, Headache, Malaise & Anorexia ]
N.B : Fever is due to absorption of Milk protein (Ag x Ab)
 Local : dull aching pain.
 Signs :
 Diffuse tense & tender.
 No physical signs of inflammation i.e. no hotness or redness.
 No axillary L.Ns.
 Fate :
[ If neglected ]  acute bacterial mastitis or acute breast abscess.

Acute bacterial mastitis

 Incidence : 1st month of 1st lactation i.e. fate from milk engorgement.
or when baby is at 6 months i.e. development of incisors.
 Aetiology :
 Predisposing factors :
 mastitis from milk engorgement.
 abrasions of nipple e.g. cracks or fissures.
 lack of breast hygiene.
 Organism : Staphylococcus aureus (gram +ve).
 Route of entery : organism from baby's mouth.
much less common (blood born infection).
 Clinical picture :
 Symptoms :
 General : toxic symptoms [ Fever, Headache, Malaise & Anorexia ]
N.B : Fever is due to absorption of Organism (Ag x Ab)
 Local : dull aching pain but gets worse.

86
  Signs :
 Diffuse tense & tender.
 Physical signs of inflammation, e.g. hotness or redness of skin.
 Axillary L.Ns : firm & tender (non specific).
 Fate :
[ If neglected ]  acute breast abscess

Acute breast abscess

 Pathology : milk engorgement + staph. infection  pus
 Clinical picture :
 Symptoms :
 General : toxic symptoms [ Fever, Headache, Malaise & Anorexia ]
N.B. : Fever is hectic
i.e. fluctuant & does not reach the basal line at the same day
 Local : throbbing pain which is more at night
 Signs :
 localized tense & tender.
 physical signs of inflammation.
e.g. hotness or redness of skin.
 axillary L.Ns : firm & tender (non specific).
 pitting oedema of skin overlying the abscess.
 fluctuation is very late.

Acute Mastitis
bacterial mastitis carcinomatosa

History  Onset, course - acute onset & rapidly - gradual onset & slowly
& duration progressive course. progressive course.
 Fever - high grade fever. - low grade fever
Inspection  Skin over - firey red. - dusky red.
Palpation  Tenderness - markedly tenderness. - mild tenderness.
 Axillary L.Ns - firm & tender. - hard & not tender
Treatment  A.B - cured - no response

87
 TREATMENT OF ACUTE LACTATIONAL MASTITIS
& ACUTE BREAST ABSCESS
A- Prophylactic treatment
(1) Correct hygiene of breast during lactation.
(2) Paint the nipple with topical soothing creams.
(3) The breast should be evacuated completely with each lactation.

B- Active treatment
I. STAGE OF MILK ENGORGEMENT & ACUTE BACTERIAL MASTITIS
i.e. before suppuration [ no abscess ]
1. Local heat "hot application".
2. Support of the breast helps to lessen pain
3. An antibiotic against staphylococci e.g. Flucloxacillin or Cephalosporin.
4. The Advisability of weaning:
 If baby > 9M  stop feeding, the agent in common use is
"Parlodel" 2.5 mg twice/day.
 If baby < 9M  continue feeding with healthy breast & regular
evacuation of diseased one by using a pump
II. STAGE OF ACUTE ABSCESS FORMATION
i.e. after suppuration [ don't wait for fluctuation ]
 Anaesthesia : general anesthesia.
 Incision :

N.B : Incision & drainage according to type of abscess :

(1) Supra (pre) mammary abscess : incision any where.
(2) Intra-mammary abscess : it may be
a. Radial: radiating from areolar
b. Circum-areolar : at margin of areola. 1st then radial
incision is done so better cosmetic.
(3) Retro (post) mammary abscess :
incision in sub-mammary fold.

 Technique :
1- Surgeon's finger breaks all loculi to form single cavity
2- Pus evacuation for culture & sensitivity.
3- Drain is brought out through the most dependent part.

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 2- Non lactational mastitis
The commonest type of non Lactational mastitis is that which complicates
mammary duct ectasia

3- Rare types of mastitis

1. Infected haematoma.
2. Infected tumors.
3. Mastitis neonatorum (female & male).
 It is due to retention of mother hormones
i.e. (maternal prolactine) stimulates lactation in infant.
 C/P : swollen breasts on 3rd, 4th day with few drops
of milk (witch's milk)
 It subsides within 2-3 weeks.
4. Mastitis of puberty (male only)
 The condition affects adolescent boys  pain +
swelling of breast. which becomes indurated
but (suppuration never occur).

B- Chronic inflammatory diseases

1- Mammary duct ectazia
[ Plasma cell mastitis ]
Definition
Dilatation of major ducts of the breast.
Aetiology
Unknown.
Pathology
Chronic inflammation of duct system leads to dilatation of major ducts
which are  Filled by : Creamy secretions.
(atrophic epithelium + fatty material).
 Surrounded by : Plasma cells
so (called Plasma cell mastitis).
Clinical Picture
 Age : around or after menopause.
 Mass : hard mass, may be associated with nipple retraction, peau d 'orange .. etc
So similar to cancer breast.
 Discharge : Creamy white
or may be blood stained.
Treatment
Excision & biopsy ( to exclude malignancy ).

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 2- Chronic breast abscess

Non specific ( Chronic pyogenic breast abscess )

 Definition :
fate of improper treatment of acute abscess.
 Aetiology :
prolonged use of antibiotics  killing of bacteria
 sterile pus  Antibioma
 Pathology :
 cavity : containing sterile pus
 wall : thick fibrous wall.
 Clinical picture :
 Mass : hard mass, may be associated with nipple retraction, peau d 'orange .. etc
So similar to cancer breast.
 Discharge: no discharge.
 D.D :
Chronic abscess Cancer breast
 Toxaemia. - Low grade fever. - Absent
 Post-surface. - Rounded. - Flat.
 History of A.B - + ve - - ve

 Treatment :
Excision & biopsy ( to exclude malignancy ).

Specific ( T.B )
 Definition :
a rare disease with active pulmonary T.B
 Aetiology :
Tubercle bacilli (T.B)
 Pathology :
T.B. granuloma.
 Clinical picture :
 History of (night sweat, night fever, loss of weight & loss of appetite).
 Mass : multiple nodules of the breast.
 Axillary L.Ns : enlarged & matted.
 Treatment :
Anti T.B. drugs + Excision for resistant cases.

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 IV. FIBROCYSTIC DISEASE OF THE BREAST
FIBROADENOSIS

(Other names)
• Mammary dysplasia.
• Mastopathy.
• Chronic interstitial mastitis but misnomer
as no evidence of inflammation
• ANDI [Aberration of Normal Development & Involution]

Incidence
This is the most frequent disorder of the breast. the upper outer quadrant of the
breast is the commonest site of affection.
Aetiology
[ Unknown ] but may be due to oversensitivity of oestrogenic receptors.
i.e. [ Relative hyperoestrogenaemia ]
Pathology
[ An image of pathological action of oestrogen on breast ]
 N/E picture :
• Site : localized or diffuse.
• Side : unilateral or bilateral
 Microscopic picture : [ Panplasia ]
• Adenosis :  number of acini.
• Epitheliosis :
Hyperplasia of epithelial lining the ducts
 Atypical hyperplasia  Pre-cancerous.
N.B: Duct papilloma
It is a localized form of epitheliosis
• Fibrosis : Fibrous tissue replaces the fat
i.e. Sclerosing adenosis
N.B: Fibroadenoma
It is a localized form of adenosis & fibrosis
• Cyst formation :
(A) Microcyst : degenerating cyst.
(B) Macrocyst : retention cyst
due to obstruction by :
- Epitheliosis from inside.
- Fibrosis from outside.
Sometimes papillomatosis are seen in the cyst from
excess epithelial proliferation

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Clinical picture
 Age :
after puberty or before menopause
 Symptoms : ( May be asymptomatic )
 Pain ( mastalgia ) :
dull ache.  before,  after menses.
N.B.:This pain stops with pregnancy
 Discharge :
clear or yellow but sometimes brown or green.
 Mass :
painful & fixed to breast tissue.
 Signs :
 Tender breast tissues
 Discharge : by patient herself.
 Mass : firm or fine nodules by tips of fingers

Investigations [ The Aim is to exclude cancer ]

 U/S & soft tissue mammography
 Aspiration & cytology.
 Biopsy & histopathology.
Treatment
(A) MEDICAL TREATMENT ( The main ttt )
 Reassurance of the patient
 Advice patient to stop caffeine e.g. stop coffee, tea & chocolate
 Sedatives & tranquilizers.
 Support the breast by tight braces to  pain
 Parlodel (anti-prolactin) : 2.5 mg twice per/day.
 Danazol (synthetic androgen) : 100 - 200 mg twice per/day.
 Tamoxifen (anti-estrogen) : 10 mg once daily.

(B) SURGICAL TREATMENT

Excision & biopsy
indicated with localized mass.

(C) FOLLOW UP
with atypical hyperplasia, discovered by biopsy,
should be instructed to perform a monthly self examination

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 V. BREAST NEOPLASM
A. BENIGN
 Epithelial : Duct papilloma.
 Mixed : ( Epithelial & Fibrous Tissue ) Fibroadenoma.
B. MALIGNANT

A. BENIGN NEOPLASM
1- DUCT PAPILLOMA
Incidence
Common at young women.
Aetiology
[ Benign tumor of epithelial cells ] It may be
 from the start i.e. de novo.
or on top of excessive localization of epitheliosis of fibroadenosis.
Pathology
 N/E Picture : usually single & arises from main lactiferous duct near the nipple
 Microscopic picture : core of very vascular C.T covered by
hyperplastic epithelial layer.
Clinical picture
 Age : 30 - 40 years.
 Symptoms : - Bleeding per nipple
- Retro-areolar mass i.e. retention cyst
 Signs : - Localize the duct by palpation of each quadrant
- Retro-areolar mass i.e. retention cyst
Complications
 Malignant transformation i.e. duct carcinoma.
 Profuse bleeding per nipple
Investigation
DUCTOGRAPHY
Retro-areolar filling defect in major duct.
Treatment
MICRODOCHECTOMY
Excision of the affected duct through circum-areolar incision
 If there is a lump, the excision is easy.
 If there is no lump, the duct is identified by inserting a blunt tipped needle
The excised specimen should be histologically examined

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 2- FIBROADENOMA
Incidence
The commonest breast mass.

Aetiology
[ Benign tumor of epithelial cells + fibrous tissue ] It may be
 from the start i.e. de novo.
or on top of excessive localization of adenosis & fibrosis of fibroadenosis.
Pathology
 The tumor is ( well capsulated )
 True capsule : showing fibrous bands dividing it into lobules
 False capsule : formed by compressed breast tissue.
 There are 2 types :

Hard fibroadenoma Soft fibroadenoma

( Peri-canalicular ) ( Intra-canalicular )
 N/E Picture attached to its capsule by attached to its capsule by
one pedicle. multiple pedicles.

 Microscopic ducts are surrounded by ducts are compressed by

Picture fibrous tissue fibrous tissue

Clinical Picture
 Age 20 - 30 years 30 - 50 years
 Symptoms • painless mass. • painless mass.
• slow rate of growth • rapid rate of growth
i.e. malignancy is never. i.e. malignancy is common
 Signs • firm & not tender. • soft & not tender.
• well defined edge.
• mobile (breast mouse)
• no L.Ns enlargement
Complication
 Malignancy • Never • Liable to turn to Sarcoma

94
 N.B: Cystasarcoma phylloides :
 The name :
- The term cystasarcoma, however, is a misnomer as many are not cystic
& it is not sarcoma.
- It better termed '" Phylloides tumor "
- It was so named by " Brodie " who was
used the term Phylloides because the cut
surface resembles a leaf or a fan
 Pathology :
` - It is highly cellular type of fibroadenoma
that tends to grow rapidly
 Examination :
- It is giant soft fibroadenoma.
- Ulcerate through skin but not attached to it
- No axillary L.Ns except if infected.
 Treatment :
Wide local excision or Simple mastectomy

Investigations
Soft tissue mammography
Treatment
 Hard fibroadenoma : Excision & biopsy.
 Soft fibroadenoma :  If small : Excision & biopsy
 If large : Simple mastectomy

B. CARCINOMA OF THE BREAST

1- Incidence
According to the data of the National Cancer Institute of Cairo University
About 35 % of total malignancies of Egyptian females.

2- Risk Factors
A - GENETIC FACTORS
- Accounts for 5 – 10 % of all breast cancer.
- Presence of breast cancer in a mother or sister  risk 3 times.
while presence of cancer in both mother & sister  risk 14 times.
- 2 Genes are associated:
1. BRCA I ; long arm of chromosome 17 associated with breast, ovarian
& colon cancer
2. BRCA II ; long arm of chromosome 13 associated with breast & ovarian
cancer

95
 B - ENDOCRINAL FACTORS
- Early menarche < 13 years.
- Delayed menopause > 50 years.
- Female get 1st pregnant > 30 years.
- The relations to oral contraceptive pills is not known exactly.
- Obesity as adipose tissue converts steroid hormones to estradiol.
- Female with cancer to one breast.

C - PRECANCEROUS LESIONS
- Relations to duct papilloma  risk 1.5 - 2 times.
- Relations to atypical hyperplasia of fibroadenosis  risk 2 - 5 times.
- Relations to lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS) or duct carcinoma
in situ ( DCIS )  risk 5 - 10 times.
3- Pathology
A - SITE  Upper outer ( 60% ) The commonest
 Lower outer ( 10% )
 Upper inner ( 12 % )
 Retroarolar ( 12% )
 Lowe inner ( 6% )
The rarest & worst  spread to sub-diaphragmatic lymphatics

B – PATHOLOGICAL TYPES

(I) Lobular carcinoma (II) Duct carcinoma (III) Paget's

disease of
nipple

Non invasive Invasive (7.5 %)

25 % bilateral See later
= In situ
(Mirror Image)
(LCIS)

Non invasive = Insitu (DCIS) Invasive

[Subtypes]
 Papillary duct carcinoma 

bleeding per nipple.
See next page
 Comedocarcinoma 
Sebaceous like material
from cut surface of the tumor.

96
 Invasive Duct Carcinoma

1. Scirrhous Ca 2. Encephaloid Ca
( 75 % ) ( 10 % )
Scirrhous = Hard Encephaloid = Brain like
• N/E picture  small, hard & irregular mass.  large, soft & irregular mass.
 C.S:  Gritty, concave,  C.S:  soft, convex
pale & bulging &
non capsulated non capsulated
• Microscopic  fibrous tissue is more than  malignant cells more than
picture malignant cells which is fibrous tissue
undifferentiated hence the
name NOS ( Not Otherwise
 lymphocytic infiltration
Specified )

 areas of Hge & necrosis.  areas of Hge & necrosis.

• Prognosis good if early diagnosed better than scirrhous
because of lymphocytic infiltration

3. Mucinous Ca 4. Inflammatory Ca
(3%) ( very rare )
Mastitis carcinomatosa
• N/E picture  large, soft gelly like.  large mass.
 very bulky  very rapidly
growing tumor.
 spheroidal cells N.B :
• Microscopic distended with mucoid
 It occurs during
picture material
pregnancy & lactation.
 Signet ring like SO D.D.:
from acute mastitis
• Prognosis the best prognosis. the worst prognosis &
consider T4
N.B
HORMONAL RECEPTORS

 About 60% of breast cancers have receptor for Estrogen & termed
ER +ve ,These tumors are respond to hormonal treatment.

 About 20% of breast cancers exhibit Herceptin & termed HER2/neu +ve.
, These tumors are respond to immunological treatment.

 Recently : Tumors are stained for c~erb 52 ( growth factor receptor )

, These tumors are respond to monoclonal antibodies treatment.

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 III. Paget's disease of the nipple
Incidence
1%
Aetiology
Malignant erosion caused by duct carcinoma
Pathology
 N/E picture : [Malignant eczema]
unilateral with well defined margin.
 Microscopic picture :
1. Hyperplasia [ all epidermis ]. Ulcerative Type
2. Paget's cells [ deep epidermis ]
clear vacuolated cells with small
dark stained nuclei

3. Round cell Infiltration [ dermis ].

Clinical Picture Eczematous Type
2 Types may be present
(1) Ulcerative Type.
(2) Eczematous Type.
D.D.

Paget's disease Dermatitis

( Malignant eczema ) ( Ordinary eczema )
 Usually menopausal female.  Usually lactating female.
 Unilateral.  Bilateral.
 Erosion.  No erosion.
 No itching  Itching
 Start in the nipple.  Start in the areola.
 Breast lump may be felt.  No lump.
 Not respond to eczema treatment.  Respond to eczema treatment.

Staging
Paget's disease alone = ( stage I )
Treatment
Radical mastectomy
N.B.: Paget's disease is radio-resistant.
Prognosis
Paget's disease alone = good prognosis

98
4- Spread
1. Direct : [ skin, underlying muscle & chest wall ].
2. Blood : [ Liver, Bone, Lung & Brain ].
3. Lymphatic :
[ by Embolization & Permeation ].
 through axillary L.Ns 
internal mammary L.Ns 
supra-clavicular L.Ns.

 DON’T FORGET
Connection of the lymphatics of the lower inner quadrant of the breast with the
peritoneum. Lymphatics pierce rectus sheath  spread to liver leading to liver
nodules. then through (Falciform ligament)
 umbilical nodules (Josef sister's nodules)
N.B.: Some malignant cells will lead to
Malignant ascites,
Krukenberg's tumor
& Malignant nodules
in the douglas pouch.

5. Staging
[ A ] T.N.M Staging

T = Tumor N = Nodes M = Metastasis

Tis = Ca in situ or Paget's alone N0 = No palpable L.Ns. M0 = No
T0 = No evidence of 1ry tumor. N1 = Mobile axillary L.Ns. distant metastasis
T1 = < 2 cm. N2 = Fixed axillary L.Ns. M1 =
T2 = 2- 5 cm N3 = Palpable homolateral Distant metastasis
supra-clavicular L.Ns.
T3 = > 5 cm
T4 = Any size with extension to
chest wall

[ B ] U.I.C.C Staging
( Union International Cancer Center )
Stage U.I.C.C Category
Stage I Early breast cancer with No L.Ns
Stage II Early breast cancer with mobile L.Ns
Stage III Advanced breast cancer with fixed L.Ns
Stage IV Metastatic

99
 [ C ] Manchester Classification
( Clinical classification )

Tumor L.Ns Metastasis

Stage I  Mobile breast mass.  NO  NO
Stage II  Mobile breast mass.  Mobile (at same side).  NO
Stage III  Skin involvement.  Fixed (at same side).  NO
 Pectoralis muscles
are involved.
 No Chest wall involvement.
Stage IV  Skin involved  Involved at opposite  Metastasis
e.g. cancer en curirasse side of axilla.
 Pectoralis muscles
are involved.
 Chest wall is involved

6- Clinical picture
 Age :
commonly at 40 - 60 years + risk factors ( discuss ).
 Symptoms :
[A] General symptoms
(may be the 1st presentation) i.e. occult carcinoma.
 Lung: chest pain, cough, dyspnea & haemoptsis.
 Bone : mass in skull, backache & pathological fracture.
 Liver: pain at Rt. hypochondrium & Jaundice.
 Brain : extremely rare.

[B] Local symptoms

 Hard, painless mass, discovered accidentally.
 Rapid rate of growth.
 Discharge : Blood If duct carcinoma.

100
 Signs :
[A] General signs
 To detect Metastasis ( Liver, Bone, PR, PV & ... etc ).
[B] Local signs
(1) Mass :
 Hard not tender mass.
 Circumscribed edge ( hard mass inside soft breast ).
 Flat under surface ( local spread Ant. > Post. ).
 Fixed to skin & +/- chest wall.
(2) L.Ns :
[Hard, enlarged, 1st mobile later on fixed]
(3) Breast :
SKIN MANIFESTATIONS
1. Dimpling & puckering :
 due to contracture of Cooper's ligaments.

2. Nipple retraction & deviation :

 due to excessive fibrosis [ not pathognomonic ]

3. Peau d'orange : [ Pitting oedema ]

 due to obliteration & compression of lymphatic
by excessive fibrosis [ not pathognomonic ]

4. Cancerous skin nodules :

 due to lymphatic spread. It may be near or far
from tumor e.g. around umbilicus.

5. Cancer en curirasse : [ Advanced stage ]

 It means hard, thick skin, metallic brown
& stretched as [ War-shield ]

6. Ulceration & fungation :

 Raised everted edge with necrotic floor.

7. Paget's disease of nipple ( see before )

8. Mastitis carcinomatosa ( see before )
9. Dilated veins over the skin of the breast.

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7- Differential diagnosis
1. D.D. from nipple retraction
 Carcinoma.
 Mammary duct ectazia. [ history of creamy white discharge ]
 Chronic breast abscess [ history of acute abscess & A.B intake ]
2. DD. from bloody discharge
 Duct carcinoma
 Duct papilloma
3. D.D from hard mass
 Carcinoma.
 Mammary duct ectazia.
[ history of creamy white discharge ]
 Chronic breast abscess
[ history of acute abscess & A.B intake ]
 Traumatic disorders
[ history of trauma ]
8- Investigations
A. Soft tissue mammography
 Cancer appears as a dense opacity.

N.B. : Mammography is of less value

with young female because of
similarity of lesion to dense breast
 Indications :
1. Screening for high risk group.
2. Search for occult cancer in female with
metastatic disease.
3. Evaluate non palpable breast lump.
4. Evaluate opposite breast with cancer in the other breast.
 Mammagraphic findings suggestive of malignancy :
1. Nipple retraction.
2. Irregular outlines from irregular spicules penetrate
surrounding breast.
3. Increase vascularity of the breast.
4. Microcalcification
B. Ultrasonography
Both U/S & Mammography are
complementary to each other.
 It can differentiate solid from cystic mass.
 It is useful in young women .

102
 C. Diagnostic procedures (Biopsy)
 Excision biopsy : ( The most reliable )
but under general anaesthesia.
 Frozen section biopsy : diagnosed within 20 min while patient is under
anesthesia ( if +ve  Radical mastectomy ).
 Tru-cut biopsy : under local anesthesia by a special needle which cuts
a core of tumor tissue.
Its disadvantages are : 1. take a false tissue.
2. may disseminate malignancy.
 Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology (FNAC) :
1. Advantages : 90% accurate,
very simple & inexpensive.
2. Disadvantages : a skilled cytologist
is needed.
D. MRI of the breast
 It is a gold standard for women with synthetic implants
 Also used for post-operative scar
to D.D between fibrosis from local recurrence
E. Detection of distant metastasis
 Lung  plain x-ray.
 Brain  CT scan & MRI.
 Liver  U/S & liver function tests.
 Bone  bone scan.
F. Detection of tumor markers
 CA 15-3 : Cancer Antigen. (prognostic rather than diagnostic)

9- Early detection
This aims at the detection of breast cancer very early
in the asymptomatic females

A. Breast Self Examination (BSE)

 All woman over age 20 should be advised to examine their
breasts monthly.
 The physician instructs the women as how to conduct a
systematic inspection & palpation.
 The woman suspects the presences of a lump, skin dimpling, or nipple retraction .

B. Screening programs
In some Western countries high risk women are subjected to regular clinical
examination & mammography. The frequency of examination is every one, two,
or three years, depending on the program

103
10- Treatment

TRIPLE ASSESSMENT

1. Clinical examination
2. Mammography & Ultrasound
3. FNAC

A. Operable (Early) less than T2, N1, M0

or Stage I & II as U.I.C.C

Different surgical options + Adjuvant systemic therapy if +ve Axillary L.Ns

 Stage I : Modified radical mastectomy of Patey

+ Follow up

 Follow up :
 Aim to detect : 1. Local recurrence or metastasis.
2. Any post-operative complications.
 Time  after ttt then every 3 months at 1st 2 years
then every 4 months for the next 3 years.
then yearly

 Stage II : Modified radical mastectomy of Patey

+ Adjuvant systemic therapy

 Radiotherapy : To [  local recurrence ]

To 1. Mediastinal region for internal mammary L.Ns.
2. Supraclavicular region for supraclavicular L.Ns.
 Chemotherapy : To [  late blood born metastasis ]
By 1. CMF : Cyclophosphamid, Methotrexate & 5 Flurouracil
2. Adriamycin.
Indicated with ER -ve female
 Hormonal : to [  growth of tumor ]
By Tamoxifen or Anastrazole
Indicated with ER +ve female.

104
Idea about
SURGICAL OPERATIONS
1. Conservative breast surgery
W.L.E = Wide Local Excision with 2 cm safety margin
Then Sentinel lymph node biopsy
- Indications :  Small masses < 4 cm
 Big breast
 Young female
 Peripheral lesions
W.L.E
- Contraindications : the reverse of indications +
 Pregnancy
 Collagen vascular disease (  tolerance to radiotherapy )

SENTINEL LYMPH NODE BIOPSY

The sentinel lymph node is localized per-operative by injection
of a blue dye near the tumor. The dye will pass to the 1ry node
draining the tumor area, which can be detected by gamma camera.
then biopsy & histologically examined.

2. Modified radical mastectomy of ( Patey )

( Most widely accepted )
Same as Halsted but
 we preserve pectoralis major muscle.
 Pectoralis minor either removed or cut at its insertion,
or retracted to expose the axilla.
3. Radical mastectomy of ( Halsted )
 Removal of :
1. Elliptical part of skin with nipple & areola
2. Whole breast tumor Radical Mastectomy
3. 2 Pectoralis muscles.
4. All axillary L.Ns & fat medial to axillary vein

105
  Preservation of :
1- Axillary vessels
2- Cephalic vein
3- Nerve to serratus anterior
4- Nerve to latissmus dorsi.
4. Extended radical mastectomy
( Not done nowadays )
Same as Halsted + removal of internal mammary L.Ns.,
through median sternotomy.

N.B.: 1. Post-operative complications:

[I] HAEMATOMA OR WOUND INFECTION

[II] OEDEMA OF UPPER LIMB

 Early pitting odema: (within few days) due to
removal of excess lymphatics,
 Late non pitting odema (within few months)
due to 1. Recurrence of axillary L.Ns.
2. Arm infection.
3. Axillary radiotherapy.
[III] BRIDLE SCAR
limitation of abduction.

N.B.: 2. Breast reconstruction :

by SILICONE PROSTHESIS

or MYOCUTANEOUS FLAP
as Rectus abdominis
or Latissimus dorsi flap.

106
B. Inoperable (Advanced) more than T2, N1, M0
or Stage III & (Metastatic) IV as U.I.C.C
 Stage III :
[1] LOCAL TREATMENT ( The main )
 Radiotherapy :
- To 1. Mediastinum
2. Supraclavicular region
3. Axilla
 Surgical indication
- Through palliative simple mastectomy

[2] SYSTEMIC TREATMENT

 Chemotherapy ( CMF & Adriamycin )
- Indicated especially :
1. ER -ve female
2. failure of hormonal treatment.
 Endocrinal treatment :
60 % cancer breast cases have receptors for estrogen
so termed ( ER +ve ) which become :
- More active in presence of this hormone
- Less active in absence of this hormone

Temporary response for anti-oestrogen after 24 - 30

months occur especially with post-menopausal
female or ER +ve.

 Endocrinal treatment as :
• Tamoxifen ( Nolvadex ) : 1st line of ttt.
• Anastrazole ( Aramidex ) : 2nd line of ttt
if relapsed after Tamoxifen
 Stage IV :
[1] LOCAL TREATMENT
 Radiotherapy for any malignant deposits
 Surgical indication
• Excision of skin nodules.
• Internal fixation for pathological fracture.
[2] SYSTEMIC TREATMENT ( The main )
 Chemotherapy
( CMF & Adriamycin )
As above
 Endocrinal treatment :
(Tamoxifen, Anastrazole…. etc. )

107
 [3] TREATMENT OF METASTASIS
 Liver metastasis : Chemotherapy.
 Brain metastasis : Radiotherapy
+ Corticosteroids (↓ Intra-cranial tension)
 Lung metastasis : Chemotherapy.
(pleural effusion) chest tube + cytotoxic
bleomycine through it. i.e. pleurodesis.
 Bone metastasis : Radiotherapy
+ Internal fixation if pathological fracture
11. Prognosis
( The prognostic index is less or equal 2.4 is excellent & has survival rate 95% )
1. Type of tumor : Paget's & cancer situ are better than Mastitis carcinomatosa.
2. Stages of tumor : Stage I is better than Stage II, III or IV.
3. Sites of tumor : Lateral side is better than Medial side.
4. Age of patient : Old age is better than Young [ because of sex hormones ]
5. Sex of patient : Cancer female is better than Cancer male.
6. Hormone receptors : ER +ve are better than ER -ve.
7. Size, mobility & number of lymph nodes : involved ( pathology )
 Patients with – ve L.N  10 years survival = 65%
 Patients with less than 4 +ve nodes  10 years survival = 38%
 Patients with more than 4 +ve nodes  10 years survival = 13%

DD OF BREAST PAIN

DISEASES OF MALE BREAST

Carcinoma of male breast

Incidence Male : Female = 1 : 100 ( 1% of all cancer breast )

Staging
Similar to cancer female breast but
Treatment castration is the main hormonal treatment

Prognosis Worse than cancer female due to early spread to

chest wall ( no breast fat )
108
 VI. NIPPLE DISCHARGE

Aetiology
 Physiological
1. Milky discharge : during lactation
2. Serous discharge : during pregnancy

 Pathological
1. Creamy white or may be blood stained discharge : Duct ectazia
2. Clear or yellow but sometimes brown or green discharge : Fibroadenosis
3. Bloody discharge : - Duct papilloma
- Duct carcinoma
4. Milky discharge : - Hyper-prolactinemia
- Contraceptive pills

Diagnosis
 History
 General Examination
 Local Examination
 especially for 1. Nature & side of discharge.
2. Associated mass
3. Age of patient
4. Use of contraceptive pills
5. Use of drugs as prolactin
Investigations
 Soft tissue mammography & U/S
 Ductography : Lipidol injection may show
filling defect
 Biopsy or Aspiration cytology for mass
 Serum prolactin level
 Tests for occult blood in discharge
through [ Benzedine test ]
Treatment
 If mass is associated
 Excision & biopsy
 If No mass is associated
 Localized ducts : Microdochectomy
 Many ducts (rare) : Cone excision of major ducts.

109
 VII. BREAST MASSES
(1) Breast cysts

Aetiology
(A) Stroma [ inter-acinar cysts ]
• Traumatic : Blood cyst.
• Inflammatory : Cold abscess (T.B) or acute abscess.
• Neoplastic : Degeneration carcinoma.
• Parasitic : Hydatid cyst.
• Miscellaneous : Skin cyst e.g. sebaceous cyst, lymphatic cyst …..etc.

(B) Duct [Acinar cysts]

• Fibrocystic disease : e.g. Cyst i.e. macrocyst
• Retention cyst : e.g. Duct papilloma
Treatment
(A) Aspiration + Cytology
(B) Excision If : 1. Rapid refilling after aspiration
2. Residual mass after aspiration
3. Bloody aspirate

(2) Solid swellings

[A] Hard masses :
1. Traumatic disease.
2. Chronic breast abscess.
3. Mammary duct ectazia.
4. Cancer breast ( Scirrhous )
[B] Soft masses :
1. Soft fibroadenoma.
2. Cystasarcoma phylloids.
3. Cancer breast ( Encephaloid or Mucinous )
[C] Firm mass :
1. Fibroadenosis.
2. Hard fibroadenoma.
N.B.: Causes of huge breast
1. Diffuse hypertrophy of breast.
2. Soft fibroadenoma.
3. Cystasarcoma phylloids.
4. Sarcoma.

110
 Q : DISCUSS DD OF BREAST LUMP ?
ANSWER :
LUMP (MASS) MAY BE CYSTIC OR SOLID (FIRM, SOFT & HARD)
(1) Breast cysts

(A) Stroma [ inter-acinar cysts ]

• Traumatic : Blood cyst.
• Inflammatory : Cold abscess (T.B) or acute abscess.
• Neoplastic : Degeneration carcinoma.
• Parasitic : Hydatid cyst.
• Miscellaneous : Skin cyst e.g. sebaceous cyst, lymphatic cyst …..etc.

(B) Duct [Acinar cysts]

• Fibrocystic disease :
e.g. Cyst i.e. (Fibroadenosis)
 Pathology :
- N/E : Localized or diffuse, unilateral or bilateral
& common at upper outer quadrant of breast.
- M/P : Adenosis, Epitheliosis, fibrosis & cyst formation
which may be microcyst or macrocyst
 C/P : - Age : After puberty or before menopause.
- Symptoms : Pain related to menses with Clear or yellow but
sometimes brown or green discharge
- Signs : Tender cystic swelling.

• Retention cyst :
e.g. Duct papilloma
 Pathology : Core of vascular C.T. covered by hyperplastic epithelium
 C/P : 30 - 40 years + bleeding per nipple with retro-areolar mass.
 Complications: Duct carcinoma
(2) Solid swellings
[A] Hard masses :
(1) Traumatic disorders
 Traumatic fat necrosis : release of fatty acids which bind to Ca
→ Ca soap i.e. Hard mass

 Breast hematoma : blood clot & Fibrosis i.e. Hard mass

111
 (2) Chronic breast abscess
 Aetiology : Follow improper treatment of acute abscess
by antibiotics so it is called Antibioma
 C/P : It represents by hard mass with nipple retraction,
peau d'orange it similar to carcinoma by characterized
by history of Antibioma

(3) Mammary duct ectazia

 Aetiology : Unknown may be due to excessive fibrosis.
 C/P : It represents by hard mass with nipple retraction,
peau d'orange it similar to carcinoma by characterized
by Creamy white or may be blood stained discharge

(4) Cancer breast (Scirrhous)

 Commonly at 40 - 60 years with one or more risk factors.
 C/P : - Symptoms : Hard mass & discovered accidentally.
- Signs : metastasis + L.Ns + Skin manifestations as
(Dimpling, puckering, cancerous nodules, Paget’s etc.).
[B] Firm mass :
(1) Fibroadenosis
As mentioned about cyst of Blood good
but it is firm mass felt by Tips of fingers.

(2) Hard fibroadenoma

 Pathology : Lobulated mass with one pedicle.
 C/P : - Age : 20 - 30 years.
- Symptoms : Firm, painless & slowly growing tumor.
- Signs : Firm ( breast mouse ) with No L.Ns.

[C] Soft masses :

(1) Soft fibroadenoma
 Pathology : Lobulated mass with multiple pedicle.
 C/P : - Age : 30 - 50 years.
- Symptoms: Soft, painless & rapidly growing tumor.
- Signs : Soft, not tender, No L.Ns & if enlarged it must
be D.D from (Cysta-sarcoma phylloides)
(2) Cancer breast (Encephaloid)
 It is large, soft, irregular & non capsulated mass.
 Prognosis : The better in prognosis than scirrhous
because of lymphocytic infiltrations.
(3) Cancer breast (Mucinous)
 It is large, soft, irregular & non capsulated mass.
 Prognosis : The best prognosis

112
 DISEASES OF MALE BREAST
Gynaecomastia
Definition
generalized enlargement of the glandular element
of the male breast.
Aetiology
 Physiological
 Infantile : from maternal sex hormones.
 Pubertal : resolves within 2 years when adult
testosterone level is reached
 Senile Gynaecomastia :
from  testicular functions with age.
 Pathological 2ry to 
  Testosterone : e.g. Orchidectomy.
  Oestrogen : e.g. Supra-renal tumor.
  Metabolism of oestrogen : e.g. Liver cell failure.
 Ectopic hormones : e.g. Bronchial carcinoma.
 Drugs: e.g. Digitalis, Cimitidin, Aldactone
 Chronic renal disease may be a cause
 Sertoli cell tumor may be a cause
Clinical picture
 Symptoms : unilateral or bilateral, tender mass (i.e. like a disc).
 Sign : Enlargement of the male breast with prominent nipple due to
hypertrophy of the glandular tissue. .
Investigations
 Hormonal profile & liver function tests .
 Biopsy if doubt of cancer.
Treatment
 Medical (mainly) : 1. Physiological : Reassurance.
2. Pathological : Treatment of the cause.
 Surgical : If persists  S.C. mastectomy.

113
 Thyroid
disorders

114
 THYROID GLAND
DISORDERS
EMBERIOLOGY

Thyroid gland appears at the 3rd week, as a median epithelial

growth at the floor of the primitive pharynx ( foramen
caecum ) = junction of anterior 2/3 & posterior 1/3 of
the tongue
then descends to the lower part of the front of the neck being
connected to the foramen caecum of tongue by
thyro-glossal duct which disappears later on.

ANATOMY
 Parts
 2 Lobes.
 Isthmus.
 Pyramidal lobe : 80 % of people is attached to hyoid
bone by levator glandulae thyroidae

 Weight 20 - 25 gm
 Level
 upwards : oblique line of the thyroid cartilage.
 isthmus : opposite 2nd & 3rd tracheal rings.
 base : at level of 4th & 5th tracheal ring

 Arterial supply
 Superior thyroid artery : from E.C.A & related to
external laryngeal nerve.
 Inferior thyroid artery : from thyro-cervical trunk of
1st part of subclavian artery & related to R.L.N.
 Thyroida ima artery : from aortic arch (occasionally
present & enters lower part of the isthmus).
 Oesophageal & tracheal arteries :
supply the medial aspect of the gland

115
 Surgical importance
 Legature of superior thyroid artery ( near ) the upper pole ( Why ? )
to avoid injury of (external laryngeal nerve) which supplies
crico-thyroid muscle
So if injury occurs :
- unilateral  loss of high pitched voice
- bilateral  chocking

 Legature of inferior thyroid artery ( away from ) the lower pole ( Why ? )
to avoid injury of (recurrent laryngeal nerve)
So if injury occurs :
- unilateral  dyspnea on exertion or hoarseness of voice
- bilateral  stridor (suffocation) which needs tracheostomy
or aphonia.

 Venous drainage
 Superior thyroid vein which drained to I.J.V
 Middle thyroid vein which drained to I.J.V
 Inferior thyroid vein which drained to innominate vein

 Lymphatic drainage
UPPER LEVEL
- Lateral : upper deep cervical L.Ns.
- Medial : pre-laryngeal L.Ns.
LOWER LEVEL
- Lateral: lower deep cervical L.Ns.
- Medial : pre- tracheal L.Ns.

 Nerves related to the gland

 External laryngeal nerve
from superior laryngeal nerve
from vagus nerve
 Recurrent laryngeal nerve
from vagus nerve
- RT. R.L.N : hooks around
Rt. subclavian artery.
- LT. R.L.N : hooks around
the arch of the aorta.

116
 Relations of the thyroid gland
A- MEDIAL SURFACE
1. Upper part
Larynx (thyroid & cricoid cartilage)
separated from them by 2 muscles
a. inferior constrictor m.
b. crico-thyroid in.
2. Lower part
trachea & esophagus
with (R.L.N) in between.
B- POSTERIOR SURFACE
1. carotid sheath & its contents
2. superior & inferior parathyroid gland
C- SUPERFICIAL SURFACE
1. superior belly of omohyoid.
2. sterno-hyoid
3. sterno-thyroid
4. anterior border of sternomastoid
5. platysma
6. skin

 Capsules of the thyroid gland

A. True fibrous capsule enveloping the gland
B. False fascial capsule ( derived from pre-tracheal fascia )
NB.: Attachment of pre-tracheal fascia
 Above : Oblique line of thyroid cartilage & hyoid bone
 Below : Superior mediastinum.
 On each side : Carotid sheath

- The fascia is thickened posteriorly forming the ligament of Berry which

fixes the back of the gland. So it allows the gland to move up & down
during deglutition).

117
 ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS

1- THE STERNOMASTOID MUSCLE

- Origin :
- Sternal head : from the manibrium sterni .
- Clavicular head : from the clavicle.
- Insertion :
at mastoid process
- Nerve supply :
Spinal part of accessory nerve.

2- THE PLATYSMA MUSCLE

- Extent :
- Above : the mandible
- Below : the manibrium sterni & clavicle
- Nerve supply :
Cervical branch of facial nerve
- Applied anatomy :
It must be closed as a separate layer or it will
becomes adherent or form ugly scar

3- STRAP MUSCLES
- Types :
 STERNOTHYROID MUSCLE
from sternum to oblique line of thyroid cartilage
 STERNOHYOID MUSCLE
from sternum to hyoid bone.
 OMOHYOID MUSCLE [ 2 heads]
- One head from the scapula .
- The other head from hyoid bone & joined
together by intermediate tendon
passing under the sternomastoid
- Nerve supply :
Ansa cervicalis which is A LOOP
formed of Ant. rami of C1,C2 &3
C1 = Descendus hypoglossi
C2 & 3 = Descendus cervicalis
- Applied anatomy :
Ansa cervicalis enter the muscles from below
SO retraction of these muscles as high
as possible during thyroidectomy

118
 HISTOLOGY
The thyroid gland is formed of acini which are
- Separated by connective tissue.
- Lined by simple cubical epithelium.
- Filled with colloid substance.

PHYSIOLOGY

 Physiological functions of the thyroid gland

THE EFFECT OF THYROID HORMONES
1. Catabolic effect : ( lipolysis - proteolysis – glycogenolysis ).
2. Metabolic effect : ( metabolic rate & energy liberation )
so, thyroid hormones are called thermogenic hormones .
3. Stimulate : ( skeletal growth, sexual maturity & mental development ).
4. Increase sensitivity of receptors for catecholamine e g. adrenaline.
so, leads to ( heart   HR, hand  tremors
& skin  sweating ).

CONGENITAL ANOMALIES
I. Lingual thyroid

 Ectopic thyroid tissue occurs at base of tongue

i.e. Failure of descent of the thyroid tissue
 IF enlarged  dyspnea, dysphagia & dysarthria.
 Investigation : Thyroid scan will establish the
absence of thyroid tissue in the normal site of the neck.
 Treatment : wedge excision or radioactive-iodine ablation
+ L-thyroxin for life.

119
 II. Thyroglossal cyst

AETIOLOGY
Remnant of thyroglossal duct.
i.e. midline tubulo-dermoid cyst
SITE
At any point of the course of thyroglossal track
( from foramen caecum to the isthmus of the gland )

N.B.: The commonest site is Just below the hyoid bone

PATHOLOGY
 The wall of cyst is lined by columnar epithelium.
 Its wall is rich in lymphatic tissue which is connected to other neck
lymphatics ( so, liable for recurrent attacks of inflammation )
 The cyst contains clear mucoid fluid rich in cholesterol crystals.
CLINICAL PICTURE
 Age : common at childhood.
 Symptoms :1. mass at middle line of neck
2. pain if infected.
3. fistula if complicated.
 Signs :1. rounded mass at middle line of neck.
2. tense & cystic in consistency.
3. moves up & down with deglutition & protrusion of tongue.
DD Subhyoid bursitis
COMPLICATION
Thyroglossal fistula
 Incidence : acquired never congenital.
 Aetiology : infection of cyst due to high lymphoid
tissue or inadequate removal of the cyst.
 Manifestations :
1. Discharge : viscid fluid or pus.
2. Firm tract : from fistula (below) to hyoid bone (above).
3.The opening : crescentic due to fibrosis from infection.
TREATMENT
Sistrunk operation
 Elliptical incision over cyst or fistula.
 Excision of cyst or fistula.
 Removal of 1. the track.
2. the centre of hyoid bone to prevent recurrence.
3. core of tissue up to foramen caecum of tongue

120
 I - SIMPLE GOITRE
Non toxic, non inflammatory, non neoplastic enlargement of the thyroid gland
( i.e. The patient is euthyroid )
Aetiology
Simple goitre is due to persistent stimulation of thyroid gland by  T.S.H which
is due to  production of thyroid hormones from :
1- Iodine deficiency which may be 
 Absolute : endemic as Oases i.e. dietary iodine deficiency.
 Relative : as puberty, pregnancy & lactation i.e.  demands.
2- Enzyme deficiency Pendred's syndrome
 congenital deficiency of peroxidase enzyme
which converts inorganic I2 into organic I2.
C/P : goitre + dwarfism + deafness & mutism
3- Goiterogenic substance
 Diet : thiocyanates in cabbage & cauliflower.
 Drugs : antithyroid drugs as thiouracil which interfere with iodine uptake
or hormone synthesis
Types
(1) Physiological ( diffuse hyperplastic ) goitre .
(2) Colloid goitre .
(3) Simple nodular goitre.

121
 1- Physiological goitre

Diffuse hyperplastic goitre

Incidence common in young girls u Venus neck "

Aetiology Stress " relative I2 deficiency as puberty, pregnancy
& lactation i.e.  demands.
Pathogenesis " Diffuse hyperplasia "
Stress   TSH from ant. pituitary  diffuse hyperplasia & hypertrophy
So the change is
From cubical  to columnar

So cut section shows fleshy brown appearance with little colloid.

Clinical picture diffuse enlargement + ( smooth, soft & symmetrical )
Fate return back to normal if stress is corrected
But If untreated, it may passes into S.N.G
Treatment Reassurance + L.thyroxin 0.2 mg/d (several months)
then 0.1 mg/d (several years).

2- Colloid goitre
[ It is Intermediate stage between diffuse hyperplasic & nodular goiter ]

Incidence common in endemic area.

Aetiology patient with ( diffuse hyperplasic goiter ) receiving large doses of iodine.
Pathogenesis " Hyperinvolution "
If the aetiology is removed suddenly as large dose of Iodine is taken.
this leads to hyperinvolution.
So the change is
from cubical or columnar  to flat

So cut section shows golden brown appearance with excess colloid

Clinical picture Irregular enlargement & soft in consistency

Fate If untreated, it may passes into S.N.G
Treatment Subtotal thyroidectomy.

122
 3- Simple Nodular Goitre
( S.N.G )
Incidence (The commonest disease of thyroid gland)
 Age : middle aged.
 Sex : female > male.
Aetiology See before
Types It may be single or multinodular
Pathology
 Repeated cycles of hyperplasia & involution
 The nodules are inactive.

Complications
A- In the gland itself
1. Cyst formation i.e. Hge in cyst.
- consider emergency case because of sudden compression on trachea
 reflex spasm of pre-tracheal muscles  impending suffocation.
- Treatment : 1. aspiration.
2. incision in skin & deep fascia allowing the gland
releasing the trachea until thyroidectomy is done.
2. Calcification on long standing.
3. Carcinoma [ follicular type 3 % ].
4. 2ry thyrotoxicosis [ 30 % ].
5. ( R.S.E ) Retro Sternal Extension more in males due to short neck
& strong neck muscles.
6. Carotid artery displacement
 fainting attacks due to  blood supply to brain
B- pressure on trachea
1. unilateral compression  kinking of trachea.
2. bilateral compression  antero-posterior slit  scabbard trachea
3. Tracheomalacia ( Chondromalacia )
absorption of tracheal rings  collapse post-operatively

Clinical picture
 Symptoms : slowly enlarged neck swelling
i.e. disfigurement or pictures of complications.
 Signs:
A- General examination
▪ Exclude toxicity ( Pulse, ABP, Eye signs ... etc )
▪ Exclude metastasis ( Liver, Bone, Lung & Brain )

123
 B- Local examination

INSPECTION
usually single in number, localized or diffused in shape, variable in
size, nodular surface, normal skin over ( except dilated vein with
R.S.E ). It can moves up & down with deglutition ( except with R.S.E )
as special sign, well defined edge & the lower border can be seen
( except with R.S.E ), the trachea is not shifted ( except with R.S.E )
PALPATION
not tender except if infected & the lower border can be felt ( except with
R.S.E ), firm in consistency ( hard if calcified or cystic if Hge in cyst )
PERCUSSION
on manubrium sterni : normally resonant ( except dull with R.S.E ).
AUSCULTATION
No murmur except if complicated by 2ry toxic goiter
Investigations
1. Thyroid scan with Tc99 :
show heterogenous uptake all over the gland
2. Thyroid function tests :
to exclude toxicity.
3. Plain X-ray ;
may show calcification & tracheal deviation.
4. Neck U/S :
to detect cystic from solid lesions & can also detect R.S.E
Treatment
 Indicated with 
1. cosmetic disfigurement.
2. R.S.E
3. pressure ( if huge ).
4. suspicion of malignancy.
 So if solitary nodule : hemi-thyroidectomy = lobectomy + isthmusectomy
but if multinodular : subtotal thyroidectomy, leaving about 8 gm of relatively
normal thyroid ( size of a normal lobe) on each side.

N.B.:1. We leave postero-medial part to preserve parathyroid & R.L.N

2. All operations followed by L-thyroxin 50 – 100 ug/d
3. Surgery is not advised below 25 year to avoid recurrence.

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 RETROSTERNAL GOITRE
Goiter in superior mediastinum
Types ( 3 Varieties )
1. Mediastinal goitre
which lie in the superior mediastinum, but still derive its blood
supply from thyroid vessels in the neck.
2. Intrathoracic goitre
which lie in the superior mediastinum, but derive its blood
supply from mediastinal vessels i.e. ectopic thyroid
3. Plunging goitre
which lie in the superior mediastinum, but rise in the neck
during deglutition & then descend again.
Clinical picture
 Type of patient : more common with male
due to short neck & strong muscle.
 Symptoms : Mediastinal syndrome
( dyspnea, dysphagia & congested neck veins )
 Signs : 1. Inspection :
- dilated superficial veins on neck & chest
due to obstruction of the innominate veins
- lower border can't be seen.
- trachea may be shifted.
2. Palpation : lower border can't be felt.
3. Percussion : dullness over manubrium sterni
 Special test : ( Pamberton's sign )
ask patient to raise up arms & keep this position for
a while  congestion of face due to obstruction of
great veins & trachea at thoracic inlet
Investigations
1. X-ray chest : shows soft tissue shadow
& shifting of the trachea.
2. CT scan chest : more accurate.
3. Thyroid scan with Tc99 : diagnostic
Treatment
 Preoperative preparation by Inderal, especially with toxic R.S.E
N.B.: Antithyroid drugs are contraindicated because   size of gland
 Operative procedures
1. Try to deliver it to neck after devascularisation of the gland & remove
it like usual thyroidectomy
2. If failed  piecemeal removal.
3. If failed  median sternotomy ( Rarely used )

125
 II - TOXIC GOITRE
Thyrotoxicosis

1. 1ry toxic 2. 2ry toxic 3. Toxic nodule 4. Rare types

75 % 15 % 5% 5%

1. 1ry toxic = Diffuse toxic = Exopthalmic goitre = Grave's disease

 Aetiology :
- It is an autoimmune disease initiated by IgG antibodies
stimulating T.S.H receptors on a previously normal gland
 release of C-AMP   production of T4
N.B. : L.A.T.S = Long Acting Thyroid Stimulator
is one of these IgG
-The disease is often precipitated by stress
e.g. psychic trauma, emotional stress & acute infection.
 Affect : 20 - 40 years.
 Characterized by diffuse enlargement + ( smooth, soft & symmetrical )
 Mass occurs at same time of toxicity.
 +ve Eye signs & Reticulo-endothelial system hyperplasia. e.g. spleen & L.Ns.

2. 2ry Toxic = Nodular goitre = Plummer's disease

 Aetiology :
- It is a complicated simple nodular goitre
N.B.: The nodules are inactive & inter-nodular tissue is the only active part
 Affect : 40 - 50 years.
 Characterized by localized enlargement ( firm, nodular & asymmetrical )
 Mass occur before time of toxicity.
 Extremely rare Eye signs.

3. Toxic nodule
 It is a solitary (overactive) nodule.
 It is autonomous because hypertrophy & hyperplasia not
affected by T.S.H.
 Investigation : Thyroid scan shows Hot nodule.
because T.S.H secretion is suppressed by the high
levels of circulating thyroid hormones  so the normal
thyroid tissues surrounding the toxic nodule are suppressed
 Treatment : Hemi-thyroidectomy after control of toxicity by inderal.

126
 Don’t forget
 Rare types of toxic goitres
1. Neonatal thyrotoxicosis : newborn of thyrotoxic mothers.
2. Thyrotoxicosis factitia : due to excess intake of L. thyroxin.
3. Jod-Basedow thyrotoxicosis : due to large dose of iodine given to
hyperplastic gland  temporary  T4
4. Hashitoxicosis : 5 % of hashimoto's thyroiditis in early stages are thyrotoxic
5. Decurvan's thyroiditis : due to libration of hormones from destroyed tissue
6. Functioning carcinoma.
7. TSH secreting adenoma of the pituitary gland.

Clinical picture
 Age :
- 1ry toxic goitre ( 20 - 40 years )
- 2ry toxic goitre ( 40 - 50 years )
 Symptoms :
The term Thyrotoxicosis is better used than hyperthyroidism,
as not all manifestations due to  thyroid hormones
e.g. True exophthalmos or pertibial myxodema

 Metabolic : 1. loss of weight inspite of good appetite

2. Intolerance to hot weather.
3. excessive sweating.
 C.V.S : Palpitation even ( at rest ) if there is heart
failure, the patient complains of orthopnea
& bilateral edema at both lower limbs.
 Chest : exertional dyspnea.
 C.N.S : 1. fine tremors of tongue & hand
2. irritability & anxiety
3. insomnia.
 G.I.T : polyphagia + diarrhea.
 Urinary : polyuria
N.B.: Causes of polyuria in this case :
• Glucosuria.
•  Metabolic water.
•  Water intake 2ry to polyphagia.
•  Renal blood flow.
 Skeletal : generalized bone aches, i.e. osteoporosis.
 General : diplopia of eye or corneal ulceration.
 Gonadal :1. impotence in male.
2. menstrual disturbance in female.

127
 1ry Toxic Goitre 2ry Toxic Goitre

 Age 20 – 40 years 40 -50 years.

 Exophthalmos true apparent

 Metabolic +++ +
+ +++
 C.V.S & Chest +++ +
 C.N.S

 Signs :
A. Vital signs
1. Temp. (  ) With toxic goitre.

2. Pulse rate :
“ Tachycardia, irregular, large volume, equal on both side
& water hummer pulse as special characters.” because of
(  systole &  diastole ).
N.B.: 1. All types of arrhythmia can occur except heart block.
2. Sleep pulse means examination of pulse during sleep
= > 90 /min
the value to exclude anxiety & for follow up.

3. A.B.P (  systole &  diastole ).

4. R.R may be increased

B. General examination
A = Appearance normal
B = Built under built
C = Conscious conscious
D = Decubitus orthopnea If heart failure occur
E = Emotion irritable & alert
F = Face staring look

128
C. Systemic examination
I. HEAD
1. Face : flushed face.
2. Tongue : tremors ( N.B.: unsupported tongue ).
3. Eye : 1.Tremors in upper eve lid.
2. Eye signs (see later).
3. Exophthalmos 
EXOPHTHALMOS

AETIOLOGY
Unknown cause but may be due to E.P.S.
( Exophthalmos Producing Substance )
TYPES
1. False :
due to retraction of the upper eye lids due to contraction of
muller's muscle ( part of levator palpebrae superiors muscle )
which innervated by sympathetic supply. so  thyroxin
  sensitivity to catecholamines

2. True :
(A) Moderate :
• actual protrusion of eye ball.
• due to deposition of retro-orbital fluid
• the condition is aggravated by ophthalmic
vein compression  lid oedema & corneal ulceration
(B) Malignant :
• severe progressive form of exophthalmos.
• due to weakness of extra-occular muscles.
• the condition leads to  corneal opacities,
optic atrophy  may end in blindness.
HOW TO EXAMINE EXOPHTHALMOS
A- To show true or false
1. Naffziger test to see (the level of supra & infra-orbital ridges)
the examiner stands behind the patient,
with the head tilted backwards.
In true exophthalmos :
supra & infra not in same plane
2. Russell Frazer’s test to see (the obliteration of sulcus of
supra-orbital margin with slight closed eye
. the examiner stands at side of the patient
In true exophthalmos :
obliteration of the supra-orbital margin

129
 3. Ruler test to see (the level of supra & infra-orbital ridge)
by using a Ruler
In true exophthalmos :
The ruler will reach the cornea
B- To determine the degree
The distance between lateral orbital margin & apex of cornea is
measured by a Ruler or Exophthalmometer (Normally = l5 -17m)

HOW TO EXAMINE EYE SIGNS

1. STELLWAG'S SIGN
Staring look with Infrequent blinking
( Normally = 5 - 8 Times/min )
2. VON GRAEFE’S SIGN
Lid lag when the patient looks down &
while the head is fixed
3. DALRYMPLE'S SIGN
appearance of rim of sclera above the
cornea when the patient looks down &
while the head is fixed
4. JOFFROY'S SIGN
Loss of wrinkling of the forehead when
the patient looks up & while the head is fixed
5. MOEBIUS SIGN
Lack of convergence on looking at near object.

II. UPPER LIMB

For 1. Tremors of hands i.e. fine tremors
2. Exaggerated reflexes.
3. Warm sweaty hands.
4. Myopathy of proximal limb muscles.

III. LOWER LIMB

For Pretibial myxedema which is 
 Multiple yellow patches of the skin over shin of tibia.
 due to mucin deposition not due to  T3 or T4
 may be associated with clubbing of fingers & toes
= Thyroid acropathy ( more common with 1ry toxic )
IV. CHEST
For heart examination shows  heart sounds
V. ABDOMEN
For liver & spleen enlargement may be associated with 1ry toxic goitre

130
 D. Local examination

1ry Toxic Goitre 2ry Toxic Goiter

Grave's disease Plummer's disease
symmetrical, soft & smooth Asymmetrical, firm & nodular

INVESTIGATIONS
[A] Thyroid function tests.
[B] Radioactive I123 or Tc99 studies.
[C] Other investigations.

A. Thyroid function tests

[1] MEASUREMENT OF SERUM THYROID HORMONES
 Total serum T4 = 55 – 150 nmol/l
 Total serum T3 = 1.2 – 3.1 nmol/l
 Free serum T4 = 8 – 26 pmol/l
 Free serum T3 = 3 – 9 pmol/l
Total serum hormones are not accurate as they affected by fluctuation of
serum level of plasma proteins.
So may by - False high with  ptn as in pregnancy.
- False low with  ptn as in nephrotic syndrome.
So measurement of free T3 & T4 are more accurate

N.B: T3 Thyrotoxicosis which is 

 High T3 & Normal T4

[2] ESTIMATION OF TRH IN SERUM

Depressed levels of TRH are of value in early detection of hyperthyroidism

[3] ESTIMATION OF TSH IN SERUM

Depressed levels of TSH are of value in early detection of hyperthyroidism

[4] MEASUREMENT OF FREE BINDING SITES FOR THYROID HORMONES

IN THE BLOOD ( T3 Uptake test )

Radioactive T3 is incubated with the patient's serum  T3 will bind to the

free thyroid binding proteins  estimate the number of free binding sites
in the serum.
So May by - Low with hyperthyroidism ( thyrotoxicosis ).
- High with hypothyroidism ( myxedema ).

131
[B] Radioactive I123 studies or Tc99
[1] RADIOACTIVE IODINE UPTAKE TEST
- Following an oral dose of 5 uci
- The percentage of uptake of radioactive material by thyroid gland is
measured at 4 hours ( normal uptake = 11 – 55 % of tracer dose )
So in Hyperthyroidism :
 Thyroid uptake > 55 % at 4 hours

[2] THYROID SCAN

- After injection of I123 ( half life = 11 hours )
or Tc99 a scan of the thyroid gland is obtained.
- It allows evaluation of the functional activity of the different areas
of the gland, wether normal ( warm )
or hyperactive ( hot )
or non functioning ( cold ).
- The principle value is in identifying an autonomous toxic nodule

Left
Right lobe
lobe
hot
nodule

e.g. Thyroid scan shows Hot nodule.

because T.S.H secretion is suppressed by the high levels of
circulating thyroid hormones  so the normal thyroid tissues
surrounding the nodule are suppressed

[C] Others
1. ECG to exclude arrhythmia.
2. Blood sugar & urine analysis for glucosuria.
3. Thyroid antibodies titer ( L.A.T.S ) increased with 1ry toxic goitre

132
TREATMENT
1ry 2ry Toxic nodule

Medical ttt main treatment as pre-operative ---------

preparation
Surgical ttt  Failure of med. ttt main treatment Hemi-thyroidectomy
 Recurrent. ( Isthmusectomy +
 Huge in size. lobectomy )
I131 Radiotherapy If patient > 25 years. ---------- main treatment

(A) Medical treatment

INDICATIONS
1. 1ry toxic goitre: all cases.
2. 2ry toxic goitre : as pre-operative preparation.
3. Children : No surgery because of "  risk of recurrence ".
4. Refusal of operation or bad general condition.
CONTRAINDICATIONS
1. Solitary toxic nodule " because it is non hormonal dependent ".
2. Retrosternal goitre " because anti-thyroid drugs leads to
 size of the gland ".
3. Pregnancy because antithyroid drugs affects fetus
4. Lactation leads to cretenoid goitre

LINE OF TREATMENT
1. Mental & physical rest.
2. Sedatives & tranquilizers.
3.  Blocker
e.g. Propranolol ( Inderal )
 Action : - blocks the peripheral adrenergic features of  T4 .
- partially  conversion of T4  T3.
 Dose : 10 - 40 mg t.d.s. orally.
4. Antithyroid drugs :
A- Carbimazole ( Neomercazole )
 Action : - prevents oxidation of inorganic iodine,
- interfere with binding of I2 & tyrosine.
- immunosuppressive on thyroid antibodies.
 Dose : 10 mg / 8h. orally till euthyroid state
then 5 mg / 8h. orally for 1-1.5 years.
 Onset : after 7 - 14 days
This means the already formed T3 & T4 are not affected

133
  Side effects :
(1) Aplastic anemia.
(2) Agranulocytosis :
- C/P : sore throat & fever are early signs.
- ttt : stop the drug, fresh blood transfusion
& vit. B12 to stimulate bone marrow.
B- Propyl Thiouracil
 Action : as carbimazole +  conversion of T4  T3
 Dose : 100 mg t.d.s till euthyroid state
then a maintenance dose 50 mg/d.
 Side effects :
(1) Bone marrow depression.
(2) G.I.T disturbance.
(3) Joint pain.
C- K PerchIorate
 Action : It interferes with I2 trapping & very safe with children.
 Dose : 200 - 300 mg / 8h.

(B) Surgical treatment

INDICATIONS
1. 1ry toxic goitre : - Failure of medical treatment.
- Recurrence after medical treatment.
- Huge in size.
2. 2ry toxic goitre :The main treatment,
3. Solitary toxic nodule i.e. Hemi-thyroidectomy.
PRE-OPERATIVE PREPARATION

A- Neomercazole till reach the euthyroid state ( for 2-3 months )

then Lugol's Iodine ( 5 % Iodine + 10 % KI in water)
 Action :
 protease enzyme   storage of colloid &  vascularity,
so the thyroid is easier to handle ( firm & less vascular )
 Dose :
5-15 drops t.d.s for 10 days before operation .
 Drawback :
action can't be maintained for > 2 weeks .
 Side effects :
(1) skin rashes.
(2) excessive salivation.
(3) parotid enlargement.
B- Inderal 40 mg ( 3 Times / day )
1 week pre-operative & continued for 1 week after

134
OPERATIONS
 Solitary toxic nodule :
Hemi-thyroidectomy = lobectomy + isthmusectomy
 1ry & 2ry toxic goitre :
Subtotal thyroidectomy, leaving 1/8 of the gland
POST - OPERATIVE FOLLOW UP
1. indirect laryngoscope before hospital discharge.
2. serum ca+ after 6 weeks.
3. serum T3 & T4 every 6 months to detect recurrence or myxedema.

(C) Radioactive Iodine

INDICATIONS
1. 1ry toxic goitre > 25 years.
2. Solitary toxic nodule : The main treatment,
3. Recurrence after surgical ttt.
4. Poor general condition.
CONTRAINDICATIONS
1. Iodine allergy.
2. Young to prevent risk of carcinoma.

3. Pregnancy
to prevent risk on fetus
4. Lactation
LINE OF TREATMENT
Radio-Iodine I131 ( half life = 8 days )
 Action : I131  destruction of thyroid cells by beta particles
 sub-lethal damage.
 Dose : 160 uci /1gm thyroid tissue.
 Onset : 2-5 months.
If no improvement after 3 months, further dose is given
 Side effects:
(1) Myxedema ( 80 % after 10 years ).
(2) Thyroid carcinoma ( after 10 - 15 years ).
(3) Leukemia.

(D) Special problems

[A] THYROTOXICOSIS WITH PREGNANCY
 Medical ttt : No to avoid fetal hypothyroidism.
N.B: Propyl thiouracil is safe during lactation as it
secreted in a very low concentration in milk
 Surgical ttt : Indicated in 2nd & 3rd trimester.
so we give minimal dose of propranolol before surgery.
 Radio-Iodine I131 : No to avoid destruction of fetal thyroid.

135
[B] THYROTOXICOSIS WITH CHILDREN
 Medical ttt : the Ideal until the age of 25 years.
 Surgical ttt : No to avoid high risk of recurrence.
 Radio-Iodine I131 : No to avoid high risk of malignancy.

[C] THYROCARDIAC PATIENT

 Medical ttt : as preoperative preparation only.
 Surgical ttt : the Ideal.
 Radio-Iodine I131 : No except for unfit patient for surgery.

[D] PROGRESSIVE EXOPHTHALMOS

 It is not advisable to terminate thyrotoxicosis by surgery or radio-
iodine for fear of a theoretical risk of progressing exophthalmos, so give
anti-thyroid drugs until the condition is stable for 6 months.
 Surgical ttt :
[ if malignant exophthalmos ]
lateral tarsorrhaphy to protect the cornea.

[E] THYROTOXIC CRISIS ( THYROID STORM )

 Incidence :
Rare nowadays, because of good preparation & control
of toxicity before operation.
 Manifestations:
 Symptoms : muscular excitability up to convulsion.
 Signs :
(a) Temp. = hyperpyrexia up to 41°C or more.
(b) Pulse = irregular & rapid up to 160/min or more.
(c) A.B.P. =  (systole & diastole)  heart failure.
 Treatment :
[ should be urgent ]
 Ice Packs  to limb, head & abdomen   pyrexia.
 Morphia  sedation for convulsions.
 A.B.  to prevent chest infection.
 O2 Inhalation & I.V (hydrocortisone) 25 mg.
 Beta blocker ( inderal ) :
I.V drips in glucose under ECG screen
till pulse reach normal level
 Lugol’s I2 3cc in I000 cc glucose solution.

136
 III – TUMORS OF THYROID GLAND

1. Benign 2. Malignant

Follicular
adenoma

90 % 6% 4%
Adenocarcinoma Medullary Malignant
carcinoma lymphoma

60 % 17 % 13 %
Papillary Follicular Anaplastic

1- Benign tumors
Follicular adenoma
 Represent as a solitary nodule.
 Complicated by follicular carcinoma.
 Investigation [ histopathological examination ]
to detect evidence of invasion to capsule i.e. malignancy.
 Treatment (Hemi-thyroidectomy) lobectomy + isthmusectomy

N.B.: Papillary adenoma ( most pathologist consider it as malignant )

so there is nothing called papillary adenoma.

2- Malignant goiter

1- PREDISPOSING FACTORS
 S.N.G complicated by carcinoma
i.e. follicular carcinoma.
 Follicular adenoma  follicular carcinoma.
 Irradiation to neck in children with T.B. lymphadenitis.
i.e. papillary carcinoma.
 Hashimoto's thyroiditis  papillary carcinoma
or lymphoma.
N.B.: Anaplastic carcinoma usually occurs de novo.

137
2- TYPES OF CARCINOMA

Papillary Follicular Anaplastic

 Incidence 60 % 17 % 13 %

 Age children & young middle Age elderly

 Sex ( F : M ) 3.5 :1 2:1 1 : 1.3

localized & slowly iII defined large & rapidly

 N/E picture growing nodule. & irregular tumor. growing tumor.

 Microscopic
picture
- cystic area with - thyroid follicles with - clusters of spindle
papillary projections. variable degree of cells which are
- composed of C.T differentiation. small or giant cells.
center & covered - vascular & capsular - separated by little
with malignant cells invasion. fibrous tissue.
- scattered ca. called - local infiltration is
Psammoma bodies seen
 Differentiation Differentiated Differentiated Undifferentiated
mainly lymphatic mainly blood mainly direct
"lateral aberrant especially Bone.
 Spread thyroid" = thyroid with
neck L.Ns metastasis.
+ve -ve -ve
- It means multiple foci
in same or other
 Multiplicity lobe.
- due to intra-thyroid
lymphatic spread
i.e. multicenteric
 Behaviour
- Hormonal
dependency +ve -ve -ve

- I131 uptake -ve +ve -ve

- Response to -ve -ve +ve

irradiation
 Prognosis the best less favorable very poor

10-year survival 90% 70 % die within 1-2 years.

138
N.B: Medullary carcinoma
 Incidence : 6 %
 Origin : parafollicular (C) cells secreting calcitonin.
 Spread : 50 % are lymphatic spread.

Some tumors are familial

so form part of MEN type IIa ( Sipple's syndrome ) which is
[ Medullary ca.+ Pheochromocytoma + Hyperparathyroidism ]

N.B : MEN ( Multiple Endocrinal Neoplasia ) syndrome

1- MEN type I ( Wermer's syndrome ) which is 
[ Pituitary ca.+ Gastrinoma + Hyperparathyroidism ]

2- MEN type II (Sipple's syndrome) which is 

Type IIa
[ Medullary ca.+ Pheochromocytoma + Hyperparathyroidism ]
Type IIb
[ Medullary ca.+ Mucosal neuroma + Hyperparathyroidism ]

 Manifestation : diarrhea in 30% due to 5HT ( 5 hydroxy tryptamine )

also may be due to  PGs, produced by tumor cells.
 Investigation :  level of calcitonin in blood.
 Treatment : Total thyroidectomy + selective neck node dissection.

N.B: Lymphoma
 Incidence : 4 %
 Origin : Lymphoid elements.
may be predisposed by hashimoto's thyroiditis.
 Treatment : Radiotherapy & chemotherapy.
 Prognosis : good prognosis.

3. Staging T.N.M Staging

T = Tumor N = Nodes M = Metastasis

T1 = < 1 cm. N0 = No palpable L.Ns. M0 = No
T2 = 1- 4 cm N1 = palpable L.Ns. distant metastasis
T3 = > 4 cm M1 =
T4 = Extension to the thyroid capsule Distant metastasis

139
4- CLINICAL PICTURE
 Age : usually > 50 Years.
 Symptoms :
- Rapid increase in size with short duration.
- Pain is related to swelling or referred to ear.
i.e. Arnold nerve ( branch from vagus nerve )
- Metastasis as [ Liver, Bone, Lung, Brain ].
- Symptoms of infiltrations 
• Trachea  dyspnea.
• Oesophagus  dysphagia but ( rare )
• Sympathetic chain  Horner's syndrome.
( ptosis, myosis, enophthalmos, anhydrosis )
• Carotid artery  postural fainting.
• Internal Jugular vein  oedema of face.
• Recurrent laryngeal nerve  may be
- Hoarseness of voice if unilateral affection.
- Stridor if bilateral affection.
 Signs :
[A] General examination
• Examine for metastasis e.g. bony swelling.
[B] Local examination
• Swelling is Tender, Hard, Irregular, Enlarged & Fixed
• "Berry's sign" = absent carotid pulsation, due to infiltration
of carotid sheath in advanced cases.
• L.Ns ( enlarged, hard, 1st mobile later on fixed )
N.B.: Some patients represent 1st by L.Ns in the neck
i.e. occult carcinoma = papillary carcinoma.

5- INVESTIGATIONS
[A] Laboratory for tumor markers
  Serum calcitonin = medullary carcinoma.
  Thyroglobulin = differentiated carcinoma.
[B] Diagnostic procedures
1- Radioactive I123 scan  cold nodule.
N.B.: DD cold nodule on scan :
1. malignant tumor.
2. benign tumor.
3. simple nodule.

140
 2- C.T scan & M.R.I
3- Neck U/S :
To DD cyst ( papillary carcinoma ) from solid.
If cystic do aspiration 
N.B.: Criteria of malignant aspirate :
1- hemorrhagic.
2- residual mass.
3- rapid re-accumulation of fluid.
4- +ve cytology for malignant cells.
4- Biopsy :
• Pre-operative L.N biopsy :
For enlarged cervical lymph node.
• FNAC : accurate with papillary carcinoma.
• Excision biopsy i.e. Hemi-thyroidectomy.
• Frozen biopsy i.e. during the operation
[C] Detection of distant metastasis
 Lung : X-ray.
 Bone : Bone scan (mainly with follicular carcinoma).
 Liver : Abdominal U/S.
 Brain : ( Extremely rare ) so no investigations are done.
[D] Detection of complications
 Laryngoscopy for R.L.N invasion.
 Bronchoscopy for tracheal invasion.
 Oesophagoscopy for oesophageal invasion.
6- TREATMENT
I. Operable " Total thyroidectomy "
 Indications :
1. Papillary carcinoma : because it is multicenteric.
2. Follicular carcinoma .
3. Early anaplastic carcinoma.
4. Medullary carcinoma.
 Post-operative :
L.thyroxin 0.1-0.2 mg/day as replacement therapy.
 Preservation of :
1. R.L.N.
2. at least one of parathyroid gland.
 Removal of L.Ns :
1. If no L.Ns or If few L.Ns : selective picking of L.Ns.
2. If extensive L.Ns : block dissection of L.Ns.
 Post-operative follow up :
every 6 months by thyroid scanning, clinical exam. & tumor marker
to detect local recurrence.

141
 II. inoperable
 Criteria of inoperability :
1. unfit for surgery e.g. cardiac disease.
2. patient with metastasis.
 Indications :
1. anaplastic carcinoma.
2. infiltration to vital structures with papillary or follicular carcinoma.
MANAGEMENT
 Palliative isthmusectomy ( rarely ) if tracheal compression
 According to types ;
- Papillary : give L.thyroxin.
- Follicular : I131 uptake
- Anaplastic : give Ext. radiation.
 Treatment of complications as :
- Tracheostomy if tracheal invasion.
- Gastrostomy if oesophageal invasion.
7- PROGNOSIS Bad prognosis if 
1. Age of patient : male > 40 years & female > 50 years.
2. Size of lesion > 5 cm.
3. Distant metastasis.
4. Presence of capsular or vascular invasion microscopically.

THYROIDECTOMY
 INDICATIONS
I. Subtotal thyroidectomy ( Removal of 7/8 of the gland )
 Main treatment of 2ry toxic goiter.
 1ry toxic goiter with a. Failure of medical ttt.
b. Recurrent after medical ttt.
c. Huge in size .
 SNG i.e Multi-nodular goiter
 Hashimoto's thyroiditis
II. Hemi-thyroidectomy ( Unilateral lobectomy )
 Toxic Nodule.
 Adenoma of thyroid gland .
 SNG i.e. Single nodule.
III. Total thyroidectomy Malignant goiter.
IV. Isthmusectomy
 Anaplastic carcinoma.
 Riedel's thyroiditis.
 Nodule in the isthmus
V. Near total thyroidectomy
It means ( Lobectomy + isthmusectomy + near total Lobectomy )

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 Complications after thyroidectomy
1. Recurrent laryngeal nerve injury :
 causes : pressure on the nerve by
1. oedema & blood clot.
2. accidentally ligated.
 manifestations :
If • unilateral paralysis  hoarseness of voice & dyspnea.
• bilateral paralysis  stridor & suffocation.

2. External laryngeal nerve injury ;

 cause :
accidentally ligated during ligation of superior thyroid vessels
 manifestations : loss of high pitched voice.
3. Respiratory obstruction :
 causes :
1. Laryngeal edema due to trauma by the endo-tracheal tube.
2. Bilateral recurrent laryngeal nerve injury.
3. A tension hematoma in the deep cervical space.
2.Tracheal collapse due to tracheomalacia.
4. Post-operative thyroid crisis ( Thyroid storm ) ( see before )
5. Hypo-parathyroidism :
 cause :
1. removal of all parathyroid gland.
2. interrupt their blood supply.
 manifestations :
- latent ( Ca+ =7 – 9 mg % )
 Chevestic's sign
& Trousseau's sign
- manifest ( Ca+ < 7 mg % )
 carpo-pedal spasm .
 treatment : slow I.V ca gluconate 10 cc 10 %.
6. Hypothyroidism :
Removal of too much thyroid tissue. ( It needs replacement therapy )
7. Reactionary hemorrhage :
 cause : result from continuous oozing ( bad haemostasis ).
 manifestations : suffocation.
 treatment : urgent opened wound in bed.
8. Adherent Scar :
scar adherent to the trachea.
9. Increase of exophthalmos i.e. progressive
10. Recurrence of hyperthyroidism :
because of inadequate removal or hyperplasia of that has been left.

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 IV- THYROIDITIS
A- Inflammatory Thyroiditis

ACUTE BACTERIAL THYROIDITIS

 Cause : rare follows bacterial infection of mouth, pharynx & L.Ns.
 Manifestations : acute onset of severe neck pain & fever ( chills ).
 Investigations : -  T.L.C (Total Leucocytic Count).
 Treatment : Antibiotics + draining of abscess which is rarely formed.

SUBACUTE VIRAL THYROIDITIS " De Quervain's thyroiditis "

 Cause : viral infection e.g. mumps or measles.
 Manifestations : 1. incidious onset of neck pain, fever ( no chills )
2. the gland is slightly tender ( pain radiates to ear )
 Investigations : - T.L.C (Total Leucocytic Count).
- Thyroid function tests :  production of T4
 Treatment : Anti-inflammatory with sever cases

B- Autoimmune Thyroiditis
HASHIMOTO'S THYROIDITIS
 Manifestations : mild hyperthyroidism due to destruction of thyroid
follicles  release of T4 in blood.
N.B.: It may be complicated by
 Hypofunction i.e. excess follicular destruction.
 Carcinoma i.e. papillary carcinoma or lymphoma.
 Investigations : 1.  Thyroid antibodies titer.
2. Biopsy to DD from carcinoma.
 Treatment : 1. Replacement therapy by L.thyroxin if hypofunction
2. Subtotal thyroidectomy if leading to pressure symptoms.

C- Riedel's Thyroiditis
COLLAGEN DISEASE only 0.5 %
 Manifestations : 1. hard (woody) gland from excessive fibrosis.
2. infiltration to surroundings.
 Investigation : Biopsy to DD from anaplastic carcinoma.
 Treatment : 1. Replacement therapy by L.thyroxin if hypofunction
2. Palliative isthmusectomy to free the trachea from compression

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 V- SOLITARY THYROID NODULE
DEFINITION
A goitre which clinically appears to be a single nodule.
which may be 
1. True solitary : If one nodule is felt & the rest of the gland is not felt.
2. Dominant : If one nodule is felt & the rest of the gland is slightly felt.
AETIOLOGY
1. Simple nodule.
2. Toxic nodule.
3. Adenoma.
4. Carcinoma.
5. Colloid nodule.
FINDINGS THAT RAISE SUSPICION OF MALIGNANCY
1. History of previous irradiation.
2. Elderly patient.
3. Recent onset & rapid growth.
4. Pain.
5. If the nodule is hard, irregular, with limited mobility.
6. Presence of local invasion or lymphatic or blood metastasis.
INVESTIGATIONS
[A] Laboratory :
 Thyroid function tests :  in thyrotoxicosis & functioning carcinoma.
[B] Thyroid scan :
 Hot nodule = Toxic nodule and possibility of malignancy is excluded.
 Cold nodule = The possibility of malignancy is 10 - 16 %
 Warm nodule = Adenoma & the possibility of malignancy is 3.5 %
[C] Neck U/S :
 To differentiate cyst from solid
[D] Biopsy :
1. FNAC :
It is very useful in papillary tumor but can't differentiate
benign adenoma from carcinoma as they need histo-pathology.
2. True cut needle biopsy ( another option ).
It obtains a core of tissue for histo-pathology.
But It may cause hematoma
3. Excision biopsy :
The only diagnostic with Hemi-thyroidectomy

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TREATMENT According to the underlying aetiology :
1. If cyst  aspiration  if malignant criteria as 
1- hemorrhagic. 3- rapid re-accumulation of fluid.
2- residual mass 4- +ve cytology for malignant cells
 proceed to total thyroidectomy.
2. If benign condition  Lobectomy is enough.
a- Simple nodule = hemithyroidectomy
b- Toxic nodule = Hemithyroidectomy after
control of toxcicity by indral only
Propranolol ( Inderal )
 Action : Blocks the peripheral adrenergic
features of  T4
 Dose : 10 - 40 mg t.d.s. orally.
3. If malignant condition  Total thyroidectomy
I. Operable " Total thyroidectomy "
 Post-operative : L.thyroxin 0.1-0.2 mg/day as
replacement therapy
 Preservation of : . R.L.N. & at least one of parathyroid gland.
 Removal of L.Ns : selective picking of L.Ns.
II. inoperable  According to types ;
- Papillary : give L.thyroxin.
- Follicular : I131 uptake
- Anaplastic : give Ext. radiation.

Algorithm for the management of a solitary thyroid nodule

Clinical evaluation + Thyroid function tests

Euthyroid Toxic nodule

U/S Surgery
Cystic Solid

Aspirate U/S guided biopsy

IF

Malignant Benign

Total Lobectomy
thyroidectomy

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 PARATHYROID GLANDS

HYPERPARATHYROIDISM

AETIOLOGY
( 3 Types )
1. 1ry hyperparathyroidism (The commonest variety)
it is due to single adenoma 85 %, multiple adenoma
4 % or hyperplasia 10 % or carcinoma 1 % .

2. 2ry Hyperparathyroidism
2ry parathyroid hyperplasia due to hypocalcaemic states
e.g. chronic renal failure, malabsorption syndrome

3. 3ry hyperparathyroidism
with prolonged stimulation the reactive hyperplasia acquires
autonomy it secretes excess hormone without stimulation.

CLINICAL PICTURE
( The disease of Bones, Stones, Abdomen & Psychic moans )
1. Bones :
Generalized decalcification of bones = ostitis fibrosa cystica
 multiple bone cysts  pathological fractures.
e.g. (1) sub-periosteal resorption of phalanges
 tufting of terminal phalanges
nd
(2) skull is the 2 common site.

147
 2. Renal stones :
Hypercalcuria & phosphaturia cause recurrent renal stones,
bilateral renal stones ( 30 – 80 % ) & nephrocalcinosis ( 5 – 10 % )
the latter is irreversible & may lead to renal failure.
3. Abdomen :
Increases gastric & pancreatic secretion by hypercalcaemia
may precipitate peptic ulceration or acute pancreatitis.
4. Psychic moans : common in women.
Restlessness, irritability, personality changes & even neurosis.
5. Articular & Soft tissues manifestations : Chondro-calcinosis
i.e. Ca++ deposition in articular cartilages & menisci
6. Hyperparathyroid crisis :
occurs with  serum Ca++ & presents by muscular weakness,
nausea, vomiting, weight loss, fatigue & drowsiness.
INVESTIGATIONS
1. Laboratory diagnosis
  Serum Ca level .
  Excretion of Ca & Phosphate in urine.
 Immune assay for parathormone :
 plasma level of PTH
2. Localization modalities
 High resolution ultrasound : with accuracy 76 %
 CT scan : with accuracy 50 %
 Thallium201 Technetium99 subtraction scan : with accuracy 72 %
The Idea of this test is that Tc99 is taken only by thyroid gland
while Thallium201 is taken by both thyroid & parathyroid gland
by computerized subtraction of the two captured images, the
parathyroids appear as hot spots.

3. Radiological skeletal survey

 Skull shows multiple small osteolytic lesions
( salt & pepper appearance ) fig.1
 Hands shows sub-periosteal resorption of phalanges fig.2
 Long bones ( pelvis & spine ) shows multiple osteolytic lesions
( ostitis fibrosa cystica ) fig.3

Fig.1 Fig.2 Fig.3

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TREATMENT
1ry hyperparathyroidism

1. If one gland enlarged by an ( adenoma )

It should be excised, together with exposure of other glands to ensure
that they are of normal size & biopsy of one of them.

2. If parathyroid ( hyperplasia )
Subtotal parathyroidectomy, i.e. excision of 3.5 glands

Another alternative surgical strategy

Total parathyroidectomy, with auto-transplantation of very thin slices
in the forearm muscles.

2ry & 3ry hyperparathyroidism

Essentially medical
 Vitamin D
 Calcium & phosphate binder

149
 Arterial
disorders

150
 ARTERIAL
DISORDERS
ISCHEMIA
Diminished arterial blood supply

Limb ischemia

DEFINITION
Impairment arterial blood supply
sufficient to interfere with nutrition
and functions of the limb.
AETIOLOGY
due to arterial occlusion by trauma
or vascular disease.
TYPES
It may be :
- Acute ischemia.
- Chronic ischemia
THE EFFECT OF ISCHEMIA DEPEND UPON
1. The degree of arterial occlusion :
● Partial : mild ischemia.
● Complete : severe ischemia.
2. The rate of arterial occlusion :
● Acute : sudden ischemia.
● Chronic : gradual ischemia.
N.B.: Acute ischemia more serious
because no time for development of collaterals.

3. The type of artery for ( collateral circulation )

● some arteries have good collaterals
as subclavian artery & iliac artery.
● other arteries have poor collaterals
as brachial artery & popliteal artery.
4. Heart failure   cardiac output   ischemia.
5. Anaemia   O2   ischemia.
6. Smoking   ischemia.
7. Cold weather  spasm   ischemia.
8. Alcohol  improve collateral circulation   ischemia.

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 I - ACUTE ISCHEMIA
DEFINITION
Sudden total occlusion of a previously patent artery supplying a limb.

AETIOLOGY
1. Embolism " the commonest cause " .
2. Causes in the wall :
- Arterial injuries.
- Acute thrombosis
on top of atherosclerosis.
- Dissecting aneurysm.
3. Compression on artery :
e.g. tourniquet, fractured bone…etc.
4. Phlegmasia alba dolens :
extensive ilio-femoral D.V.T

PATHOLOGY
a. Sudden occlusion of an artery
 stagnation of the nearby vein
 tissues will be loaded with fluid
 If gangrene occur, it will be moist aseptic.
b. Different tissues tolerate ischemia to variable extent :
- Muscle : irreversible damage within 6 - 8 hours.
- Skin : moist aseptic gangrene within 24 hours.

CLINICAL PICTURE [ 6PS ]

 Pain :
● sudden onset.
● bursting or burning ( nerve ischemia )
● starts al point of occlusion.
● shoots distally.

N.B.: Pain may be absent in some patient :

because of rapid onset of anesthesia.

 Pallor : which is replaced later on by mottled cyanosis

due to accumulation of deoxygenated blood then finally black
( if irreversible damage ).
 Pulselessness : below the level of occlusion.
 Parasthesia : cutaneous hyposthesia progresses slowly to be frank
anesthesia.
 Paralysis : due to muscle ischemia.
 Progressive coldness : decreased energy production due
to cellular hypoxia.

152
 N.B.: Irreversible lower limb ischemia :
(1) Fixed color changes " blue staining ".
(2) Signs caused by muscle necrosis.
- tense calf.
- fixed plantar flexion of the foot.
- bulging anterior leg compartment.
(3) Acute paraplegia may occur in case of
saddle aortic embolism.

COMPLICATIONS
( Pathological sequelae )
 2ry distal thrombosis : after circulatory arrest  wide spread of distal
intravascular thrombosis
 Peripheral oedema : due to wide spread D.V.T of the affected limb, also the
clot may dislodge after revascularization   risk of
pulmonary embolism.
 Nerve ischemia : impaired nerve conduction due to ischemia of vasa nervosa.
N.B.: Nerve damage never occur
 Muscle :
[ Compartmental syndrome ]
Muscle oedema that result from prolonged ischemia   pressure inside
the fascial compartments of the leg especially after revascularization
 more  ischemia.
N.B.: Irreversible muscle damage within 6 - 8 hours

Normal cut section of leg After revascularization

 Skin :
Gangrene occurs if the condition is neglected ( moist gangrene )
N.B.: Gangrene occurs within 24 hours
Incomplete recovery
leads to development of clinical picture of chronic ischemia from
inadequate blood flow.

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 1- Arterial Embolism
Embolic ischemia
DEFINITION
Sudden impaction of an embolus in a narrow blood vessels.
PATHOLOGY see before +
A. Source of an Embolus
( 90 % from the heart ) due to 
1. Lt Atrium : MS with AF.
2. Lt Ventricle : after recent myocardial infarction
3. The aorta : from an aneurysm.
4. Valves : If subacute bacterial endocarditis ( S.B.E)
5. Paradoxical embolism : (rare) If A.S.D or V.S.D.
6. Atheromatous plaque from atheromatous vessels
B. Site of impaction
( bifurcation of vessels ) due to 
1. Decreasing in diameter.
2. Slowing in blood circulation.
3. Turbulence of blood flow.
CLINICAL PICTURE see before [ 6PS ] +
Examination of heart may reveal the cause.
COMPLICATIONS see before +
gangrene is more common because of poor collaterals due to 
1. Reflex V.C of collaterals.
2. 2ry thrombosis including collaterals.
3. Showers of embolism may block collaterals.
DD
Acute arterial thrombosis i.e. Thrombotic ischemia

Embolic Thrombotic
ischemia ischemia
 Personal history
 age ● common with young ● common with elderly
 Present history
 onset ● sudden. ● gradual.
 embolus ● present ● absent
 Past history
 heart disease ● present. ● absent
 claudication ● absent ● present
Trophic changes ● absent ● present
 Radial pulse ● irregular with A.F. ● regular
 Angiography ● minimal collaterals ● marked collaterals

154
INVESTIGATIONS
(A) ECG & Echocardiography for evidence of valvular heart disease.
(B) Doppler U/S & duplex scanning to detect the level of obstruction.
(C) Arteriography : but may cause a delay for 2-3 hours,
therefore it's not done in a threatened limb.
(D) Laboratory studies : Acidosis &  C.P.K
indicate extensive muscle necrosis.
TREATMENT
A- Urgent Embolectomy
 Anaesthesia : better under local anesthesia ( may be spinal anesthesia ).
 Pre-operative : Immediate heparin start with 5000 – 10000 IU then
5000 IU every 2 hours to prevent propagation of thrombosis.
 Operation : [ Fogarty balloon catheter ]

● It must be within 6 - 8 hours to save the limb.

but if done after that time it will be called delayed embolectomy
● The value of delayed embolectomy is lowering the level of amputation
because of irreversible muscle damage which has occurred.
● Complications of embolectomy & its treatment

COMPLICATIONS TREATMENT
(1) Sudden death due to pulmonary 1. Thrombectomy of nearby vein
embolism, 2ry to detachment of a at same time of embolectomy.
large thrombus. 2. Putting I.V.C filter
(2) Compartmental syndrome ● Fasciotomy is done to save the
See before vitality of the limb i.e.  tension.
(3) Reperfusion injury of kidney & heart 1. I.V mannitol to induce diuresis.
due to passage of large amount of 2. I.V insulin + glucose to stimulate
myoglobin & K+ from ischemic muscle intracellular shift of K+
 renal shutdown or cardiac arrest 3. dialysis if anuria developed.

B- Fibrinolysins
● Streptokinase & Tissue Plasminogen Activator (T.P.A).
● They dissolve an acute thrombosis without surgery.
● They are given through a catheter.
● Heparin should not be used at same time.

C- Amputation If established gangrene.

155
 2- Arterial injuries
DEFINITION
Sudden interruption of arterial supply of the limb by injury
INCIDENCE
Common nowadays due to 
[ car accidents, war injuries
& iatrogenic as invasive investigations ]
AETIOLOGY
 Open injury :
- Stabs, bullets or iatrogenic following
arterial canulation
- Intra-arterial drug injection ( see later )

 Closed injury:
- Direct :  Plaster or tourniquet compression.
 Road traffic accidents.
- Indirect : Fracture or dislocations of bones.
e.g. Supra-condylar fracture humerus with brachial artery injury,
or Supra-condylar fracture femur with popliteal artery injury,

TYPES ARTERIAL INJURIES

without division with division

( No bleeding ) ( bleeding )
A. Arterial spasm A. Complete division
● Due to arterial irritation by missile ● Both ends bleed profusely
near the artery or canulation. but soon the bleeding
decreases because of 
- intima curls.
- media contracts.
- divided stumps retract.
● Associated with intimal tear but ● The pulse is lost distally.
not diagnosed as a cause except
after exploration of the artery.
B. Arterial contusion B. Partial division
● The outer coat remain intact ● The bleeding will continue
 (pulsating haematoma)
the bleeding does not stop
because of contraction &
retraction of arterial wall.
● If associated with intimal tear
● The pulse is weak distally
+ superadded thrombosis.

156
CLINICAL PICTURE
 History of trauma
 General Exam
as vital signs to evaluate the blood loss.
 Local Exam :
(A) Hard signs : see before [ 6PS ] +
external bleeding, pulsating or expanding hematoma.
(B) Soft signs : Less specific ( equivocal ) signs
small or moderate sized not pulsating & not expanding hematoma.

INVESTIGATIONS
 In patients with hard signs :
Immediate surgical exploration is indicated without investigations.
 In patients with soft signs :
(1) Plain X ray to detect foreign bodies (bullets) or fractures.
(2) Doppler & duplex to detect collaterals.
(3) Angiography (the most accurate)
to localize site of traumatic A/V fistula
TREATMENT
A- First aid treatment
 Temporary control of bleeding :
by external compression or elevation or tourniquet of the limb
 Anti-shock measures, antibiotics & analgesics.
 Associated fractures must be fixed to stabilize the repair
B- Definitive treatment
Immediate exploration & fasciotomy
to prevent (compartmental syndrome)
Then according to type of arterial injury
1. ARTERIAL INJURY WITHOUT DIVISION :
[A] Arterial spasm :
Intra-arterial injection of papaverine.
 If not successful :
forcible dilatation by Fogarty catheter is performed.
 If not successful :
Arteriotomy to detect intimal tear. If present 
excise the spastic segment then graft is performed.

[B] Arterial contusion :

excision of contused segment then graft is performed.

157
 2. ARTERIAL INJURY WITH DIVISION :
[A] Complete division:
● No gap : direct end to end anastomosis.
● Gap :
- Small artery : natural (saphenous vein) graft.
- Large artery : synthetic (dacron or teflon) graft.
[B] Partial division :
● Longitudinal tear :
- Small artery : vein patch graft.
- Large artery : direct suture.
● Transverse tear :
- < 1/2 circumference : direct anastomosis
- > 1/2 circumference : turn it to complete then treat.
N.B.: 1- Damaged main vein should be repaired
2- Damaged nerves can be repaired or left for another setting

Intra-arterial drug injection

AETIOLOGY
1- Drug addicts may wrongly inject drugs into arteries
instead of veins .
2- Anesthetists may also wrongly inject thiopentone
into an artery during induction of
anesthesia .
TYPE OF ARTERY
The most commonly punctured arteries are brachial & radial arteries.
CLINICAL PICTURE
● Burning discomfort
extending from the point of injection to the tips of the fingers
● Coldness & cyanosis soon follow.
● Digital gangrene may then develop .
TREATMENT
● Heparin 10.000 IU intravenously
to prevents thrombosis of small vessels.
● Dexamethazone 4 mg I.V / 6 hours
to limits oedema
● Low molecular weight dextran (dextran 40)
to minimizes platelet aggregation.
● Strong analgesics

158
 II - CHRONIC ISCHEMIA
DEFINITION
Slowly progressive arterial obstruction that gives
enough time for collaterals to develop and, therefore
gangrene does not occur rapidly.
AETIOLOGY
[A] Above 45 years :
Atherosclerosis is the commonest cause .
[B] Below 45 years :
 In non diabetics :
I. In Males : Buerger's disease
II. In Females : Raynaud's disease
 In diabetics : Diabetic foot & gangrene.

I- Atherosclerosis
DEFINITION
Degenerative arterial disease due to aging process
affecting the whole arterial system.
INCIDENCE
 Age : > 45 years.
 Sex : male > female
 Risk factors :
● hypertension ● obesity
● hypercholesterolemia ● +ve family history.
● hyper triglycerides. ● heavy smokers

PATHOLOGY
 It is a generalized disease :
affecting large & medium sized vessels.
 The 1ry pathology is called " Atheromatous plaques "
 started as an elevated yellow plaque on the intimal surface of the artery.
 subintimal layer shows accumulation of lipid & C.T matrix.
 the media & adventitia shows flbrosis.

Normal Atheroma

159
CLINICAL PICTURE " Press And See How Colour Fades "
● P ( Pain )
● A ( Arterial pulsation )
● S ( Skin trophic changes )
● H ( loss of Hotness )
● C ( Colour changes )
● F ( Functional changes )
P = PAIN
Intermittent claudication Rest pain
'' Muscle ischemia '' '' Nerve ischemia ''
 Characters ● Cramp like pain ● Burning pain

 Site ● Aorto-iliac occlusion  ● Foot (dorsum > sole)

both buttocks + thighs + calves because of dorsum of
foot less vascular than
● Ilio-femoral occlusion  sole, so more affected
thigh + calf than sole.
● Femoro- popliteal occlusion 
calf + sole
  by ● Walking ● Elevation & warmth
  by ● Rest ● Lowering or uncovering
the limb or rubbing the
dorsum of foot.

N.B. : Intermittent claudication pain also characterized by :

● Claudication distance : distance after which the pain is felt.
the shorter the distance is the more the ischemia.
● Claudication time : time after which the pain is felt.
the shorter the time is the more the ischemia.
● Rest time : time of rest needed to start walking again.
the longer the time is the more the ischemia.

A = ARTERIAL PULSATION
● pulse below the level of obstruction are absent. They may be weekly
felt at rest & disappear on exercise ( disappearing pulse )
● the wall of the artery may be felt rigid from calcification.
● bruit can be heard if arterial stenosis is present.

S = SKIN TROPHIC CHANGES :

● loss of hair, brittle nail & dry scaly skin.
● inter-digital infection, i.e. tinea pedis & tapering digits .
● ischemic ulcers over pressure sites e.g. ball of big toe,
heal & tips of toes. finally dry gangrene.

160
H = COLDNESS ( LOSS OF HOTNESS )
● examination of temp. should be bilateral starting with normal limb.
● before examination of temp, let the limb uncovered for 5 min.
to avoid false covered warm limb.

N.B.: Causes of false warm ischemic limb :

1. covered limb.
2. infected limb.
3. under ttt by sympathectomy
4. D.M. "Auto-sympathectomized patient''

● detect the level of change of temp = level of obstruction.

by palpation from distal to proximal

C = COLOUR CHANGES :
[ The patient is lying down & exposing his both LL from groin downwards ]
● Normal colour indicate  Mild ischemia.
● Postural changes indicate  Moderate ischemia.
 Bureger's test
 Normally, limb is not affected by elevation.
 Elevation of ischemic limb causes pallor
 Lowering of ischemic limb causes cyanosis

N.B.: Bureger's angle : It is angle at which.

limb becomes pale on elevation from horizontal.
So the smaller the angle is the more the ischemia.

● Fixed colour indicate  severe ischemia = Pre-gangrene.

N.B.: Capillary circulation test : ( press on nail bed 2 sec )

● Normally : blanching then rapid return to normal colour.
● If delayed : ischemia.
● If no return : gangrene.

N.B.: Harvey's venous refilling time :

● Elevate the limb till vein empties then allow dependency
and record time of filling veins.
● Normally : 10 -15 sec.
● IF - mild =15 -30 sec.
- moderate = 30 -120 sec.
- severe = >120 sec. i.e. > 2 min. = Pre-gangrene

161
 F = FUNCTIONAL CHANGES :
 Motor disturbance
● Gradual atrophy & loss of strength of the muscles.
 Sexual disturbance = Impotence [ Le Riche syndrome ]
● Aorto-iliac block with occluded both internal iliac arteries
 occlusion of median sacral artery which supplies nerve
erigent (S2&3) which is responsible for erection.
 Systemic disturbance
● Anginal pain = coronary atherosclerosis.
● Transient ischemic attacks = cerebral atherosclerosis.
● Abdominal pain after meal = mesenteric arteries atherosclerosis.
● Renal pain = renal artery atherosclerosis.

N.B.: Clinical tests to determine the degree of ischemia :

● Degree of pain :
 Claudication time.
 Claudication distance.
 Rest time.
● Colour changes :
 Bureger's test & angle.
 Capillary circulation test.
 Venous refilling time.

N.B.: Clinical tests to determine the level of ischemia :

● Site of claudication pain.
● Level of absent pulse.
● Level of coldness.
● Le Riche syndrome.

CLINICAL STAGING OF CHRONIC ISCHEMIA

Stage I Asymptomatic

Stage II Intermittent claudication

Stage III Rest pain

Stage IV Ulceration or gangrene

162
INVESTIGATIONS
I- Laboratory investigations
1. Blood picture for anaemia.
2. Fasting blood sugar & glycosylated hemoglobin.
3. Kidney function tests to exclude renal insufficiency.
4. Serum lipid ( cholesterol, triglycerides & lipoproteins )
II- Radiological investigations
1. ARTERIOGRAPHY

● Indication :
It is done only if direct arterial surgery is considered.
● Values :
shows  State of the vessel wall.
 Site & length of obstruction.
 Collateral circulation.
 Distal Run off
i.e. distal flow beyond the occlusion.
● Methods :
 Direct trans-femoral arterigraphy.
 Direct trans-lumbar aortography.
 Ante-grade trans-brachial aortography.
 Retro-grade trans-femoral aortography.
N.B.: The needle which is used is called seldinger needle
● Hazards :
 Dissecting aneurysm.
 Haemorrhage.
 Spasm & thrombosis.
 Dislodgement of plaques i.e. embolism.
 Sensitivity to the dye.

. complete occlusion of
Lt .iliac arteries

. occluded Rt. external

iliac artery

Trans-lumbar Aortography

163
 common
femoral
Arterial
catheter

Profunda
femoris

. complete occlusion of
Trans-femoral Arteriography Superficial femoral artery

2. DIGITAL SUBTRACTION ANGIOGRAPHY [ D.S.A ]

● Less Invasive.
● X-ray picture is taken & the image is
introduced to the computer.
● The dye is injected I.V to reach the heart
then to the arteries.
● Further X-ray picture is taken & the image
is introduced to the computer.
blocked Rt. external
● By subtracting the 1st image from the
iliac artery (arrow)
2nd an arteriogram can be obtained.

3. COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHIC ANGIOGRAPHY [ C.T.A ]

● It can give good quality imaging of arteries

4. MAGNETIC RESONANCE ANGIOGRAPHY [ M.R.A ]

● It can visualize arteries without injection of any contrast

III- Instrumental investigations

1. ECG & ECG STRESS TEST ( demonstrating )
● The coronary artery disease.
● The condition of myocardium.

2. DOPPLER ULTRASOUND
● It is an ultrasonic waves
directed to the vessel. their reflection
by the moving R.B.Cs can give an idea
about the flow pattern & the pattern of
an artery.

164
 ● To detect :
1- Stenosed or occluded segments.
2- Post-stenosed or post-occluded segments.
● To measure ( Ankle / Brachial pressure index )
which is the ratio between pressure in both ant. tibial artery
& brachial artery which is normally > 1.

So - If < 0.9 = mild to moderate ischemia .

- If < 0.7 = severe ischemia .
- lf < 0.3 = impending gangrene .

3. COLORED DUPLEX
The most important investigation
● It combines the benefits of Doppler u/s
& colored images of vessels
● Colored image shows 
1. blood flow.
2. degree of ischemia.
3. site of obstruction
4. state of collaterals

TREATMENT

A- Conservative ( No Rest pain + distal Run off )

B- Endovascular surgery
● Percutaneous trans-luminal
balloon angioplasty ( P.T.A )
( See later )
● Arterial stent.
● Laser angioplasty.

C- Operative ( Rest pain )

Distal Run off No Distal Run off

( Arterial reconstruction ) ( Indirect arterial surgery )

Thrombo-end Arterial Sympathectomy If gangrene

arterectomy by-pass &
toxemia

Fit Unfit Fit Unfit

Anatomical Extra-anatomical Surgical Chemical Amputation

by-pass by-pass

165
 A- Conservative treatment
INDICATIONS
Mild Ischemia ( No Rest pain & distal Run off )
METHODS
A. Relief of symptoms
1. Improve general health & tissue oxygenation :
● correction of anaemia & any associated lesion
e.g. heart lesion.
2. Protection of ischemic parts :
● carefully wash, dry & powder ischemic parts with
use of suitable shoes.
● nails are cut continuously.
3. Improve blood supply :
● V.D. drugs as Trental
● Anti-platelets as Aspirin ( small dose )
B.  Progression of the disease
1. Stop smoking.
2. Control of D.M, hypertension ….etc

B- Endovascular surgery
INDICATIONS
Day case surgery ( No hospital stay )
1. Suitable only for localized occlusion in a large
& medium sized vessels.
2. Suitable for unfit patient for surgery.
METHODS
1. Percutaneous trans-luminal balloon angioplasty (PTA)
● A special balloon catheter is introduced at site
of narrowing of the blood vessel.
●The balloon is inflated to dilate the stenosed segment.

2. Arterial stent
(After balloon dilatation)
● A stent is introduced to keep the lumen patent.

3. Laser angioplasty
● Destruction of the atheromatous
plaque by laser.

166
 C- Surgical treatment
1. ARTERIAL RECONSTRUCTION
A. Thrombo-end-arterectomy
● Indications : 1. Rest pain + distal Run off
2. localized obstruction.
3. large Arteries.
● Technique :
1. Arteriotomy then removal of thrombus
& thickened atherosclerotic intima leaving
a patent lumen.
2. Before closing, the distal intima should
be attached to arterial wall by interrupted
sutures to prevent it's dissection later on.
3. After closing, the patent lumen will be endothelialized.
B. Arterial by-pass
● Indications : 1. Rest pain + distal Run off
2. multiple lesions.
3. large & medium sized arteries.
● Technique :
The idea is to by-pass the obstruction by inserting a graft from the
health artery above the obstruction to distal run off below

Anatomical by-pass Extra-anatomical by-pass

( Fit patient ) ( Unfit patient )

e.g. Aorto- iliac e.g. Femoro- e.g. bilateral e.g. unilateral

block popliteal common iliac block common iliac block
block

Aorta-iliac Femoro-popliteal Axillo-femoral Femoro-femoral

graft graft graft graft
● Types of grafts :
1. Synthetic grafts e.g. Aorta-iliac graft
• They may be : (a) Teflon or Dacron.
(b) Polytetra Flouroethylene (PTFE).
2. Natural grafts e.g. Femoro-popliteal graft
• They may be : (a) reversed long saphenous vein
reversed to avoid obstruction by its valves
(b) In situ long saphenous vein
valves are destroyed by a stripper

167
 2. INDIRECT ARTERIAL SURGERY Sympathectomy
● Indications :
1. Vascular conditions
1. Rest pain + No Run off ( Buerger’s disease & Raynaud’s disease )
2. After amputation to help wound healing.
2. Hyperhidrosis Excessive sweating of the hands

● Contraindications :
1. Intermittent claudications
2. Established gangrene.
● Principles of lumbar sympathectomy
1. Fit : ( surgical sympathectomy )
- Preganglionic section of L1 ,L2 & L3 ganglia.
2. Unfit : ( chemical sympathectomy )
- Para-vertebral block of L1 , L2 & L3 ganglia.
5% phenol in water is injected beside bodies of
L1,2&3 ganglia under screen to destroy these ganglia.
N.B : The 1st. lumbar ganglion should be preserved on one side,
otherwise failure of ejaculation occurs
● Principles of cervicodorsal sympathectomy
1. Fit : ( surgical sympathectomy )
- Preganglionic section of T2 & T3 ganglia.
2. Unfit : ( chemical sympathectomy )
- Para-vertebral block of T2 & T3 ganglia.
5% phenol in water is injected beside bodies of
T2&3 ganglia under screen to destroy these ganglia.

3. AMPUTATION
[ I ] Conservative amputation
● Indications :
1. If good blood supply to adjacent gangrenous tissues.
2. If line of separation & demarcation are well defined.
● Technique :
1. Excision at line of demarcation.
2. The skin should be neither redundant nor undertension.

[ II ] Urgent high amputation

● Indications :
1. If spreading gangrene.
2. If uncontrolled infection & toxaemia.
● Technique :
1. Above knee amputation (A.K.A)
The stump will be supplied by the
profunda femoris. B.K.A A.K.A
2. Below knee amputation (B.K.A)
If popliteal pulse is felt.

168
 ATRERITIS
II- Buerger's disease
Thromboangitis obliterans
DEFINITION
Inflammation & thrombosis of small arteries associated
with perivascular fibrosis which blends artery, vein & nerve
into one mass, causing early neuritis & severe rest pain.
AETIOLOGY
Unknown but may be initiated by spasm.
the spasm is mainly due to smoking
D.D

I. Atherosclerosis II. Buerger's disease

(1) Incidence ● Common (> 45 years). ● Rare (20 - 40 years).

● Commoner in male with ● Only male &
risk factors as D.M…..etc. exclusively in smokers
(2) Pathology ● Atheroma & thrombosis. ● Inflammation & thrombosis
● Calcification. ● No calcification
(3) Clinical ● No upper limb ● Upper & lower limb
picture ischemic symptoms are involved.
● No migrating superficial ● Migrating superficial
thrombophlebitis thrombophlebitis.

● Calf claudication. ● Sole claudication

● Popliteal pulse (absent) ● Popliteal pulse (present)

● Late rest pain & ● Early rest pain &

massive gangrene limited gangrene
● No Raynaud's phenomenon ● Raynaud's phenomenon.
(4) Investigations
 X-ray ● Calcification. ● No calcification.
 Arteriography ● Irregular narrowing of main ● Not needed because of
arteries with distal run off. distal block i.e. no run off.
(5) Treatment ● Stop smoking   disease. ● Stop smoking (the main).
● Arterial by-pass (the main). ● Arterial by-pass (No Value).
● Sympathectomy (No Value). ● Sympathectomy (the best).
● Urgent high amputation. ● Conservative amputation.

169
 VASOSPASTIC DISORDERS
III- Raynaud's disease

DEFINITION
Vasospastic disease affecting digital arteries.
INCIDENCE
It affects young female, bilaterally & in cold weather.
AETIOLOGY
Arteriolar over-sensitivity to cold, precipitated by presence of cold agglutinins
in the blood which cause agglutination of R.B.Cs on exposure to cold
N.B. : the spasm is not due to sympathetic over activity
CLINICAL PICTURE
● During the attacks ( 3 phases )
- Pallor : due to arteriolar spasm
so the pain is dull aching
- Cyanosis : due to spasm   metabolites
 congestion & cyanosis.
so the pain is burning
- Redness : as attack end & arterioles relax.
so the pain is disappeared
● Between the attacks: normal skin & no pain
● In late cases :
- Trophic changes : brittle nail, loss of hair & dry scaly skin
- Superficial ulcers + dry gangrene of tips of fingers
GRADES
● 1st degree : presents only with Raynaud's phenomena
● 2nd degree : mild trophic changes in tips of fingers & nails
● 3rd degree : dry gangrene of tips of fingers
MANAGEMENT
1- Conservative treatment successful in early cases.
Vasodilator drugs as Trental or Aspirin (small dose) & avoid cold.
2- Sympathectomy with severe cases.
Good result immediately occur but after few months, mild sensitivity to
cold returns. but at least, not severe.

N.B. : Raynaud's phenomenon 2ry to 

● Occupations using vibrating tools as drills, typists or pianists.
● Associated with certain diseases as bureger, thoracic outlet
syndrome & collagen disease as rheumatoid arthritis.
● Treat the cause ( No value of sympathectomy).

170
 IV- Diabetic foot infection & gangrene
Diabetic infective gangrene
PREDISPOSING FACTORS
Diabetic patients are susceptible to serious foot infections
& gangrene due to 
 Vascular affection :
● Major vessels
as atherosclerosis i.e. diabetic macro-angiopathy.
● Minor vessels
as arteritis i.e. diabetic micro-angiopathy.
 Peripheral neuropathy :
● This makes the patient unaware of injuries.
& also makes him neglect the trophic changes.
 Infection :
● Favored by  blood sugar which acts as good media
for infection & If severe  moist septic gangrene.
AETIOLOGY
may be due to one of the followings :
● Pure ischemia
● Pure neuropathy
● Pure infection
● Mixed : there is severe infection in addition to major vascular &
neuropathic affection
CLINICAL PICTURE
● History of minor trauma to diabetic foot.
● Foot infection, offensive odour & black discoloration if gangrene.
● Complication as chronic osteomyelitis ( if infection reaches the bone )
INVESTIGATION
● Urine analysis & blood sugar curve for D.M
● Culture & sensitivity for discharge.
● X-rays on foot for osteomyelitis.
● MRI on foot for condition of soft tissues.
MANAGEMENT
1- Prevention
1. Proper control of D.M
2. Careful trimming of toe nail.
3. Avoidance of walking bare footed.
4. Avoidance of tight shoes.
5. Daily foot care :
washing, drying, powdering & inspecting them
for wounds or interdigital infection.

171
 2- Active treatment
Diabetic foot infection is not successfully controlled except
after draining of pus
1. Draining of pus.
2. Proper control of D.M
3. Antibiotics according to culture & sensitivity test.
4. Excision of gangrenous parts.
5. Glycerin magnesia dressings  adsorb water  dryness of the
infected part + help separation of necrotic tissues.
3- Treatment of complications
● Conservative amputation if osteomyelitis.
● Urgent high amputation if marked gangrene & toxaemia.

Gangrene
DEFINITION
Macroscopic death & putrefaction of gross part of tissues
AETIOLOGY
1. Arterial gangrene :
i.e. acute or chronic ischemia.
2. Venous gangrene : massive ilio-femoral thrombosis
i.e. phlygmasia cerulae dolans
3. Neuropathic gangrene : leprosy or D.M
4. Infective : - specific : as gas gangrene
- non specific : as carbuncle
5. Traumatic : - direct as bed sore
- indirect as injury of a main vessels.
6. Physiochemical : as burn or frost bite.
N.B.: The commonest 2 causes are :
diabetic foot then ischemia of lower limb
CLINICAL TYPES
● Dry gangrene :
- occurs with chronic ischemia.
- characterized by : dry, shrunken in size, wrinkled in shape,
hard in consistency & no odour.
● Moist aseptic gangrene :
- occurs with acute ischemia
i.e. reflex spasm of nearby vein.
- characterized by : swollen in size, mild toxaemia, offensive
odour without pus & gangrene spreads rapid.
● Moist septic gangrene :
- occurs with infected gangrene i.e. diabetic foot
- characterized by : swollen in size, marked toxaemia, offensive
odour with pus & gangrene spreads very rapid.

172
CLINICAL PICTURE THREATENED GANGRENE are 
The sentence " Press & See How Colour Fades "
is a good reminder of these signs.
1. Loss of Pulsation .
2. Loss of Sensation.
3. Loss of Heat.
4. Fixed Color changes.
5. Loss of Function.
TRAUMATIC GANGRENE BED SORES ( DECUBITUS ULCER )
[
Aetiology : Pressure over bony prominences.
Commonest sites : ischeal tuberosity, greater trochanters,
Sacrum, heels, big toes & scapular blades.

III - ANEURYSM
DEFINITIONS
Pathological definition
Sac filled with blood & communicating with the lumen of an artery.
Practical definition
A permanent localized dilatation of an artery, having at least 1.5
times the normal diameter.
CLASSIFICATIONS (I) Aetiology of the aneurysm

CONGENITAL
● commonest in circle of willis (Berry's aneurysm)  Sub-arachnoid Hge.
PATHOLOGICAL
● Atherosclerosis : the commonest cause nowadays
● $ that affect the aortic arch.
● Subacute bacterial endocarditis  infected emboli
● Collagen disease e.g. Behcet disease & Marfan's syndrome.
TRAUMATIC
● weakening of the wall of the artery i.e. True aneurysm
● interruption of the wall leading to pulsating hematoma i.e. False aneurysm.
(II) Structure of the aneurysm
TRUE ANEURYSM the wall of the aneurysm is formed by (3 layers).

FALSE ANEURYSM the wall is formed of fibrous tissue due to pulsating haematoma.

(III) Shape of the aneurysm

173
CLINICAL PICTURE may be silent

A- General examination
 to detect the cause e.g. $, Atherosclerosis, SBE ...etc

B- Local examination
 usually single, along the course of an artery, variable
in size & rounded in shape with smooth surface.
 compression on adjacent structures (see complications)
INSPECTION
● Expansile pulsations are seen.
Aortic
● Proximal pressure reduces the size of the aneurysm. aneurysm
● Distal pressure increases the size of the aneurysm.
PALPATION
● Expansile pulsations are felt
● Moves side to side across but not along
the course of an artery.
Femoral
● Compressible (but absent if filled with a thrombus).
aneurysm
AUSCULTATION Systolic murmur.

COMPLICATIONS
A- Intrinsic complications
1. Rupture is the most serious complications.
2. Infection  suppuration  rupture  haemorrhage.
3. Thrombosis or embolization
4. Distal ischemia due to 
(a) thrombosis of the aneurysm.
(b) compression on main artery.
(c) embolization.
(d) associated atherosclerosis.
B- Extrinsic complications
1. Compression on vein
 oedema & varicosities.
2. Compression on artery
 ischemia changes.
3. Compression on nerve
 impaired sensation + paralysis.
4. Compression on bone
 erosion may occurs with abdominal aneurysm.

174
D.D
 Transmitted pulsation :
which is characterized by 
not expansile, pulsation disappears if you push it away from the artery
& does not  in size if you compress the artery distally
e.g. pancreatic pseudo-cyst.
 Pulsating tumor : e.g. Vascular sarcoma.
irregular in shape, ill defined, not compressible & does not overlie the
line of main artery.
 A-V fistula :
which is characterized by 
machinery (continuous) murmur, tachycardia & +ve Branham's sign.
 An abscess.
INVESTIGATIONS
 Duplex scanning is very useful.
 C.T. scan is the choice.
 Arteriography useless if clotted aneurysm.
 Plain X-ray for calcified plaques or eroded bone.
TREATMENT
Aneurysms are liable to rupture.
so any aneurysm should be treated surgically.

1. The classic treatment 2. Aortic aneurysm 3. If surrounded by

> 5 cm important
Excision
structures
+ Graft inserted inside the
graft aneurysmal sac Exclusion
+
by-pass graft

175
 Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA)
AETIOLOGY
Atherosclerosis is the commonest cause (95%)
CLINICAL PICTURE As general +
Types of rupture If > 5 cm
1. Intraperitoneal rupture ( 20 % ) which is fatal .
2. Retroperitoneal rupture ( 80 % ) the patient can be saved .
Symptoms of rupture classic triad of (AAA)
1. Acute upper abdominal pain : which is present in flanks.
2. Pulsatile abdominal mass : which is usually tender.
3. Shock : which is present at time of rupture.
COMPLICATIONS
Rather than rupture, the aneurysm can erodes the spine these may be
wrongly diagnosed as lumbar disc prolapse.
[

D.D Pancreatic pseudo-cyst (see before)

INVESTIGATIONS
 Ultrasound : the screening investigation of choice
 Spiral (3D) C.T. scan : the investigation of choice to
diagnose elective & complicated cases.
TREATMENT
 Regular follow up / 6 months If < 5 cm in diameter
 Urgent surgery for complicated cases.
Techniques :
● Open surgery by opening the aneurysm then
graft inserted inside the aneurysm
● Endoluminal stented graft through bilateral
femoral arteriotomies for high risk patient.

Aortic dissection
AETIOLOGY
Atherosclerosis & hypertension
TYPES  Type A : Dissection start in ascending aorta
( more serious )
 Type B : Dissection start in descending aorta
( less serious )
TREATMENT
 Type A : Urgent surgery ( as above )
 Type B : Antihypertensive drugs

176
 Arterio-venous Fistula
DEFINITION
Abnormal connection between artery & vein.
PATHOLOGICAL TYPES
 Aneurysmal varix i.e. direct communication
 Varicose aneurysm i.e. false sac communication
AETIOLOGY
 Congenital : local gigantism
Aneurysmal Varicose
● Usually small & multiple
varix aneurysm
● common at lower limb  giant limb.
 Acquired :
● Trauma : stab, bullet... etc
● Artificial : during haemodialysis in chronic renal failure.
CLINICAL PICTURE
Systemic signs
As tachycardia, water hummer pulse ...etc
Local signs
A small, rounded & pulsating swelling along the course of the vessels.
Distal signs
The veins become dilated, tortuous & pulsating varicose vein.
Auscultation Machinery (continuous) murmur.

Special test Branham's sign

Slowing of heart rate as soon as the fistula is compressed.
COMPLICATIONS
Chronic ischemia, 2ry V.V & if ruptured  bleeding
INVESTIGATION
 Colored duplex : diagnostic & non invasive.
 Arteriography : will show the site, size & nature of A-V communications.
TREATMENT
According to the cause
 Congenital :
No surgery except if single ( excision + vascular repair )
 Acquired :
Excision + vascular repair by restoration
of the continuity of both artery & vein.
if failed  legate proximally & distally
i.e. quadriple ligation.
then by-pass graft.

177
 ENDOVASCULAR SURGERY
DEFINITIONS
Endovascular surgery is the management of vascular disease
percutaneously through a puncture to deal with a lesion in a remote site.

CLASSIFICATION
A- System ( Arterial or Venous )
B- Purpose ( Diagnostic or Therapeutic )

THERAPEUTIC PROCEDURES
A- Arterial
1. Percutaneous trans-luminal balloon angioplasty (PTA)
● A special balloon catheter is introduced at site
of narrowing of the blood vessel.
●The balloon is inflated to dilate the stenosed segment.

2. Arterial stent
(After balloon dilatation)
● A stent is introduced to keep the lumen patent.

3. Laser angioplasty
● Destruction of the atheromatous
plaque by laser.

4. Endoluminal stented graft

● For example ( treatment of A.A.A )
bilateral femoral arteriotomies
for high risk patient.

5. Thrombolytic therapy
● Streptokinase & Tissue Plasminogen Activator (T.P.A)
● They dissolve an acute thrombosis without surgery.
● They are given through a catheter.
● Heparin should not be used at same time.
B- Venous
Inferior vena cava filter
● To avoid showers from recurrent D.V.T

178
 EXTRACRANIAL CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE

AETIOLOGY
• Embolization is the commonest cause
of TIA’s & ischemic stroke

PATHOGENESIS
• The embolus may arise from the heart,
but more commonly it arises from an ulcerating
atherosclerotic plaque at the carotid bifurcation.

CLINICAL PICTURE
May be asymptomatic
1. Patients with TIA’s ( See internal medicine )
2. Patients with stroke ( Neurologic deficits )
INVESTIGATION
 Colored duplex : diagnostic & non invasive.
 CT scan of the brain
TREATMENT
 Surgical :
Carotid endarterectomy
 Medical :
1. Control risk factors.
2. Antiptatelet drugs such as aspirin
3. Anticoagulation in patients with cardiac embolic disease.

179
 Venous
disorders

180
 VENOUS
DISORDERS

I. DVT II. Varicose vein III. Venous ulcer

I. DEEP VENOUS THROMBOSIS

D.V.T
DEFINITION
DVT means thrombosis in the deep veins
TYPES

Phlebothrombosis Thrombophlebitis
definition thrombosed thrombosed
uninflammed veins inflammed veins
causes stasis or hyperviscosity draining inflammed organs
site common with leg veins common with pelvic veins
size of 1ry small large
thrombus
emboli common & sterile rare & infected

INCIDENCE Risk factors

 Common (> 50 %) after operations
as post prostatectomy & fracture neck of femur.
 Commonest site is calf veins
because of being valveless & sinusoids.
AETIOLOGY Vircow's Triad
1- Changes in vessel wall i.e. endothelial damage.
e.g. trauma to venous wall (during pelvic operations)
or inflammatory process near the vein ( pelvic sepsis)
2- Changes in blood flow i.e. venous stasis
e.g. prolonged recumbency as shock or heart failure.
or venous compression by tumor or pregnant uterus.
3- Changes in blood composition i.e. hypercoagulability
e.g. oral contraceptive pills or polycythaemia.
or deficiency of (anti-thrombin III)
or deficiency of protein C & S which are normal anti-coagulant
or deficiency of factor V

181
PATHOGENESIS
1. The process usually starts in the calf venous sinuses by
adherence of platelets to the endothelial
surface forming a grey cluster.
2. Fibrin & R.B.Cs are deposited as a layer between platelets
giving line of Zahn
3. When the vein is totally occluded. the Jelly-like propagated
thrombus spreads upwards as far as the near
major tributary.
N.B.: at this stage, pulmonary embolism occurs because of loosely attached thrombus.
4.The thrombus becomes tightly adherent to the venous wall producing
destruction of valves + occlusion of lumen = Post-phlebitic limb.
5. Later on the process of fibrinolysis & phagocytosis start and help recanalization
of the vein but the valves are permanently destroyed.

CLINICAL PICTURE
Asymptomatic group
 There are no local symptoms & the patient may present later with either
pulmonary embolism or post-phlebitic limb.
However, it may be suspected by the presence of unexplained fever
or tachycardia.
Symptomatic group
 The classic picture :
 Pain : there is usually aching discomfort in the
involved calf or thigh.
 Swelling i.e. oedema
the most reliable physical sign.
 Tenderness on pressing muscles against bone.
N.B.: The level of swelling in D.V.T
differs according to the site of obstruction
So there are [ 4 possibilities ]
1- DEEP CALF THROMBOSIS
 Site : affects venous sinuses of calf muscles especially soleus.
 Signs : tenderness & tense oedema affecting calf muscles.
Homan's sign sudden dorsiflexion
 calf pain by stretching veins

N.B.: Homan's sign ( not done )

to avoid spread of thrombus to circulation.
2- FEMORAL VEIN THROMBOSIS
 Site : affects calf & lower part of the thigh.
 Signs : tenderness affecting calf & distal thigh muscles
femoral vein is felt as tender & firm cord like in
femoral ∆.

182
 3- ILIO-FEMORAL THROMBOSIS
 Site : affects all lower limb.
 Signs : according to the severity 
Phlegmasia alba dolans Phlegmasia cerulae dolans
" Painful white limb " " Painful blue limb "
severity Partial venous obstruction Complete venous obstruction
less severe more severe
color changes Pallor (associated arterial spasm ) Cyanosis ( no venous return )
complications Coldness &  Pulsation Venous gangrene.

4- I.V.C OBSTRUCTION
 Site : affects inferior vena cava.
 Signs : manifestations affect both legs.
dilated veins cross the groin.
D.D
1. Contusion of calf muscles.
2. Rupture of plantaris muscle.
3. Other causes of leg swelling :
e.g. local gigantism, A.V fistula, cellulites,
venous oedema or lymphatic oedema.
4. Other causes of leg pain :
 Arterial = ischemic pain.  Muscle = myopathy.
 Venous = D.V.T & V.V.  Bone = osteomyelitis.
 Lymphatic = tender L.Ns.  Joint = osteoarthritis & osteoarthrosis
 Nerve = sciatica.  Ligament = flat foot.
COMPLICATIONS
Early Complications
1. Pulmonary embolism ( see Cardiothoracic )
2. Venous gangrene with phlegmasia cerulae dolans .
Late Complications
1. 2ry varicose vein.
2. Chronic venous insufficiency ( Post-phlebitic syndrome )
 Cause : It follow ilio-femoral thrombosis
because of  pressure in deep veins  reflux of blood
from occluded deep veins to superficial veins
 Characters :
 high pressure in superficial veins occurs during walking
 non pitting oedema from fibrosis
 venous ulcer + its complications as 
- malignancy " marjoline ulcer "
- periosteitis If fixed to tibia.
- talipes equinous.

183
INVESTIGATIONS
1. Doppler U/S :
(accuracy 85 %)
 If the probe is applied over the femoral or popliteal
veins & a roar sound ( venous hum ) is accentuated,
this means the veins are patent. but if there is
thrombosis the roar does not occur.
2. Colored duplex
(accuracy 90 -100 %)
 The standard test for diagnosis of D.V.T
 It employs color flow imaging which permits
determination of flow direction & turbulence
& to detects partly occlusive thrombi.
3. Enhanced 3D helical C.T
 The most recent, it shows thrombi even in small veins.
4. Radio-iodine I125 labeled fibrinogen ( Not used )
 before technique : give KI to block iodine uptake by thyroid gland.
 technique : labeled fibrinogen with I125
will be incorporated in the newly forming thrombi which can be detected
by scanning over it [ so can't detect already formed thrombi ]
 value : it can be repeated daily, so that it is useful for follow up.
TREATMENT
A- Prophylactic treatment
MEASURES TO PREVENT STASIS & IMPROVE VENOUS RETURN

 Before operation :
- stop oral contraceptive pills.
- regular walking.
- any heart lesion must be controlled.
 During operation :
- galvanic stimulation to calf muscles.
- pneumatic calf trousers.
- legs are slightly raised.
 After operation :
- adequate hydration by I.V or oral fluid.
- early ambulation from bed.
- leg elevation 15-20 degree.
PROPHYLACTIC ANTICOAGULANTS FOR HIGH RISK PATIENTS

 Low dose heparin :

5000 IU S.C 2 hours before operations & then every 12 hours for 7 days.
 Low molecular weight (LMW) heparin :
It is given once daily & has lower risk of bleeding so more popular.

184
B- Curative treatment
1- CONSERVATIVE TREATMENT
 Aim : to prevent clot propagation, formation of new thrombi &
avoid detachment or embolization.
 Regimen : 1- leg elevation 15 -20 degree & elastic bandage.
2- anti-coagulants
Anti-coagulants
Heparin I.V or S.C
 Action :
it acts as co-factor for anti-thrombin III.
 Methods of administrations :
 I.V. bolus therapy (5000 I.U) every 4 - 6 hours.
the dose is controlled by making Clotting times
 I.V infusion of glucose 5% containing low molecular weight
heparin at a rate of 20 - 30 I.U/Kg/hour after giving initial dose
of 5000 IU & the dose is monitored by Activated Partial
Thromboplastin Time
 S.C heparin (Clexan) 1mg/kg every 12 hours.
the dose does not require a blood test for adjustment.
 Antidote : Protamine sulphate
 Complications : 1- bleeding from overdose
2- failure to response i.e. heparin resistant.

Oral Anticoagulants (Warfarin)

Warfarin (oral)
 Action :
blocking synthesis of ( Prothrombin & factors VII, IX & X )
 Methods of administrations :
10 mg Initially then 5 mg for 5 days.
the dose is monitored by Prothrombin time & concentration
 Antidote : Vit. K.
 Complications : 1- bleeding from overdose
2- interaction with drugs as aspirin.
2- FIBRINOLYSINS
 as Streptokinase, Urokinase & Tissue plasminogen activator

3- SURGICAL TREATMENT
 Venous thrombectomy with phlegmasia cerulae dolans
by Fogarty catheter.
 I.V.C interruption by filter insertion through the jugular vein
to prevent recurrent pulmonary embolism.

185
 II. VARICOSE VEINS
Varicose veins are multiple, dilated, elongated, tortuous, soft,
bluish & compressible veins of superficial veins
of lower limb.

Anatomical considerations

Veins of lower limb

The lower limb is drained by the following venous systems
I- Superficial system ( superficial to deep fascia )
It includes 
LONG SAPHENOUS VEIN
It begins at the medial aspect of the dorsal
venous arch of the foot and ascends infront
of the medial maleolus to the medial aspect
of the leg then behind the knee to the inner
aspect of the thigh till the saphenous opening
(1.5 inch below & lateral to the pubic tubercle)
where it arches to join the femoral vein.
 Tributaries of the long saphenous vein
A. In the thigh :
1. Superficial circumflex iliac vein
2. Superficial epigastric vein.
3. Superficial pudendal Vein.
4. Antero-lateral vein.
5. Postero-medial vein.
B. In the leg :
6. Anterior vein of the leg.
C. In the foot :
7. The dorsal venous arch.

Don't Forget
 All vein are containing valves except at soleus muscle.
 Saphena varix :
 Saccular dilatation at sapheno-femoral junction.
 Saphena = clear
 Varix = dilatation.
 Long saphenous vein is the longest vein all over the body.
 Sapheno-femoral Junction = Trendlenburg valve.

186
 LESSER (SHORT) SAPHENOUS VEIN
It begins at the lateral aspect of the dorsal venous
Arch. ascends below & behind the lateral maleolus
to run along the lateral edge of tendo-achilles in the
posterior midline of the leg to the middle of popliteal
fossa where it pierces the deep fascia to join the
popliteal vein.
II- Deep system ( deep to deep fascia )
It includes 
BELOW THE KNEE
They consists of venae commitantes of the arteries
+ the venous sinuses inside the calf muscles (soleus).
THE LEVEL OF THE KNEE
They unite to form the popliteal vein which ascends to the thigh to become the
femoral vein at the adductor canal then passes deep to the inguinal ligament to
change its name into the external iliac vein.
III- The connecting system
 These veins connect the superficial to deep veins
(They have valves which allow a uni-directional
blood flow from superficial to deep veins).
 They are either 

DIRECT COMMUNICATORS = PERFORATORS

THE PERFORATORS OF THE LONG SAPHENOUS :
 3 ankle perforators ( 2, 4 & 6 inches )
above medial maleolus they drain blood directly from
the venous plexus of the skin to the deep system.
 1 perforator just below the knee.
 1 perforator at the mid thigh.
 The sapheno-femoral Junction.
THE PERFORATORS OF THE SHORT SAPHENOUS :
 1 lateral perforator ( 5 inches )
above the lateral maleolus.
 The sapheno-popliteal Junction.
INDIRECT COMMUNICATORS
Veins passes from superficial vein to the muscles &
another vein passes from the muscles to the deep veins.

187
 Venous pathophysiology
 blood from the muscles of the leg returns to deep veins.
 blood from the skin & superficial tissues drains
via the long & short saphenous veins. then through
the connecting system to the deep veins.

1RY VARICOSE VEINS

- The superficial system is weak wall or absent
valves or incompetent valves  high pressure

SO
(heaviness pain) with standing
- But with walking or exercise  shift of blood from
superficial to deep system. so the pain is decreased

2RY VARICOSE VEINS

The superficial system is normal but the deep system
is occluded or compressed  high pressure (bursting pain) not only
with standing but also walking & exercise  so the pain is increased

CEAP CLASSIFICATION OF VARICOSE VEIN

C STANDS FOR CLINICAL CLASSIFICATION

C0 No visible or palpable signs of venous disease.
C1 Reticular veins less than 3 mm.
C2 Reticular veins more than 3 mm.
C3 Oedema
C4 Skin & subcutaneous changes
C5 Healed venous ulcer
C6 Active venous ulcer

E STANDS FOR ETIOLOGY

En No venous cause
Ec Congenital
Ep Primary
Es Secondary.

A STANDS FOR ANATOMY

An No location identified.
As Superficial veins:
Ap Perforator veins.
Ad Deep veins.

P STANDS FOR PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

Pn No pathophysiology identified.
Pr Reflux
Po Obstruction
Pr Reflux and obstruction

188
 VARICOSE VEINS
Varicose veins are multiple, dilated, elongated, tortuous, soft, bluish
& compressible veins of superficial veins of lower limb.
AETIOLOGY
A- 1ry varicose vein due to 
 Congenital weakness of venous wall.
 Congenital absence or incompetent valves.
 This is precipitated by prolonged standing
as surgeons, hair dressers, ……etc.
 Other manifestations of weak mesenchyme :
 kyphosis  flat foot.
 visceroptosis  hernia.
 varicocele  piles
N.B : 1ry V. V is associated with minimal complications

B- 2ry varicose vein due to 

 DVT ( the commonest cause )
especially with chronic venous insufficiency
i.e. postphlebitic limb.
 Deep venous compression :
- Pelvic or abdominal swellings
as pregnancy, tumor ….etc.
 Arterio-venous fistula
- congenital
- acquired : due to trauma
e.g. bullet or stab wound in femoral .
N.B : 2ry V. V is associated with marked complications

COMPLICATIONS
A- Venous complications
 Hge from minor trauma.
 Superficial thrombophlebitis.
B- Skin complications
 Brown pigmentation : by extravasated haemosiderin
from ruptured S.C venules.
 Dermatitis ( redness & itching ) from haemosiderin irritation.
 Eczema follows scratching of dermatitis.
 Oedema involving the lower 1/3 of the leg.
 Ulceration due to local hypoxia from venous stasis.
 Liposclerosis : S.C fats are replaced by fibrous tissue.

189
CLINICAL SHEET
1ry V.V. 2ry V.V.

Personal history
- Age.  commonly adult  commonly old
- Occupation.  surgeons, hair dressers, …etc.  ---------------
- Marital status.  ---------------  multiple pregnancy.
- Special habits  ---------------  tight corset.
Complaint
- Pain  commonly bilateral  commonly unilateral
Present history
1- PAIN
- severity  mild  severe

- characters  heaviness pain  bursting pain due to D.V.T.

± burning pain due to
superficial thrombophlebitis.

-  by   with prolonged standing   with prolonged standing or

by walking.
-  by   by elevation of the affected   by elevation of the affected
limb & by walking limb only
2- OEDEMA  mild & appear at evening then  marked & persist not related
resolute after sleep. to time.

3- COMPLICATIONS  minimal  marked

4- ASSOCIATED  groin e.g. saphena varix  groin e.g. L.Ns
 abdomen or pelvis : no mass  Abdomen or pelvis : + mass.
SWELLING

Past history  no history suggest DVT  +ve history suggest DVT

 pelvic or abdominal mass
 trauma (A/V fistula)
- bullet. - stab wound
 DM & hypertension …etc  DM & hypertension …etc
Family history congenital weak mesenchyme ------------------

190
GENERAL EXAMINATION

1ry V.V 2ry V.V

Manifestations of Look for the cause :

weak mesenchyme
1.  HR if A/V fistula
1. kyphosis
2. visceroptosis 2. organomegaly.

3. hernia 3. dilated veins cross groin

4. lt. varicocele 4. bilateral varicocele

if I.V.C. obstruction
5. flat foot 5. tallipus equinous as
& halux valgus a complication of ulcer

LOCAL EXAMINATION
A- Inspection

1ry V.V. 2ry V.V.

Multiple, bluish, tortuous & visible swellings

1. Side  usually bilateral  usually unilateral but

bilateral if I.V.C. obstruction.
2. Site Along course of veins (long or short saphenous).
 V.V. never cross the groin  V.V. cross the groin
3. Shape  Tubular  Saccular  Serpentine  Spider.

4. Skin over  minimal complications.  marked complications.

5. Swollen limb  minimal oedema.  marked oedema.
6. Skeletal deformity  flat foot or halux valgus.  tallipus equinous.
7. Look for  saphena varix.  L.Ns
inguinal region
 hernia as weak mesenchyme

191
B- Palpation
1- THE PATIENT IN STANDING POSITION
1. Palpate soft & compressible varicose veins.
2. Palpate tender nodule for thrombosis.
3. Palpate tender cord for superficial thrombophlebitis,
4. Direction of blood of dilated veins
across inguinal region ( if 2ry V.V )
5. Thrill if A. V fistula.
6. Impulse on cough at sapheno-femoral
junction.
7. Saphena varix : ( if 1ry V.V )
Saccular & compressible dilatation
shows expansile impulse on cough
at sapheno-femoral junction
.
2- THE PATIENT IN SUPINE POSITION
1. Skin : for venous ulcer
2. S.C. tissue : for oedema
 1ry  pitting
 2ry  non pitting
3. Muscle : for tender calf muscle
i.e. Homan's test ( not done )
sudden dorsiflexion  calf pain by stretching veins
N.B.: Homan's sign ( not done )
to avoid spread of thrombus to circulation.
4. Bone : for periosteitis of tibia.
5. Vein : for defect in deep fascia.
i.e. Fegan's test
6. Artery : for arterial pulsation as dorsalis pedis artery
to exclude ischemic ulcer
7. L.Ns : for inguinal L.Ns.

C- Percussion Schwartz percussion

 The vein is percussed by index of one hand
& palpate distally by fingers of other hand.
 If 1ry V.V ,the valves are incompetent
so the wave is transmitted distally

D- Auscultation
If A/V fistula = continuous machinery murmur.

192
E- Special tests
A. Test to detect (blow out) = Incompetent perforator
 TRENDLENBURG TEST  MULTIPLE TOURNIQUET TEST
1. Patient lies down & his leg is raised.
1. Patient lies down & his leg is raised.
2. massage to
empty veins. 2. massage to
empty veins.
3. tourniquet
just below 3. tourniquet
saphenous opening - Just below
Saphenous ring
4. ask pt, to stand up
- below Knee
 The result - above Knee
 If slowly filling
4. ask pt, to stand up
from below
= normal  The result
 If rapid filling  If rapid filling of a segment
= blow out means that there is blow out
 If we remove
N.B : for more localization do more
tourniquet & fill
tourniquet in the segment
from above
= incompetent sapheno-femoral junction
 MANUAL LOCALIZATION TEST " 2 FINGERS TEST "
- Patient stand & the 2 index are pressed at a point on
long saphenous vein then empty at opposite direction.
 The result  If vein fill between two fingers = blow out
 FEGAN'S TEST
- 1st patient stand & then mark the varicosities .
then patient, lies down & detect the defect of deep fascia
i.e. blow out then mark by (x)
B. Test to differentiate between occluded & patent deep vein
 PERTHE'S TEST ( not done )
1. The patient lies on his back & the lower limb is elevated.
2. An elastic bandage is applied firmly from the toes to the upper thigh.
3. The patient is then asked to stand & walk in situ for 5 minutes.
 The result  If the deep system is occluded,
the patient will complain of pain in the leg.
 MODIFIED PERTHE'S TEST
1. The patient is standing.
2. A tourniquet is applied just below sapheno-femoral junction. .
3. The patient is asked to walk quickly in situ 5 minutes.
 The result
 If the varicose veins disappear = the deep system is patent.
 If the veins become more engorged = the deep system is occluded

193
INVESTIGATIONS
1. Doppler & duplex U/S to detect incompetent perforators
& ensure patency of the deep system.
2. Abdominal & pelvic CT scan to detect pelvic masses
TREATMENT
1- Conservative treatment
 INDICATIONS : if early 1ry V.V, patient is pregnant, unfit, waiting for
or refusing operations.
 METHODS :  avoid prolonged standing
 below or above knee elastic stocking.
 periodic leg elevation to prevent stasis.
2- Injection-compression sclerotherapy
 AIM : occlusion of lumen by fibrosis & not by thrombosis.
 INDICATIONS :  minor varicosities i.e. spiders
 residual varicosities after operations.
 CONTRAINDICATIONS :  2ry V.V with D.V.T
 pregnancy
 acute septic thrombophlebitis.
 SCLEROSING MATERIALS :  3 % Na Tetradecyle sulphate. Before
 5 % Ethanolamine oleate.
 TECHNIQUE : segment injected should be empty of blood
i.e isolated by 2 fingers. then firm elastic bandage
is applied for 6 weeks.
 PRECAUTIONS :  small dose (1 ml).
 one is done only then others at other visits.
 immediate walking after injection to prevent
venous stasis.
After
 COMPLICATIONS : extravasation of sclerosing agent
 discoloration & sloughing of skin.
3- Operative treatment
1. TRENDLENBURG OPERATION
 INDICATED : with sapheno-femoral incompetence
i.e. saphena varix.
 PRINCIPLE :. legation of long saphenous & it's tributaries.

2. SUBCUTANEOUS STRIPPING OF LONG SAPHENOUS

 INDICATED : if whole system is severely affected
 PRINCIPLE : trendlenburg operation then
S.C stripping of whole long saphenous vein.
3. SUB-FASCIAL TRIPLE LIGATION OF INCOMPETENT PERFORATORS
 INDICATED : with incompetent perforators i.e. blow out
 PRINCIPLE : 3 ligatures are applied on the perforator & saphenous vein
above & below then the segment between are removed

194
 III. VENOUS ULCER
Varicose ulcer
DEFINITION Chronic leg ulcer complicating 2ry V.V
(very rare with1ry V.V)
CLINICAL PICTURE

Inspection

 Number  usually single.

 Site  above the medial malleolus.
 Shape  oval or rounded.
 Size  variable (cm x cm).
 Edge  punched out edge.
 Margin  brownish pigment & varicosities .
 Floor  unhealthy granulation tissue
 Discharge  pus if infected

Palpation

 Temp.  slightly higher if infected.

 Tenderness  tender if infected.
 Skin around  thick, brown with varicosities.
 Base  hard base if chronic ulcer.
 Artery  normal pulsation.
 Vein  oedema.
 L.NS  not enlarged except if infected.
 Nerve  intact sensation.

COMPLICATIONS
1. Malignancy : Marjolin ulcer
which is raised everted edge, hard &
fixed base with hard L.Ns.
2. Periosteitis.
3. Talipes equinous.

195
INVESTIGATION
 Laboratory ( blood, urine & stool )
 Aspiration Biopsy Cytology (A.B.C)
 Biopsy ( must include the edge )
 Specific e.g. X-ray to exclude periosteitis
TREATMENT
A- Conservative treatment for all cases ( Usually successful )
 elevation of the foot in bed.
 daily dressing & systemic antibiotics.
B- Surgical treatment for chronic cases
1. COVERING THE ULCER
 Skin graft is done after subfascial legation
in big ulcers to accelerate healing.

2. SUB-FASCIAL LIGATION OF PERFORATOR

( Cockett 's operation )
 through postero-medial incision behind tibia by
passing from muscles to perforate the deep fascia
 complicated with ugly scar & high rate of recurrence.

3. TREATMENT OF COMPLICATIONS
 Malignancy : excision with safety margin 1 cm
& block dissection of L.Ns.
 Periosteitis : saucerization.
 Talipes Equinous : physiotherapy.

196
 SUPERFICIAL THROMBOPHLEBITIS
DEFINITION
Inflammation & thrombosis of superficial veins.
AETIOLOGY
Varicose veins, trauma, bureger's disease,
I.V infusion & venous cut down.
N.B.: Migrating thrombophlebitis ( Trousseau sign )
due to  blood viscosity with internal carcinoma
as cancer stomach & cancer pancreas.
CLINICAL PICTURE
- Symptoms :
Pain + Fever, Headache, Malaise & Anorexia.
- Signs :
Tender cord like structure with overlying skin redness
TREATMENT
1. Compression by crepe bandage.
2. Antibiotics & anti-inflammatory drugs.

CHRONIC LEG ULCERS

Classification
 Congenital ulcer :
1- Sickle cell anaemia
2- Congenital spherocytosis
 Traumatic ulcer :
Bed sore or trauma.
 Inflammatory ulcer :
1-T.B ulcer
2- $ ulcer
 Neoplastic ulcer :
Marjolin ulcer
 Venous ulcer :
Varicose ulcer
 Arterial ulcer :
Ischemic ulcer.
 Lymphatic ulcer :
Lymphoedema ulcer
 Nervous ulcer :
Neurotrophic ulcer

197
 1. CONGENITAL ULCER
e.g. Sickle cell anaemia & congenital spherocytosis

2. TRAUMATIC ULCER
 Number  usually single
 Site  middle 2/4 of tibia
 Shape  variable.
 Size  variable
 Edge  punched out
 Margin  ecchymosis.
 Floor  granulation tissues
- healthy if healed.
- unhealthy if recent
 Discharge  purulent
 Base  indurated at margin

3. INFLAMMATORY ULCER

T.B. $
 Number  single  single or multiple
 Site  metaphysis of tibia  middle 2/4 of tibia
 Shape  variable  variable
 Size  variable  variable
 Edge  undermined  punched out.
 Margin  cyanotic  skin rashes.
 Floor  casseous material  granulation tissues
 Discharge  serous  ooze pus & blood.
 Base  soft  indurated at margin

4. MALIGNANT ULCER
 Marjolin ulcer
on top of venous ulcer
which is raised everted edge, hard & fixed base with hard L.Ns.

5. VENOUS ( VARICOSE ) ULCER

See before

198
 6. ARTERIAL ( ISCHEMIC ) ULCER

Ischemic ulcer Varicose ulcer

 deep ulcer of foot at pressure  superficial ulcer above medial

area maleolus
 ischemic disease  post-phlebitic syndrome.
 ischemic manifestations.  V.V manifestations.
 no leg swelling i.e. no oedema.  leg swelling i.e. oedema.
  Pain by foot dependency   Pain by foot elevation

7. NEUROTROPHIC ULCER
DEFINITION
Occur at area deprived from its nerve supply
CAUSE
Peripheral neuropathy as D.M.
MECHANISM
The foot is anaesthetized & the patient is unaware
of trauma  ulcer.
CLINICAL PICTURES
 Site : sole of foot.
 Size : variable.
 Margin : corns & callosities.
TREATMENT
1. Conservative : rest, elevation & dressing.
2. Excision of callosities.
3. Amputation if destroyed bone i.e. osteomyelitis

8. LYMPHOEDEMA ULCER
 Commonest site at dorsum of foot.
 Due to rupture infected bulla.
 Associated with : 1. papillary projections.
2. lymphorrhaea.
3. swollen limb oedema.

199
Lymphatic
disorders

200
 LYMPHATIC
DISORDERS
I. DISEASES OF LYMPHATIC VESSELS
Lymphoedema
DEFINITION
Lymphoedema is a hypertrophic condition of skin & S.C
tissue caused by chronic lymphatic obstruction.
SITE S.C tissues of limbs, breast, scrotum & vulva.
AETIOLOGY
A- Congenital ( 1ry type ) Rare
● congenital aplasia or hypoplasia.
● It may be familial (Milroy's disease)
● It may be manifested
• at birth  lymphoedema congenita
• at puberty  lymphoedema precox
• at adult  lymphoedema tarda
B- Acquired ( 2ry type ) Common
● Traumatic :
- circumferential skin loss of the limbs, e.g. burn.
- block dissection of inguinal or axillary lymph nodes.
● Inflammatory :
- chronic specific lymphangitis as Filariasis
- chronic non specific lymphangitis.
● Neoplastic :
- metastasis occluding the lymph nodes.
- lymphoma but rare.
PATHOLOGY
Lymphoedema  lymph stasis in s.c lymphatics  recurrent
streptococcal lymphangitis , each attack obliterates
more lymphatics  4 stages
1. Stage of soft pitting oedema : early
2. Stage of Iymphorrhoea : due to rupture of lymphatic vesicles
which leads to discharge of their lymph.
3. Stage of fibrosis ( non-pitting oedema ) : extravasated fluid
with its high protein content excites fibrosis
of skin & subcutaneous tissue.
4. Stage of warty pseudo-papillomatous formation :
i.e. Elephantiasis, the skin is roughened,
puckered & non pitting like elephant skin.

201
COMPLICATIONS
● Recurrent cellulites & lymphangitis.
● Skin blebs & lymphoedema ulcers.
● Huge & heavy limb interfere with activity.
● Lymphangio-sarcoma (very rare).
D.D
Causes of swollen limb
 Bilateral i.e. generalized oedema
● Renal oedema. ● Cardiac oedema.
● Hepatic oedema. ● Allergic oedema.
● Cushing syndrome ● Myxedema
 Unilateral i.e. localized oedema
● Venous oedema.
● Lymphatic oedema.
● Congenital A.V fistula (local gigantism).
● Elephantiasis neurofibromatosis.
CLINICAL PICTURE
FILARIAL LYMPHOEDEMA
● Age : adult or elderly.

● Residence : Endemic area for Filariasis

e.g. Rasheed, Damietta, Giza, Imbaba & Sharkeya.
● Symptoms :
- Progressive leg swelling with exacerbation & partial
remission from recurrent lymphangitis.
- Elephantoid fever
- In late cases : dark, thick skin with callosities
i.e. Elephantiasis.
● Signs :
- Oedema
ranges from pitting to non pitting according to its stage

N.B : No oedema in the following sites :

- Sole : because of planter aponeurosis.
- Crease: because it drains directly to the
ankle joint i.e. deep lymphatics.
- Inguinal L.Ns
may be enlarged, firm & tender
- Other filarial manifestations
1. Scrotum :
 mechanical impotence ( sunken penis )
2. Spermatic cord & epididymis :
 funiculo-epididymitis.
3. Tunica vaginalis :
 2ry hydrocele i.e. chylocele

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LIFE CYCLE OF FILARIASIS

INVESTIGATIONS
1. Lymphangiography ( not done nowadays )
by injecting ultra-fluid lipidol in lymphatics on
the dorsum of foot.
● It shows the state of lymphatic vessels.
● It asses extent of L.Ns affection in tumors.
2. Investigations for filariasis
● Night blood film shows micro-filarial.
● Lymph node biopsy shows dead filarial worms
3. Lymphocintigraphy :
Scanning of lymphatic vessels & nodes using
radioactive TC99 labeled with colloidal particle.
4. CT scan : to visualize pelvi-abdominal mass
5. MRI : provides clear image of lymphatic vessels
& lymph nodes.
TREATMENT
A. Conservative treatment with early cases
1. Rest & elevation of foot.
2. Massage & elastic stocking.
3. Diuretics, which are of controversial value
4. antibiotics e.g. Penicillin
1.200.000 units every 3 weeks.
5. Anti-filarial drugs : Diethyl carbamazine

203
B. Surgical treatment with chronic cases.
I. PHYSIOLOGICAL ( BRIDGING ) OPERATIONS
 Aim : creating new pathway for lymphatic drainage.
 Disadvantage : they leave the thick subcutaneous tissues.
 Types :
1. Enteromesenteric bridge operation
A segment of the ileum with its mesentery are separated
& brought under the inguinal ligament.
2. Omental pedicle flap
A segment of the greater omentum is mobilized with intact
blood supply, & brought under the inguinal ligament to laid
in the thigh muscles to develop new lymphatics
3. Micro-lymphatico-venous anastomosis
The dilated obstructed lymph trunks are anastomosed to nearby veins.
4. Micro-lymphatic transfer operation
The healthy lymph trunks are harvested from the normal limb &
anastomosed to bypass the obstructed lymphatics.
5. Lympho-venous anastomosis
The L.Ns are bisected & anastomosed to nearby vein.
II. EXCISIONAL OPERATIONS
 Aim : Excision of skin & thick S.C tissue for cosmetic reasons.
 Types:
1. Sistrunk operation
Excision of an ellipse of skin & thick S.C tissue
and closure of the defect.
2. Charle's ( flaying ) operation
Excision of skin, thick S.C tissue & deep fascia
( flaying ) then covered by skin graft.
III. PHYSIOLOGICAL & EXCISIONAL OPERATION
Thompson's ( Swiss roll ) operation
Excision of S.C Tissue & then implantation of a shaved flap of
skin between the muscles near the deep lymphatic vessels
so that physiological drainage may be improved.

N.B : AMPUTATION indicated with lymphangiosarcoma

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 II. DISEASES OF LYMPHATIC NODES
Lymphadenopathy

The causes of lymph node enlargement are

1. Inflammatory
Acute
● Septic lymphadenitis.
● Infectious mononucleosis ( I.M.N )
Chronic
NON SPECIFIC
● Child with tonsillitis or pharyngitis.
● Pediculosis capitis.
SPECIFIC
● Bacterial : - T.B ( see later )
- $ - 1ry $ (chancre)
- 2ry $ (skin rashes + mucous patches)
+ generalized lymphadenopathy.
- 3ry $ (gamma).
● Parasitic : Filarial ( see before )
● Viral : - Lymphogranuloma inguinal
- It is a venereal disease, carry from person to
another by contact.
- Few weeks from contact, papule appears near
the genitalia with inguinal L.Ns.
- Cat scratch disease :
- Unknown but may be history of cat scratch with
lymphadenopathy 1-2 weeks later.
- AIDS
● Protozoal : Toxoplasma.
2. Lymphomas
1.Hodgkin's lymphoma.
2.Non Hodgkin's lymphoma. ( see later )
3.Burkitt's lymphoma.

3. Blood diseases
1. Acute leukemia.
2. Chronic myeloid leukemia.
3. Chronic lymphatic leukemia.
4. Metastases

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 T.B LYMPHADENITIS

A. Lymph borne 1ry T.B B. Blood borne 2ry T.B

● fibrocaseous type. ● lymphadenoid type.
● localized L.Ns ● generalized L.Ns
● affect the cortex of L.Ns ● affect the Medulla of L.Ns

A. Lymph borne ( 1ry T.B )

Fibrocaseous T.B
AETIOLOGY
● Source of infection : infected milk.
● Organism : mycobacterium tuberculosis.
● Route of infection : lymphatic vessels.

PATHOLOGY
● T.B ingested with milk then filtered through the tonsils
 cortex of upper deep cervical L.Ns.
● The body reacts by sending macrophages to engulf the organism.
● The end result will depend on 

The body resistance & the virulence of organism

I. BODY RESISTANCE > VIRULENCE OF ORGANISM

● Macrophages phagocytose the bacilli  Epitheliold Cells

II. BODY RESISTANCE = VIRULENCE OF ORGANISM

● Rare & affect adult.
● Fibrosis (no caseation) occur.

III. BODY RESISTANCE < VIRULENCE OF ORGANISM

● Common & affect children.
● The macrophages fail to abort the lesion so they fuse
together  Lanqhans giant cells surround the lesion,
further cells like (lymphocytes, plasma cells & fibroblasts)
will surround the lesion as outer manner to
form finally  Tubercle follicle
● Within 2 weeks
Necrosis (caseation) occur in the center due to
1. Hypersensitivity to bacilli toxins.
2. Ischemia i.e. cellular proliferation without vascular proliferation

206
CLINICAL PICTURE
● No T.B toxaemia
● Localized lymphadenopathy :
- Site : Upper deep cervical L.Ns.
- Consistency : Firm, cystic (abscess) or hard (calcification)
- Characters : Painless, matted (adherent to each other)
i.e. periadenitis or Rosary beads
due to associated thick lymphangitis.
● Pictures of complications :
1. Cold abscess : due to caseation.
(It is actually not cold & not abscess).
 Not cold  because it is clinically warm.
 Not abscess  because the content is casseous not pus.
2. Calcification : It becomes hard mass.
3. 2ry bacterial infection  Pyogenic abscess.
4. Rupture through deep fascia
i.e. S.C abscess (Collur studd abscess)
5. Rupture through skin
i.e. T.B sinus
INVESTIGATIONS
Laboratory
- Blood picture (anaemia, leucopenia & relative lymphocytosis).
- Tuberculin test serves as good -ve test.
- Aspiration of cold abscess for bacteriology :
● Ziehl-Nelson stain  acid fast, alcohol fast bacilli (72 % accuracy)
● Culture on Lowenstein media  (98 % accuracy)
● Guinea pig Inoculation  (94 % accuracy)
Radiological Chest X-ray.
Surgical (L.N biopsy)  Tubercle follicle
1. Central zone : caseation with tubercle bacilli.
2. Mid zone : epithelioid cells + langhans giant cells.
3. Peripheral zone : small rounded cells
as (lymphocytes, plasma cells & fibroblasts).
TREATMENT
A- General treatment
1. Improve the general condition by proper diet & vitamins.
2. ANTI-TUBERCULOUS DRUGS
1st 3 months Streptomycin 1 gm IM day after day then a
combination of 2 anti-tuberculous drugs at least 9 months
Rifampicin + Isonicotinic acid hydrazide (INH)

207
 B- Local treatment
SURGICAL EXCISION OF L.NS
If localized group of L.Ns persist inspite of medical treatment.
TREATMENT OF COLD ABSCESS
● Repeated aspiration with injection of streptomycin.
- Technique :
1. through healthy skin
2. under complete aseptic technique.
3. the site of puncture should be in a
non dependant area
4. wide bore needle.
5. in a valvular manner.
- Stop aspiration when blood comes out.
● Incision & drainage for 2ry infected abscess.
TREATMENT OF T.B SINUS
● Repeated dressing with streptomycin powder.
● If resists to treatment :
Excision of underlying lymph node together with the sinus

B. Blood borne ( 2ry T.B )

Lymphadenoid T.B
AETIOLOGY
● Occurs in adult due to spread of T.B from a 1ry focus e.g. lung
PATHOLOGY
● T.B. reach the L.N through the artery  medulla is affected
& not the cortex. so L.Ns show hyperplasia not caseation.
● There is no periadenitis, no matting, no caseation, no cold abscess,
no calcification & no sinus.
CLINICAL PICTURE
● T.B toxaemia
" Night sweat, night fever, loss of weight & loss of appetite "
● Generalized lymphadenopathy :
- Site : Start as cervical group of L.Ns then becomes generalized
- Consistency : Firm.
- Characters : Painless, mobile discrete & uniform in size
INVESTIGATIONS "as before"
but L.Ns biopsy show hyperplasia
TREATMENT
● General treatment : as before
● Local treatment : No role of surgery except for L.N biopsy.

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 LYMPHOMAS
Malignant neoplasm that arise in the lymph nodes or extra-nodal tissues

A- Hodgkin's lymphoma B- Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma

A. Hodgkin's lymphoma
Lymphadenoma
INCIDENCE
The commonest type of lymphoma.
PATHOLOGY
SITE
Whenever there is lymphoid tissues, Hodgkin's disease may occur
i.e. L.N, thymus, spleen, liver, bone marrow…… etc..
N.B.: Hodgkin disease may be 
● Nodal (common) starts in lower deep cervical L.Ns
then becomes generalized
● Extra-nodal (rare) in late cases affect spleen, liver, … etc.
N/E PICTURE
● The L.Ns are replaced by pinkish neoplasm which
doesn't infiltrate the surroundings except very late.
● Very late cases there are deposits in spleen, liver, bone marrow…… etc..
MICROSCOPIC PICTURE
● Variable lymphocytes but the characteristic is
Reed Sternberg cells (pathognomonic giant cell)
which is multinucleated 2-8 nuclei
arranged in mirror images
HISTOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
● Lymphocyte predominant type : the best prognosis.
● Nodular sclerosis type : the cell nodules surrounded by fibrosis.
● Mixed cellularity type.
● Lymphocyte depleted type : the worst prognosis
CLINICAL PICTURE
NODAL PICTURE
- Site : Start as one group (lower deep cervical L.Ns)
then becomes generalized.
- Consistency : Firm ( Rubbery ).
- Characters : Painless, mobile discrete & different in size

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 EXTRA-NODAL PICTURE
 Systemic :
- Night sweat, loss of weight, pruritis, anaemia.
- Pel-Ebstein fever (characteristic fever)
which is 2 weeks of fever alternating
with 2 weeks freedom.
- Alcoholics  pain at site of Hodgkin's disease.
 Local :
i.e. Pressure symptoms
Abdominal manifestations
● Slight splenomegaly.
● Hepatomegaly & Jaundice.
● Ascites from hepatic dysfunctions.
● I.V.C & ureteric compression by para-aortic L.Ns.
Chest manifestations
● Dyspnea, cough & chest pain i.e. mediastinal syndrome.
STAGING Ann Arbor system

STAGE ( I ) one group only of L.Ns.

- stage I E : if associated single extra-nodal organ.
STAGE ( II ) > one group of L.Ns at same side of diaphragm.
- stage II E : if associated single extra-nodal organ.
STAGE ( III ) L.Ns are involved above & below diaphragm.

STAGE ( IV ) Nodal & extra-nodal spread

spleen, liver, bone marrow…… etc..
N.B: Each stage is further subdivided into 
"A"  No systemic symptoms.
"B"  One or more of systemic symptoms
as night sweat, loss of weight , pruritis.... etc.
INVESTIGATIONS
LABORATORY

● Blood picture : anemia +  ESR

● Liver function tests :  alkaline phosphatase with liver involvement.
● Bone marrow aspirate : may show bone marrow involvement.

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 RADIOLOGICAL
● Chest X-ray & CT scan : to detect mediastinal L.Ns affection.
● Abdominal U/S & CT scan : to detect para-aortic L.Ns affection.
& organs affection as liver &spleen.
SURGICAL
● L.Ns biopsy : to detect type & staging of lymphoma.
● Staging laparotomy :
- Splenectomy :
for staging & avoids the need of its irradiation.
- Biopsy of both liver lobes.
- Biopsy of all intra-abdominal lymph node, which are
marked by metal clips to help future localization
by the radiotherapist.
- Bone marrow biopsy from the iliac crest.

N.B.: Staging laparotomy is not preferred in many centers

because of   accuracy of CT scan & MRI
 The risk of overwhelming post-splenectomy
(OPSI), that is fatal in children.

TREATMENT '' depend on staging "

● stage IA&B and stage IIA : Radiotherapy alone
● stage IIB : 6 cycles chemotherapy (MOPP)
supplemented by radiotherapy.
● stage III & stage IV : 12 cycles chemotherapy (MOPP)
supplemented by radiotherapy.
N.B. : MOPP Mustin (I.V)
Onchovine (I.V)
Procarbazine (oral)
Prednisone (oral)
ROLE OF SURGERY
 Splenectomy if hypersplenism.
 Decompression of ureter or IVC by L.Ns.
 In young female : ovaries are sutured retro-uterine
to be away from radiotherapy.
PROGNOSIS
Relatively good prognosis
( 5 years survival rate of 80 % of patients with proper treatment )

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 B. Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
NHL
INCIDENCE
Rare type of lymphoma.
but common with the following diseases :
1. Sjogren's disease.
2. Systemic lupus erythromatosus (S.L.E).
3. Immunosuppression after organ transplantation.
4. AIDS
PATHOLOGY
SITE
● Nodal : starts in the cervical group of L.Ns then becomes generalized.
● Extra-nodal : (more likely to present extra-nodal than Hodgkin's lymphoma)
e.g. spleen, liver, skin " mycosis fungoids "
& GIT mucosa so may leads to 
 Gastric lymphoma
which produce manifestations similar to carcinoma.
 Intestinal lymphoma
which may produce intestinal obstruction, bleeding or perforation.
N/E PICTURE
● The L.Ns are replaced by white neoplasm which
infiltrate the surrounding tissues.
● Similar deposits in spleen, liver, bone marrow…… etc..
MICROSCOPIC PICTURE
● The normal architecture of nodes are completely lost
& replaced with malignant cells of different shapes.

HISTOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION " based on cell of origin "

● B cell lymphoma :
(a) small cell lymphoma.
(b) large cell lymphoma.
(c) mixed small & large cell lymphoma.
● T cell lymphoma.
● Lymphoblastic lymphoma.
● Histocytic lymphoma.
CLINICAL PICTURE
NODAL PICTURE
- Site : Start as one group (cervical group of L.Ns)
then becomes generalized.
- Consistency : Firm, Soft (if degenerated) or Hard (if calcified)
- Characters : Painless & amalgamated (can not be counted)
EXTRA-NODAL PICTURE as Hodgkin's lymphoma

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STAGING as Hodgkin's lymphoma
INVESTIGATIONS No staging laparotomy
TREATMENT '' depend on staging "
● Radiotherapy & Chemotherapy :
The commonly used drugs are 
Cyclophosphamid, Adriamycin, Vincristine & Bleomycin.
ROLE OF SURGERY
 Gastrectomy if gastric lymphoma.
 Intestinal resection if intestinal lymphoma.
PROGNOSIS
Very bad prognosis
( The prognosis of gastric lymphoma is better than gastric carcinoma )

Burkitt's lymphoma

INCIDENCE
The rarest type of lymphoma
AETIOLOGY
Unknown, but may be related to infection with Ebstein Barr
(EB) virus which cause I.M.N in healthy people &
Burkitt's lymphoma in patient with chronic malaria.
PATHOLOGY
Burkitt's lymphoma is a malignant tumor of the B lymphocytes.
CLINICAL PICTURE
● Common among children < 12 years
● Common in central Africa which is known be endemic for malaria.
● The usual presentation :
- Painless, progressively enlarged jaw swelling, which may distort the face,
may displace the eye & partially occludes the mouth
- It may also affect the kidneys, ovaries, long bone & central nervous system.
TREATMENT
● Chemotherapy :
The commonly used drugs are 
Cyclophosphamid & Cytosine arabinoside.

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PERIPHERAL
NERVE INJURY

214
215
 Anatomy
of
Peripheral nerves

216
 1- ANATOMY OF ULNAR NERVE
 Course & relations

IN THE AXILLA & ARM

- It arises as the termination of medial cord
of brachial plexus
- It descends medial to brachial artery
- Then directed medially & downwards to
pierce the medial intermuscular septum,
to reach the posterior compartment
of the forearm.

IN THE FOREARM
- It enters the forearm by passing behind
the medial epicondyle
- It passes between the 2 heads
of flexor carpi ulnaris, & descends
between flexor carpi ulnaris & flexor
digitorum profundus
- Continues downwards superficial
to the flexor retinaculum.

IN THE HAND
- Terminates by dividing into
superficial & deep branches.

 Branches
IN THE FOREARM
- Motor : Supply flexor carpi ulnaris
+ medial 1/2 of flexor digitorum profundus.
- Sensory : Supply medial 1/3
of the palm & medial 1/3 of the back of the hand
& back of the medial I & 1/2 fingers
IN THE HAND
- Motor : Supply
a. Adductor pollicis
b. Intreosseous space
c. Hypothenar eminence
 Abductor digiti minimi.
 Flexor digiti minimi.
 Opponens digiti minimi.
- Sensory : sensation at palmar surface of medial 1.5 finger only

217
 2- ANATOMY OF MEDIAN NERVE

 Course & relations

IN THE AXILLA & ARM

- It arises by 2 braches from medial cord & lateral
cord of brachial plexus (C5, C6, 7, 8 & T1).
- It crosses in front of the brachial artery
IN THE FOREARM
- It leaves the cubital fossa by passing
between the 2 heads of pronator teres.
- Passes deep to flexor digitorum superficialis
- Passes under cover the carpal tunnel

IN THE HAND
- By dividing into lateral & medial divisions
 Branches

IN THE FOREARM
- Motor : All flexors of the forearm
except flexor carpi ulnaris
+ medial 1/2 flexor digitorum
profundus
- Sensory : Supply lateral 2/3 of the palm
IN THE HAND
- Motor : Supply
a. Abductor pollicis brevis.
b. Flexor pollicis brevis.
c. Opponens pollicis.

- Sensory : sensation at palmar surface of lateral 3.5 finger only

3- ANATOMY OF RADIAL NERVE

 Course & relations

IN THE AXILLA & ARM

- It arises as the terminal branch of posterior cord (C5,6,7,8 & T1)
- It passes behind the axillary artery.
- It passes between medial & lateral heads of triceps inside the spiral groove
- After leaving the spiral groove :
It pierces the lateral intermuscular septum to enter the anterior compartment
Here, the nerve lies in the groove between the brachialis & brachioradialis.

218
 IN THE FOREARM
- It passes In front of lateral epicondyle
- It gives the posterior interosseous
& the superficial radial nerve.

IN THE HAND
- It reaches the back of the hand by crossing
over the anatomical snuff box
 Branches

IN THE AXILLA
- Motor : to long head of triceps.
- Sensory : Posterior cutaneous nerve of the arm
IN THE SPIRAL GROOVE
- Motor : to lateral & medial heads of triceps
- Sensory : Posterior cutaneous nerve of the forearm
IN THE LATERAL SIDE OF ARM
- Motor : A branch to brachioradialis.
& A branch to extensor carpi radialis longus.
IN THE FOREARM Posterior interosseous nerve ( pure motor )

Extensors of forearm (12 muscles)

I. Superficial group: (7 muscles)
1. Brachioradialis.  Flexion of elbow in mid prone position.
2. E.C.R. longus  Common action + abduction.
3. E.C.R. brevis  Common action + abduction.
4. Extensor digitorum  Common action + extension of M/P of med.
4 fingers
5. Extensor digiti minimi  Extension of M/P of little finger.
6. Extensor carpi ulnaris  Common action + adduction.
7. Anconeus  Common action except extension of wrist.

II. Deep group : (5 muscles)

8. Supinator : Suppination of extended pronated forearm.
9. Abductor pollicis longus  Abduction of adducted thumb.
10. Extensor pollicis brevis  Extension of proximal phalanx of thumb.
11. Extensor pollicis longus  Extension of all joints of thumb.
12. Extensor indices  Extension of proximal phalanx of index

219
Nerve injury

220
 PERIPHERAL
NERVE INJURY
INTRODUCTION
AETIOLOGY (Trauma)
A- Open injuries as 
Open wound, bullets, deep burns ... etc.
B- Closed injuries as 
 Fracture & dislocation.
 Contusions by a direct blow
 Compression by tourniquet
 Birth injuries.
 Ischemia from injuries of main vessels.

PATHOLOGY (Types)
A- Neuropraxia
Temporary loss of nerve function with no changes in nerve axons
or sheaths so it has the best prognosis.
B- Axontmesis
It is due to interruption of the axon with intact neurolemmal sheaths
so it has a good prognosis.
C- Neurotmesis
It is due to interruption of both axon & neurolemmal sheaths
so it has a bad prognosis.
CLINICAL PICTURE
1- Injury of motor part
1- Deformity (malposition).

2- Paralysis (loss of function).

3- Muscle atrophy & wasting

2- Injury of sensory part
1- Loss of superficial sensation as pain, temp & touch.

2- Loss of deep sensation as sense of position & movement.

3- Injury of autonomic part
1- Vasomotor changes as redness of skin.

2- Sudomotor changes as loss of sweating.

4- Trophic changes.
As loss of hair, brittle fissured nail & dry scaly skin.

221
DIAGNOSIS OF NERVE INJURY
A- Clinical examination
History of trauma & its type
B- Tests
(A) NERVE CONDUCTION TEST (N.C.T) :
- Neuropraxia conduct electrical impulse.
- Axontmesis & neurotmesis can't conduct it.
(B) QUINIZARINE POWDER TEST :
= Sweating test to detect anhydrosis
- Put the white powder at skin affected then observe the change
of its color.
- If remain white it means anhydrosis
- If changed to be pink it means sweating,
(C) ELECTROMYOGRAPHY :
- Detect response of denervated muscles
to electric stimulation.
- Fibrosed muscles shows no response
N.B.: Plain x-ray :
May detect any foreign bodies or fractures.

(D) TINEL'S PERCUSSION :

- To detect the rate of nerve regeneration,
- The course of the nerve is percussed from
below, upwards.
- Tingling sensation is experienced when
the level of regeneration is reached.
TREATMENT
A- Conservative treatment
INDICATIONS
1- CLOSED INJURIES as 
neuroaprexia & axontmesis.
2- BEFORE or AFTER nerve repair to prevent deformity.

CONSISTS OF 
1- SPLINTAGE to prevent over-stretching
of paralyzed muscles.
2- ACTIVE & PASSIVE exercise to prevent stiffness.

3- PROTECTION of the skin.

222
 B- Operative treatment
INDICATIONS
1- ALL OPEN INJURIES

2- CLOSED INJURIES after failure of conservative treatment.

CONSIST OF 
1- Nerve repair :
- 1ry nerve suture (Immediate suture of divided nerve)
with clean & incised wounds present
within 6 hours of injury.
- 2ry nerve suture (3 - 4 weeks later)
If any gap is present it should be overcomed
by the followings :
 Dividing unimportant branches to gain length.
 Nerve transposition e.g. bringing radial nerve in front
of humerus or ulnar nerve in
front of medial epicondyle.
 Bone shortening, which is done only in radial nerve with
un-united fracture humerus.
 Nerve grafting by small cutaneous nerve as sural nerve
in the leg.

N.B. : Types of nerve repair :

A- Epineural : The suture passes
through the nerve sheath
B- Inter-fascicular the suture passes
through the nerve bundles

2- Orthopedic treatment :
- It is used when one fail to make the nerve to recover
- It consists of 
 Arthrodesis : Fixation of the Joint.
 Tendon transplantation
PROGNOSIS
1- Neuropraxia : It is the best prognosis.

2- Motor or sensory nerve : Better prognosis than mixed nerves.

3- Nerve supply bulky muscle : Better prognosis than which supply

fine muscles.
4- Good apposition of the cut ends of the nerve = Better prognosis

5- Asepsis : Because sepsis interfere with nerve generation

due to fibrosis & loss of nerve tissue.

223
 I- BRACHIAL PLEXUS INJURIES
AETIOLOGY
A- Open injuries as 
Open wound, bullets, deep burns ... etc.
B- Closed injuries as 
 Birth traction injury.
 Fracture clavicle.
 Hyperabduction of arm under anesthesia.
CLINICAL PICTURE & TYPES
1- Complete brachial plexus injury ( Rare )
- Motor : Paralysis of all the upper limb muscles.

- Sensory : Anesthesia of whole the upper limb

Except  Medial side of arm which is supplied by intercosto-
brachial nerve (T2).
 Over the deltoid which is supplied by supra-
clavicular nerve (C3 & C4).
- Horner's syndrome :
(Ptosis, myosis, anhydrosis, enophthalmos)

2- Upper trunk injury ( Erb-Duchenne paralysis) ( C5 & C6 )

- Motor : - Paralysis of shoulder abductors as (deltoid &
supra-spinatus), external rotators as (infra-
spinatus), forearm flexors & supinators.
- So the limb hangs by the side being adducted,
internally rotated, extended, pronated with
flexed wrist ( Policeman's tip position )
- Sensory : No effect if C5 alone is injured.
If C6 also suffers, there's anesthesia
over deltoid.

3- Lower trunk injury (Klummpke's paralysis) ( C8 &T1 )

- Motor : Paralysis of flexors of wrist & fingers (C8)
& intrinsic muscles of hand (T1) producing
( complete claw hand )

- Sensory : Anesthesia along the inner side of forearm

& inner 1½ finger (ulnar distribution).

- Horner's syndrome :
(Ptosis, myosis, anhydrosis, enophthalmos)

224
 II- ULNAR NERVE INJURY
The nerve is either injured at the wrist or elbow

1- Injury at the wrist

AETIOLOGY
 Cut wrist
 Colle's fracture.
 Carpal tunnel syndrome.

CLINICAL PICTURE
I- Inspection
1- Deformity : (Partial) ulnar claw hand
due to paralysis of med, 2 lumbricals.
2- Wasting :
a. Adductor pollicis
b. Intreosseous space
c. Hypothenar eminence
 Abductor digiti minimi.
 Flexor digiti minimi.
 Opponens digiti minimi.
3- Vasomotor or sudomotor changes
Minimal
4- Trophic skin changes

5- Scar at wrist joint

II- Palpation
6- Skin sensation :
Loss of sensation at palmar surface of medial 1.5 finger only

2- Injury at the elbow

AETIOLOGY
 Fracture & dislocation of elbow.
 Wounds at the elbow.
 Stretching & friction of nerve against the medial
epicondyle as in cubitus valgus deformity.

CLINICAL PICTURE
All of the above +

225
 I- Inspection
1- Deformity : Decreased because of extension of distal I/P joint
- Because of paralyzed medial 1/2 of flexor digitorum profundus.
i.e. Ulnar paradox

- Also there is radial deviation because of paralyzed flexor

carpi ulnaris
2- Wasting : At medial side of ulna
because wasting of flexor carpi ulnaris & medial 1/2
of flexor digitorum profundus.
3- Vasomotor or sudomotor changes
Marked
4- Trophic skin changes

5- Scar : At forearm or cubital fossa.

II- Palpation
6- Skin sensation :
Loss of sensation at palmar & dorsal surface of
medial 1.5 finger & loss at palmar & dorsal surface
of medial aspect of the hand
DIAGNOSIS
As general +
Special tests
(A) CARD TEST :
- Due to paralysis of interossei
which adduct the fingers.
- The patient can't hold a card
between his extended fingers.

(B) FROMENT TEST :

- Due to paralysis of adductor pollicis
- The patient is asked to grasp a paper
between his thumb & sides of index
fingers.
- The terminal phalanx of the affected
thumb is flexed to hold the paper
by the flexor pollicis longus which
supplied by median nerve.
TREATMENT
As general

PROGNOSIS
As general

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 III- MEDIAN NERVE INJURY
The nerve is either injured at the wrist or forearm

1- Injury at the wrist

AETIOLOGY
 Cut wrist
 Colle's fracture.
 Carpal tunnel syndrome.

CLINICAL PICTURE
I- Inspection
1- Deformity : ( Ape hand )
due to paralysis of abductor pollicis
brevis and contraction of adductor pollicis
which supplied by ulnar nerve.
2- Wasting :
a. Abductor pollicis brevis.
b. Flexor pollicis brevis.
c. Opponens pollicis.
3- Vasomotor or sudomotor changes
Minimal
4- Trophic skin changes

5- Scar : At wrist joint

II- Palpation
6- Skin sensation :
Loss of sensation at palmar surface of lateral 3.5 finger only

2- Injury at the forearm

AETIOLOGY
 Fracture & dislocation of elbow.
 Wounds at the elbow.

CLINICAL PICTURE
All of the above +
I- Inspection
1- Deformity : The same but there is ulnar deviation
because of paralysis of flexor carpi radialis.

227
 2- Wasting : At flexor surface of forearm
because of wasting of their muscles
3- Vasomotor or sudomotor changes
Marked
4- Trophic skin changes

5- Scar : At forearm or cubital fossa.

II- Palpation
6- Skin sensation :
Loss of sensation at palmar surface of lateral 3.5
finger & loss at palmar surface of lateral aspect
of the hand

DIAGNOSIS
As general +
Special tests
(A) PEN TOUCHING TEST :
- The thumb can't be abducted to
touch a pen in front of it with back
of hand on table to avoid action of flexors

(B) PRAYER'S POSITION TEST :

- The tip of the thumb of the affected
side touching the palmar aspect of
the pulp of the non affected thumb.

(C) OCHNER'S CLASPING TEST :

- The index on the affected side is
pointed, extended & tapered if the
patient is asked to clasp his hands
together.
- Due to loss of action of lateral 1/2
of flexor digitorum profundus and
lateral 2 lumbricals.
TREATMENT
As general

PROGNOSIS
As general

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 IV- RADIAL NERVE INJURY

AETIOLOGY
A- INJURY AT THE AXILLA :
 Pressure by crutches or chair.
 Fracture & dislocation of shoulder.
B- INJURY AT THE SPIRAL GROOVE :
 Fracture mid-shaft humerus.
 Prolonged application of tourniquet.
 Injection of irritant drug in back of arm
 Falling a sleep with the arm lying across the
edge of chair (saturday- night paralysis).
 Operations in which the out-stretched arm
has rested on the edge of the table

EXAMINATION DEPENDING ON SITE OF INJURY

I- Injury at head of radius i.e. Post intreosseous nerve injury
 MOTOR : Paralysis of all extensors of wrist & fingers
so ( Finger drops deformity )
no wrist drop because there is weak extension
of wrist by brachioradialis & extensor carpi radialis
longus.
 SENSORY : No changes
because post. intreosseous n. (purely motor).
II. Injury at lower 1/3 of arm
 MOTOR : As above
+ ( Wrist drop deformity )
 SENSORY : Loss of small area on dorsum of thumb.
III. Injury at spiral groove
 MOTOR : As above
+ ( Weak extension of elbow )
 SENSORY : Anesthesia over lower lateral arm & back of forearm.
IV. Injury at axilla
 MOTOR : As above
+ ( Complete loss of extension of elbow )

TREATMENT
As general

PROGNOSIS
As general

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 V- SCIATIC NERVE INJURY
AETIOLOGY
 Wounds, fractures or dislocation of hip
 False site of IM injection of drugs.
 It may be paralyzed by pelvic tumors

CLINICAL PICTURE
1- Motor effects
1. Paralysis of flexors muscles leading to dropped foot
2. Complete paralysis below knee.

2- Sensory changes
Complete sensory loss below knee with the exception of skin supplied
by saphenous nerve (inner side of leg, inner border of foot & big toe).

VI- LATERAL POPLITEAL NERVE INJURY

AETIOLOGY
 Fracture neck fibula or supracondylar fracture femur.
 Pressure from plasters or splints.
CLINICAL PICTURE
1- Motor effects
Complete paralysis of the extensors & peroneal muscles
leading to Talipes eguino-varus deformity.

2- Sensory changes
Over the dorsum of the foot.

VII- MEDIAL POPLITEAL NERVE INJURY

AETIOLOGY ( Rare )
Since the nerve is deeply placed & well protected
by the surrounding muscles
CLINICAL PICTURE
1- Motor effects
Paralysis of muscles of calf & sole
leading to Talipes calcaneo-valgus and clawing of toes.

2- Sensory changes
Sensory loss over the sole

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 Neurofibromatosis
It is a congenital disease affecting nerves
the tumor arises from fibrous tissue of the neurilemmal sheath.

1- Generalized neurofibromatosis "Von Recklinghousen’s disease''

● It is multiple tumors of the body along the course of
cranial & spinal nerves.
● It is diagnosed by 
- The swelling is painless but tender due to pressure
(not infiltration) on the affected nerve.
- Fusiform in shape, firm in consistency and mobile
across but not along the course of nerve.
- Associated with brown pigments "Café au lait" patches.
- No interference with nerve function
● Treatment :
- Removal only of tumors causing pain or pressure effect.
2- Solitary neurofibroma
● As generalized but single.
3- Acoustic neuroma
● Neurofibroma arising from acoustic nerve
leading to deafness & cerebellar symptoms.
● It may be single or part of generalized type.
5- Elephantiasis neruomatosa
● It is elephantiasis of the limb
+ mechanical block of the joint
+ "Café au lait" patches.
6- Plexiform neuroma "Pachydermatocele"
● It affect S.C nerve plexuses leading to
thickening of the nerves & redundant
thickened skin

N.B.: NEUROFIBROSARCOMA
- It a fibrosarcoma arising from fibrous tissue of the neurilemmal sheath.
- The tumor grows rapidly with early local infiltration + metastasis.
- There is pain & interference with nerve function.
- Treatment : Wide excision or amputation

231
 Diseases of
Skin & S.C tissues

232
 DISEASES OF
SKIN & S.C TISSUES
I. BENIGN LESIONS

1- Lipoma
DEFINITION
 Benign tumor composed of fatty tissue arranged in lobules.
PATHOLOGY
● It is enclosed in a thin fibrous capsule, which sends fibrous.
tissue septa divide the tumor.
● Yellowish lobulated aggregations of fat cells.
PATHOLOGICAL TYPES
 Pure lipoma (the commonest)
 Fibrolipoma i.e. contain excess fibrous tissue.
 Angiolipoma i.e. contain angiomatous tissue.
 Myxolipoma i.e. contain myxomatous tissue.
CLINICAL PICTURE According to site 
N.B.: Never in brain & eye lid
1- Subcutaneous lipomata the commonest.
They have the following characters :
(a) It may present as :
- A solitary mass
- multiple lipomatosis
- Diffuse lipomatosis = Dercum's disease.
(b) Lobulated surface, painless mass, attached to
skin at multiple points i.e. dimpling
(c) Soft in consistency, sometimes gives pseudo-
fluctuation due to mobility of lipoma in its bed
& because fat at warm temperature is liquefied.
(d) It has a well defined slippery edge because it
runs in its false capsule.
(e) It is mobile & superficial to muscles.
2- Subfascial lipomata
This type is deep to deep fascia. It is not attached
to the skin & it does not have a slippery edge.
3- Subserous lipomata i.e. retroperitoneal lipomata
This type may turn to sarcoma.

233
 4- Submucous lipomata e.g. larynx or intestine.
This type may cause obstruction.
5- Parosteal lipomata
This type arise under the periosteum of the skull.
6- Extradural lipomata
This type found within the spinal cord
& may cause paraplegia.
7- Intermusclar lipomata
This type found in between the muscles,
commonly at thigh, it becomes more firm
&  in size on muscle contraction.
8- Intra-articular lipomata
This type arise in relation to the capsule of the joint
COMPLICATIONS
 Compression manifestations.
 Degenerative changes leading to liquefaction & calcification.
 Malignant transformation, it can occur with
retroperitoneal lipoma.
TREATMENT
Enucleation of the tumor from plane between ( true capsule
& false capsule of compressed surrounding tissues )

2- Sebaceous cyst
( Epidermoid cyst )
DEFINITION
 Retention cyst of the sebaceous gland due to obstruction of
its duct by inspissated sebum or dirts.
PATHOLOGY
● The cyst is lined by stratified squamous epithelium.
● The contents are foul smelling, white, creamy sebum.
CLINICAL PICTURE Hairy areas 
N.B.: Never in palm & sole
(a) The commonest sites :
scalp, face & scrotum
(b) Small, well defined, cystic swelling.
(c) Attached to skin at one point.
this is the site of occluded duct
= Punctum or black head.
COMPLICATIONS
 Infection & suppurations
 Localized alopecia : hair loss due to pressure atrophy on hair follicle

234
  Sebaceous horn :
the contents become inspissated in
successive layers over the base.
 Ulceration ( Cock's pecular tumor )
Infected cyst may undergo ulceration
with raised everted edges. It is not a
tumor but mistaken for a carcinoma.
TREATMENT
● Excision with skin ellipse over it containing the punctum
to avoid recurrence
● IF 2ry infection : drainage through skin incision.

3- Dermoid cyst
DEFINITION
 It is a cyst lined by stratified squamous epithelium & contains sebaceous material
TYPES
1. Sequestration dermoid cyst
● It is a congenital inclusion of a piece of epithelium in the S.C.
tissue at line of fusion of the body during the fetal life
● The commonest sites :
1. Face : external angular dermoid & root of nose.
2. Neck & trunk : middle line (ant. & post.)
N.B: Never appears in upper & lower limbs
as they appears as buds & not by fusion.
● The cyst : well defined, globular & not attached to the skin
N.B.: In children with sequestrated dermoid in the scalp.
It is better to wait until closure of skull sutures because
some cysts may communicates with the dura.
2. Tubulo-dermoid
● It is from distension of remnants of embryonic ducts
as thyroglossal cyst & branchial cyst
3. Teratomatous dermoid
● It is a benign teratoma contains teeth, hair, bone, cartilage.
& It occurs mainly in ovary & testis.
4. Inclusion dermoid
● It is due to inclusion of epidermis during closure of a cavity
as supra-sternal cyst.
5. implantation dermoid
● It is 2ry to puncture wounds which displace some epithelial
cells into S.C. tissue  cyst formation.
It occurs mainly in the sole, palm & fingers
TREATMENT
 All cases are treated by excision

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 4- Hemangioma
( Vascular malformations)

[A] Capillary [B] Arterial [C] Venous

It is not a true tumor, but tumor like i.e. hamartoma
Hamartoma = congenital malformation of vessels

A. Capillary Hemangioma
1. STRAWBERRY NAEVUS
● Site : the commonest site is face & head
● Colour : bright red.
● Surface : slightly raised above the surface.
● Course : present few weeks birth then after one year it starts
to undergo involution over the next 7 - 8 years.
● Treatment : not required because of its spontaneous involution
but if bleeding occur from friction : surgery or laser are indicated.
2. PORT WINE STAIN ( Nevus flammeus )
● Site : along the distribution of trigeminal nerve of
the face & never crosses the middle line.
● Colour : dark purple.
● Surface : usually flat.
● Course : present since birth & doesn't undergo involution.
● Treatment : - Laser application is the choice.
- Excision & grafting is very difficult as it may
involve a large area of the face.
3. SPIDER NAEVI
● It occurs with patients having liver cirrhosis
& supposed to be due to hyperoestrinism.
● It consists of multiple dilated arterioles from which radicals of
dilated capillaries are radiating in the distribution of S.V.C.

B. Arterial Hemangioma
" Cirsoid aneurysm ''
● It is a sort of arterio-venous fistula occurring mostly in the
scalp " temporal & occipital " regions.
● It appears as soft compressible & pulsating mass with
marked bruit over it
● Treatment : - Embolisation of feeding vessels by gel foam
then operative legation of feeding vessels.

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 C. Venous (Cavernous) Hemangioma
● It consists of multiple large intercommunicating sinus like
vascular spaces (venous)
● Clinical features :
- Since birth with no involution
- Reddish swelling of mucus membrane of lips & tongue.
- Soft, compressible but non pulsating mass.
- It may be complicated by bleeding due to mild trauma
● Treatment :
- Laser therapy
- Injection of sclerosing material as 20 % Nacl
- Surgical excision.

5- Tumor like conditions of the skin

1. CALLOSITY
 Aetiology : Localized thickening of the skin due to
repeated friction
 Clinical picture :
Area of thickened skin which they are painless,
elevated above the surface.
 Treatment :
Shaving & application of keratolytic agent e.g. salicylic acid.

2. CORN
 Aetiology : Neglected callosity with down growth of hard
horny plug pressing on sensory nerve endings.
 Clinical picture :
Conical mass which is very tender. .:
 Treatment :
Like callosity but excision is usually needed.
3. WART
 Aetiology : Localized epithelial proliferation
due to viral infection.
 Clinical picture :
 Small horny projection
 Common in the dorsum of the hands & feet.
 Only the plantar warts are painful.
 Treatment:
1. Surgical excision with diathermy.
2. Cryosurgery by freezing the wart using liquid nitrogen.

237
 6- Premalignant conditions of the skin
1. ACTINIC (SENILE) KERATOSIS
 It is due to prolonged exposure to sun
as farmers & fishermen
 Multiple lesions on the face & backs of hand.
 Investigation : biopsy may be needed.
 Treatment
1. If Superficial lesion  Freezing with liquid nitrogen.
2. If Horny lesion  diathermy curettage.
3. If Indurated lesion  Excision.

2. BOWEN'S DISEASE
 it is a potentially malignant disease (seen with elderly).
 Usually red, flat, scaly or crusted mistaken with keratosis
 Investigation : biopsy may be needed.
 Treatment
1. If Superficial lesion  Cryotherapy, curettage or cauterization.
2. If Small lesion  Chemotherapy.
3. If Indurated lesion  Excision

7- Melanocytic tumors
1. LENTIGO
 The melanocytes replace the basal layer of epidermis
in certain sites.
 Clinically : It appears as flat black or brown spots.

2. JUNCTIONAL NAVEUS
 More proliferation of melanocytes
 Small nodules of epidermis & bulge in the dermis.
 Clinically : Like Lentigo

3. COMPOUND NAVEUS
 Present in both epidermis & dermis.
 Clinically : It appears as raised brown to black nodule.

4. INTRA-DERMAL NAVEUS
 Present mainly in dermis
 Clinically : Like compound naveus.

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 II. MALIGNANT & LOCALLY MALIGNANT LESIONS

1. Malignant melanoma
INCIDENCE
 Age : 30 - 60 years.
 Sex : male > female
 Commoner in western countries due to
defective ozone layer.
PREDISPOSING FACTORS
 Pronged exposure to ultraviolet rays of the sun.
 Albinism & xerodermia pigmentosa.
 On top of benign naevus 
N.B.: Criteria of malignant transformation
of benign naevus are :
1. Increase in size or thickness
2. Increase in pigmentation
3. Occurrence of itching, tingling,
ulceration or bleeding.
4. Development of satellite nodules.
PATHOLOGY & CLINICAL TYPES

239
CLASSIFICATIONS i.e. prognosis factors
A- Breslow classification
" depends on thickness of tumor "
Stage I ( < 0.75 mm )
Stage II ( 0.75 mm - 1.5 mm )
Stage III ( 1.5 mm - 2.25 mm )
Stage IV ( 2.25 mm - 3 mm )
Stage V ( > 3 mm )
B- Clark's classification
" depends on depth of invasion"
 Level I : Epidermal.
 Level II : Dermo-epidermal junction.
 Level III : Superficial papillary dermis.
 Level IV : Deep papillary dermis.
 Level V : Subcutaneous tissue.
SPREAD
 Direct spread : to surrounding tissues
 Lymphatic spread : by both 
Permeation (i.e. satellite nodules ) & embolization .
 Blood spread : very rare
- lungs, liver, bones & brain
- 2ry deposits are usually black
CLINICAL PICTURE see pathological types
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS 1. Pigmented basal cell carcinoma.
2. Granuloma or haemangioma.
3. Compound or junctional Naevus.
INVESTIGATIONS
 The only sure method is biopsy & histological examination.
TREATMENT
 The lesion is radioresistant so 
The 1ry lesion should be excised with safety margin of skin & S.C tissue.
- IF the tumor thickness is < 1 mm  safety margin is 1 cm
- IF the tumor thickness is 1 – 4 mm  safety margin is 2 cm
- IF the tumor thickness is > 4 mm  safety margin is 3 cm
N.B: The deep fascia should never be excised
The L.Ns Prophylactic block dissection no longer performed.
So if not clinically involved
Fine needle aspiration is done to ensure that they are free
But if clinically involved
Radical block dissection must be done.
The metastasis
Treated by chemotherapy, interferons & interlekin-2

240
 2. Basal cell carcinoma 3. Squamous cell carcinoma
Rodent ulcer Epithelioma

DEFINITION Locally malignant tumor that Malignant tumor that arises from
arises from basal layer of skin stratified squamous epithelium of
the skin
“ Common ” " Less common "
INCIDENCE
 Age  > 40 years  > 50 years
 Sex  male > female
 Race  white > Black
1. Prolonged exposure to sun 1. Prolonged exposure to sun
PREDISPOSING
rays i.e. ultraviolet rays. rays i.e. ultraviolet rays.
FACTORS
2. Albinism. 2. Albinism.
3. Xerodermia pigmentosa 3. Xerodermia pigmentosa
4. Previous irradiation
5. Long standing irritation as
chronic ulcer, sinus or burn scar
6. Carcinogens as tar derivatives.
PATHOLOGY
 Site  90 % in the face especially  Upper part of face, scalp, lip,
above a line from lobule of gums & tongue.
the ear to the angle of mouth.
 Other sites as dorsum of the  Other sites as dorsum of the
hand & perianal regions. hand, oesophagus & anal canal
 N/E
- Number  Usually single  Usually single
- Site  As above  As above
- Shape  Oval or rounded  Irregular in shape.
- Size  Usually small  Usually large
- Edge  Rolled in & beaded  Raised everted.
- Margin  Dilated capillaries.  ………………….
- Floor  Covered by crusts.  Necrotic
- Discharge  Blood + pus  Blood + pus
- Base  Indurated but not beyond  Indurated fixed & beyond
the edge. the edge.

241
 2. Basal cell carcinoma 3. Squamous cell carcinoma
Rodent ulcer Epithelioma

 M/P 1. Peripheral columnar cells 1. Epithelial pearls or cell nests

arranged in palisade manner.
2. Central polyhedral cells 2. Mass of malignant epithelial
with basophilic nuclei. cells.
3. No tendency for keratinization 3. Central keratin
SPREAD 1. Direct spread : 1. Direct spread :
the only spread to adjacent the tumor rapidly infiltrates the
structures. adjacent structures.
2. No Lymphatic spread : 2. Lymphatic spread :
but if enlarged L.Ns. by embolization to the regional
it is due to 2ry infections or L.Ns. which are hard & stony in
epitheliomatous transformation consistency
3. No blood spread. 3. Blood spread : late & rare.
TYPES  2 TYPES OF ULCER GRADING
- Excavating type : the ulcer BRODER'S CLASSIFICATIONS
erodes deep into the under
lying structures leading to  Grade I :
destruction of the nose. 75 - 100 % keratin
- Field-fire type : the ulcer  Grade II :
is rapidly spreading with 50 - 75 % keratin
advancing periphery and  Grade III :
healing center. 25 - 50 % keratin
LESS COMMON TYPES as flat  Grade IV :
superficial or pigmented type. 0 - 25 % keratin
CLINICAL - Patient represents by a small 1. Patient represents by an ulcer
PICTURE nodule which later on ulcerate. which grows rapidly.
- No draining L.Ns 2. Hard draining L. Ns
- Examine the ulcer "as before" 3. Examine the ulcer "as before"
COMPLICATIONS 1. 2ry infections  meningitis
& cavernous sinus thrombosis
2. Erosion of big vessels severe METASTASIS
hemorrhage
3. Epitheliomatous transformation

242
 2. Basal cell carcinoma 3. Squamous cell carcinoma
Rodent ulcer Epithelioma
D.D
DD OF ULCERS OF THE FACE
1. Squamous cell carcinoma 1. Basal cell carcinoma
2. Malignant melanoma
3. Keratoacanthoma (Molluscum sebaceum)
 It is progressive then regressive course
 It forms a red firm rounded papule that enlarges
rapidly in one week then regresses slowly to
heal within 3 to 6 months.
 There is a, keratin plug in the center.
 Laboratory ( blood, urine & stool )
INVESTIGATIONS
 Aspiration Biopsy Cytology (A.B.C)
 Biopsy ( must include the edge )
 Specific e.g. X-ray skull
TREATMENT
1- SURGICAL EXCISION 1- SURGICAL EXCISION
 Excision with 0.5 cm  Excision with 2 cm
safety margin safety margin

 Indicated in :
1. Small lesion as it easy to close the defect.
2. Ulcer infiltrating bone or cartilage because malignant cells
are hidden so efficient dose will lead bone necrosis.
3. Recurrence after radiotherapy.
4. Resistant to radiotherapy.
2- RADIOTHERAPY
 B.C.C & S.C.C are radiosensitive
3- OTHER FORMS 3- IF REGIONAL L.NS INVOLVED
 CRYOSURGERY  BLOCK DISSECTION
 5 FLUOROURACIL of metastatic L.Ns.
Cytotoxic ointment (Effudex)
PROGNOSIS Cure rate Cure rate
= 100 % but recurrent = 90 % with early treatment

243
 Diseases of
Muscle, Tendons
& Fasciae

244
 DISEASES OF
MUSCLES, TENDONS & FASCIAE
1- Carpal tunnel Syndrome
SURGICAL ANATOMY
Carpal tunnel is formed by the flexor retinaculum over the
carpal bones, it transmits the long flexor tendons & the median
nerve, but the palmar cutaneous branch of median nerve passes
on the flexor retinaculum, so it is spared in this syndrome.
CAUSES
 Rheumatoid arthritis.
 Myxedema & pregnancy
( due to increase tissue fluid deep to flexor retinaculum )
 Colle's fracture
PATHOLOGY
 Manifestations are due to compression of blood supply of
median nerve  ischemic neuritis.
CLINICAL PICTURE
 Type of patient : middle aged female.
 SYMPTOMS :
- Pain : In the distribution of the median nerve in the hand,
relieved by hanging the hand over the edge of the bed.
- Wasting of thenar muscles
- Paraesthesia over the lateral 3 ½ fingers.
 SIGNS :
- Tenderness over the carpal tunnel by percussion.
-  pain (if fingers & wrist are held fully flexed for few minutes)
INVESTIGATIONS
Nerve conduction study
on median nerve shows delay at the carpal tunnel
TREATMENT
 Mild  Anti-inflammatory + corticosteroids.
 Severe  Surgical splitting of the flexor retinaculum

245
 2- Bursitis
INTRODUCTION
 Bursae are fluid-filled cavities, lined with flattened epithelium
 It contains clear mucin fluid to minimize friction.
 Types :
(A) ANATOMICAL BURSAE
present where tendon passes over bony surface or
where superficial fascia & skin covering bony prominence.
(B) ADVENTITIAL BURSAE
developed over areas of repeated friction i.e. newly formed.

Chronic anatomical bursitis

TYPES OF CHRONIC BURSITIS
1. Pre-patellar bursitis ( House-maid's knee )
 Present as S.C fluctuant swelling.
 Site : over the lower part of patella.

2. Olecranon bursitis ( Student's elbow )

 Present as lax fluctuant swelling.
 Site : over the olecranon process
3. Semi-membranosus bursa :
 Present as tense, fluctuant swelling
& characterized by tense on extension
of knee & flaccid on flexion of knee.
 Site : medial part of popliteal fosse &
above the joint line.

N.B: D.D from Baker's cyst

which is herniation of synovial membrane of
knee joint with osteoarthritic patients & present
at center of popliteal fossa below joint line.

N.B: D.D of swellings of Popliteal fossa

A- Cystic swellings :
Abscess, hemangioma, lymphangioma, popliteal aneurysm
A/V fistula , saccular varicosity or semi-membranosus bursa
B- Solid swellings :
Lipoma, neurofibroma, fibrosarcoma or osteomyelitis

TREATMENT Excision of bursa

246
 3- Ganglion

A. Simple ganglion
DEFINITION
 This is a small cyst that contains a clear gelatinous fluid
PATHOLOGY
 It is a cyst that contains jelly like mucin,
CLINICAL PICTURE
 Localized, tense, cystic, painless mass
& related to tendon
 The commonest site is back of wrist.
 It is mobile across but not along and it's mobility
restricted with tendon action.
TREATMENT
 Excision
B. Compound ganglion
DEFINITION
 It is a T.B synovitis of the tendons passing under flexor retinaculum.
CLINICAL PICTURE
 Localized, fluctuant swelling.
 At the lower part of flexor retinaculum.
 Characterized by " Cross fluctuation test "
TREATMENT
 Anti-tuberculous drugs
 Immobilization in plaster cast to provide rest of the involved sheath.
 If no response : Excision of the diseased sheath

4- Chronic tendinitis
TYPES OF CHRONIC TENDINITIS
1. Tennis elbow :
 The patient complains of pain in the elbow at rest
when he uses the hand (extensors)
2- Golfer's elbow :
 Similar to tennis elbow, but when he uses the hand (flexors)
3- Supra-spinatus tendinitis :
 Pain is felt in the shoulder especially on abduction & rotation. There is
localized tenderness over the insertion of the supra-spinatus tendon.
TREATMENT
 Ask the patient to avoid powerful contraction of the involved muscles.
 Local injection of Hydrocortisone & local anesthetics.
 Surgical release if supra-spinatus tendon is calcified

247
 5- Volkmann's ischemic contracture
DEFINITION
Massive infarction of the muscles of forearm from injury of
brachial artery in case of supra-condylar fracture humerus
CLINICAL PICTURE
Early Picture of acute ischemia of forearm & hand (6Ps)
Pain, Pallor, Paralysis, Paraesthesia, Pulselessness
& Progressive coldness.
Later on
 Deformity : Flexion of wrist & inter-phalangeal
joints & extension of metacarpo-
phalangeal joints.
 Atrophy of forearm muscles.
N.B. : Special test :
The flexors of fingers are short
so when the wrist is flexed, the
fingers can be passively extended
TREATMENT [ Muscle sliding operation ]
Sliding the origin of flexor muscles from the medial epicondyle
downwards to the ulna.

6- Dupuytren’s contracture
This is an idiopathic disorder that is also known as palmar fasciitis
PATHOLOGY
The disease is characterized by progressive thickening
and contraction of the palmar aponeurosis.

AETIOLOGY
Idiopathic ( some cases are familial )
CLINICAL PICTURE
• Dupuytren’s contracture affects the medial side of
the palmar aponeurosis.
• It starts as a nodule at the base of the ring or little
finger. This is followed by contracture
• The flexion deformity affects the metacarpo-phalangeal and the proximal inter-
phalangeal joints. The distal inter-phalangeal joints are free .
• The palm reveals a firm nodule, 1-2 cm proximal to the base of the ring finger.

TREATMENT
• Early cases : Physiotherapy.
• Late cases : Subcutaneous fasciotomy

248
 7- Ingrowing toe nail

INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION
 Nail side curls inward causing injury
and infection of nail fold.
CAUSES
 It may result from tight shoes
or cutting the nail short &
in convex pattern.

CLINICAL PICTURE
 Mainly affect the big toe
 Patient represents by painful red swollen nail fold which
may show infected granulation tissue

 ANAESTHESIA

"Ring anesthesia"
without Adrenaline
( Local infiltration at the root of the big toe )

 INCISION
 Longitudinal one via the affect side of
the nail deep to the bone &
extended proximally to the
nail root.
 Another one is made through the skin
by the side of lesion down
 STEPS

1. Excise a wedge of tissue between the 2 incisions.

2. The gape may be left open to be healed
by granulation tissue
or closed by 2-3 interrupted sutures

249
 8- Soft tissue sarcoma

INCIDENCE
- Account for 1% of all malignancies
RISK FACTORS
- Lymphangiosarcoma
my develop on top of post-mastectomy
- Neurofibrosarcoma
may develop on top of neurofibromatosis
PATHOLOGY
SITE
- Arises in the limbs, pelvic girdle or retroperitoneum
N/E
- Well defined false capsule from compressed surrounding tissue
- Fleshy in consistency with central areas of hemorrhage and necrosis
M/P
Primitive multinucleated mesenchymal cells which may differentiate into :
- Liposarcoma - Leiomyosarcoma
- Angiosarcoma - Rhabdomyosarcoma
- Fibrosarcoma - Synovial sarcoma
SPREAD
- Local spread : by infiltrating the surrounding
- Blood spread : mainly to the lung.
CLINICAL PRESENTATIONS
1. Gradual enlarging swelling over months
2. The swelling is painless
3. Tumor consistency may be soft or firm
depending on the amount of deposited collagen.

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
1. Benign soft tissue tumors like lipoma
2. Deep seated hematoma
3. Bone tumors and lymphomas
INVESTIGATIONS
1. Biopsy : FNAC or open
2. CT scan : to assess the extent of infiltration
3. Chest x-ray : for pulmonary metastasis
TREATMENT
A. Operable cases
- Radical surgical excision & Post-operative radiotherapy
B. Inoperable cases
- Palliative surgery  Chemotherapy

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 9- Desmoid tumor
DEFINITION
- Locally malignant tumor
arising from the fibers of anterior rectus sheath.
INCIDENCE
- Multipara female ( 80 % ).
- Common with ( Gardener's syndrome )

N.B. : Gardner's syndrome : Familial polyposis coli +

osteoma + sebaceous cyst + desmoid tumor.
AETIOLOGY
- Due to previous surgical incision or overstretching of anterior rectus sheath.
PATHOLOGY
Site
- It arises in the rectus sheath.
- It is usually arises to one side never in midline.
N/E
- Cut section shows parallel fibers like tendon
and hence the name (Desmoid tumor).
M/P
- It resemble to fibroma but with giant body cells
SPREAD
- Only local, early to mother muscle then to surrounding.
CLINICAL PICTURE
1- Slowly growing, hard (painless swelling in the lower abdomen with ill defined edge.
2- At site of a previous abdominal scar.
3- It can moves side to side & becomes fixed on contraction of the muscle.
INVESTIGATIONS
CT scan & MRI
TREATMENT
Surgical excision with 1 inch safety margin including the whole thickness
of the muscle & the defect in the abdominal wall is repaired
with Prolene mesh.

251
Head Surgery

252
 HEAD SURGERY
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FACE
THE FACE DEVELOPED FROM 5 PROCESSES
Frontonasal process
 Forehead & nose
 Philtrum (midline depression of upper lip)
 Pre-maxilla = 1ry palate
(V-shaped at ant. part of upper jaw carry 4 incisors)
2 Maxillary processes
 Cheeks (upper parts)
 Upper lip (except philtrum)
 2 Palatine processes on each side fuse together  2ry palate
2 Mandibular processes
 Part of cheeks (that cover mandible)
 Lower lip
 Mandible

 THE PALATE is formed by fusion of 

 1ry palate (pre-maxilla) from frontonasal process
 2ry palate from 2 maxillary processes

N.B The incisive foramen mark the junction of the 2 palates

 THE LIPS are formed of 

 Upper lip  Philtrum from frontonasal process
 Other parts from 2 maxillary processes
 Lower lip from 2 mandibular processes

CONGENITAL ANOMALIES
A- Abnormalities due to failure of fusion
1- Facial clefts :
 Craniofacial cleft : Rare due to failure of fusion between
frontonasal & maxillary processes.
 Cleft lip
 Cleft palate See later
2- Macrostomia
3- Pre-auricular sinus
B- Abnormalities due to excessive fusion
1- Narrow palpebral fissures
2- Microstomia
C- Dermoid cyst

253
 1. CLEFT LIP & CLEFT PALATE
Cleft Lip
PREDISPOSING FACTORS
 Prenatal exposure to x-rays or viral infections
or drugs as alcohol, anticonvulsants ….etc.
 +ve Consanguinity & familial tendency.
EFFECTS ON FUNCTION (Complications)
Cleft lip does not interfere with suckling but may be associated with 
 Abnormal teeth growth.
 Psychological upset of the parents .
PATHOLOGICAL TYPES
1- Cleft upper lip
BILATERAL OR UNILATERAL
1- Bilateral 85 % : Due to failure of
development of the philtrum
2- Unilateral 15 % : Due to failure of fusion between maxillary process on
one side & frontonasal process on other side.
PARTIAL (INCOMPLETE) OR COMPLETE
Whether the cleft extends in the floor of the nostril or not
SIMPLE OR ALVEOLAR
i.e. Associated with cleft palate or not
2- Cleft lower lip (Very rare)
MEDIAN TYPE Due to failure of fusion between the 2 mandibular processes

INVESTIGATION U/S in utero during ante-natal care

TREATMENT (Plastic operative repair)
AIM OF TREATMENT
To improve appearance & to prevent complications
TIMING OF REPAIR
10 gm % (Hb), 3 - 6 months (age) & 10 pound (weight)
PRINCIPLES
 Paring the edges.
 Releasing incision in the gingivo-labial sulcus to
have lax flaps.
 Symmetry of lip without vertical shortening with
minimal scaring using Z-pIasty
 Suture in (3 layers) of lip ( skin, muscle & mucous membrane )
N.B :  Incomplete cleft lip should be transformed into complete
 If cleft lip is associated with a cleft palate. cleft lip is repaired first

254
 Cleft Palate
PREDISPOSING FACTORS
 Prenatal exposure to x-rays or viral infections
or drugs as alcohol, anticonvulsants ….etc.
 +ve Consanguinity & familial tendency.
EFFECTS ON FUNCTION (Complications)
Cleft palate may be associated with 
 Abnormal teeth growth.
 Psychological upset of the parents .
 Impairment of normal suckling, due to inability to
create - ve intra-oral pressure
 Regurgitation predisposes to aspiration pneumonia.
 Recurrent otitis media  hearing loss
 Speech defect 2ry to hearing loss or nasal tone .
PATHOLOGICAL TYPES
 Cleft uvula.
 Cleft soft palate.
 Cleft soft & hard palate.
 Complete cleft palate
+ one side of pre-maxilla (bipartite)
 Complete cleft palate
+ two sides of pre-maxilla (tripartite)

TREATMENT (Plastic operative repair)

AIM OF TREATMENT
To achieve adequate speech & dentition.
TIMING OF REPAIR
At the age of 1 - 1.5 years before phonation
PRINCIPLES
 Paring the edges.
 Releasing incision in the mucoperiosteum
creating lax flaps
 Fracture of the head of hamulus to relax the
tensor palati muscle .
 Suture the defect

POST-OPERATIVE
Speech therapy

255
 2. MAXILLOFACIAL INJURIES
CAN BE DIVIDED INTO ( 3 Parts )
 The upper face : The frontal bone & frontal sinus.
 The mid-face : The nasal, zygomatic & maxillary bones.
 The lower face : The mandible.

A- Fractures of the maxilla

LE FORT CLASSIFICATION ( 3 Varieties )
LE FORT I A transverse fracture above the level of the teeth.
It is treated by inter-maxillary fixation to the inferior
orbital margin by wire.

LE FORT II A pyraniidai fracture, traversing the base of the nose

through the maxillary antrum crossing the orbit
It is treated by inter-maxillary fixation to the zygomatic

LE FORT III A cranio-facial disjunction i.e., separation of the facial

bones from their cranial attachment.
It is treated by correction of nasal & zygomatic fracture
of the maxilla as in Le Fort II.

B- Fractures of the mandible

SITE
- The body : Fracture close to the mental foramen.
- The coronoid process : Least important,
As the temporalis muscle prevent displacement
- The condyle : Indirect fracture caused by blow to the chin
- The angle : Minimal displacement,
As the fracture line is splinted by the
masseter and pterygoid muscles.
CLINICAL PICTURE
1- Pain on attempts to open the mouth.
2- Dribbling of blood stained saliva
3- Impairment of speech & swallowing.
4- Swelling & hematoma + tenderness & crepitus.
5- Irregularity of the line of the teeth.
INVESTIGATION
Plain X-ray shows the fracture site
TREATMENT
- Reduction & fixation ( 3 weeks )
By interdental wire & plate with screws.
- Then mouth wash by anti-septic solutions.

256
 3. CARCINOMA OF THE LIP
INCIDENCE
 Age : > 60 years
 Sex : Male > female
 Smokers > non smokers
PREDISPOSING FACTORS
 Chronic irritations as 5S (spirits, spices, smoking, sepsis & $)
 Benign tumors as squamous cell papilloma.
 Leukoplakia :
It is a case of hyperkeratosis characterized by circumscribed
white plaques & involving wide areas of oral mucosa
PATHOLOGY
Site
 The upper lip = 5 %
 The angle of mouth = 2 %
 The lower lip = 93 %
NIE picture
 Malignant ulcer  Malignant nodule  Malignant fissure.
N.B. Diffuse infiltrating type = woody lip
Microscopic picture
 Squamous cell carcinoma.
SPREAD
 Direct : In the lip then surroundings as mandible, maxilla ……etc
 Lymphatic : Embolization (rare, slow & late)
 Submental L.Ns with central cancer lip
 Submandibular L.Ns with lateral cancer lip
 Upper deep cervical L.Ns which drain  & 
or if cancer involves the angle of mouth.
 Blood : Extremely rare & late.

CLINICAL PICTURE
Type of patient Elderly male.
Malignant ulcer The commonest
- No : Usually single
- Site : (see above)
- Shape : Variable.
- Size : Variable.
- Edge : Raised & everted
- Margin : Indurated
- Floor : Necrotic floor.
- Discharge : Bloody discharge
- Base : Indurated.
Involved L.Ns Stony hard, painless & 1st mobile, later on fixed.
257
COMPLICATIONS
 Bleeding or infection.
 Dysphagia & dysarthria.
 Upper respiratory tract infection from inhaled necrotic tissues.
INVESTIGATION Excisional biopsy.
TREATMENT
Treatment of 1ry lesion
IRRADIATION

SURGICAL EXCISION
 Indications :
 Small lesion
 Cancer on top of $
 Others :
- Recurrent lesion after irradiation
- Resistant lesion to irradiation.
- Lesion infiltrating bone.
 Technique :
Excision with safety margin 1.5 cm all around & plastic
reconstruction of the lip .

Treatment of L.Ns
 If no lymph nodes : No surgery.
 If palpable lymph nodes : Supra-hyoid block dissection done by removal
of submental, submandibular & upper deep cervical
L.Ns on both side as one mass i.e. (en block(
PROGNOSIS
Extremely good in early cases without L.Ns metastasis

4. CARCINOMA OF THE TONGUE

INCIDENCE
 Age : > 60 years
 Sex : Male > female
 Smokers > non smokers
PREDISPOSING FACTORS
 Chronic irritations as 5S (spirits, spices, smoking, sepsis & $) + sharp teeth
 Benign tumors as squamous cell papilloma.
 Leukoplakia :
It is a case of hyperkeratosis characterized by circumscribed
white plaques & involving wide areas of oral mucosa
 Erythroplakia :
It is a case of mucosal atrophy characterized by irregular
reddish plaques & involving small areas of oral mucosa
258
  Chronic superficial glossitis :

 Aetiology :
- It is a case of chronic irritation of tongue.
 Pathology :
- Site : It affects the anterior 2/3 of the tongue
- N/E : It may be 
Beefy glazed tongue, leukoplakia.
& fissuring.
- M/P : It may be 
Hyperkeratosis,
Acanthosis (proliferation of prickle cell layer)
 Treatment :
- Treatment of the cause of irritation .
- Non irritant diet & mouth wash
- Excision & biopsy if localized

PATHOLOGY
Site
 Lateral margin of anterior 2/3 = 50 %
 Posterior 1/3 = 20 %
 Less common ventral & dorsal surface of anterior
2/3 of the tongue & rarely the tip of the tongue
NIE picture
 Malignant ulcer  Malignant nodule  Malignant fissure.
N.B. Diffuse infiltrating type = woody tongue
Microscopic picture
 Squamous cell carcinoma.
SPREAD
 Direct : In the tongue then surroundings as mandible, gums … etc.

 Lymphatic : Embolization & permeation (common, rapid & early)

 Tip :
Spread to submental L.Ns then to the
upper deep cervical L.Ns on both sides.
 Lateral margin of anterior 2/3 :
Spread to the ipsilateral submandibular
L.Ns then to the ipsilateral upper deep
cervical L.Ns.
 Central part of anterior 2/3 :
Spread to both submandibular L.Ns
then to both upper deep cervical L.Ns.
 Posterior 1/3 :
Spread to upper deep cervical L.Ns directly
 Blood : Extremely rare & late.

259
STAGING

T = Tumor N = Lymph Nodes M = Metastasis

Tis = carcinoma in situ N0 = no evidence of L.Ns

M0 = no metastasis
T0 = no evidence of N1 = L.Ns < 3 cm
tumor M1 = distant metastasis
N2a = Ipsilateral & single < 6 cm
T1 = < 2 cm
N2b = Ipsilateral & multiple < 6 cm
T2 = 2 - 4 cm
N2c = Bilateral < 6 cm
T3 = > 4 cm
N3 = L.Ns > 6 cm & fixed
T4 = base involvement
(posterior 1/3)

CLINICAL PICTURE
Type of patient Elderly male.
Malignant ulcer The commonest
- No : Usually single
- Site : (see above)
- Shape : Variable.
- Size : Variable.
- Edge : Raised & everted
- Margin : Indurated
- Floor : Necrotic floor.
- Discharge : Bloody discharge
- Base : Indurated.
Involved L.Ns Stony hard, painless & 1st mobile, later on fixed.

Late presentation
- Pain : localized to tongue or referred to ear through
the auriculo -temporal branch of mandibular nerve.
- Profuse salivation which may be bloody stained .
- Fetor oris due to necrosis & infection.
- Dysphagia especially with cancer posterior 1/3
- Dysarthria i.e. difficulty of speech.
- L.Ns metastasis of the neck.
COMPLICATIONS
 Bleeding or infection.
 Dysphagia & dysarthria.
 Upper respiratory tract infection from inhaled necrotic tissues.
INVESTIGATION
 Biopsy from the edge of the tumor.
 Fine needle aspiration cytology from cervical L.Ns.
 CT scan : neck & mandible.

260
TREATMENT
Treatment of 1ry lesion
IRRADIATION

SURGICAL EXCISION
 Indications :
 Small lesion
 Cancer on top of $
 Others :
- Recurrent lesion after irradiation
- Resistant lesion to irradiation.
- Lesion infiltrating bone.
 Technique :
Excision with safety margin (according to the site of tumor) 
 Carcinoma in situ :
- Excision with 1 cm safety margin + 0.5 cm depth.
 Carcinoma of the anterior 2/3 of tongue :
- Excision with 1.5 cm safety margin reaching up to
hemi-glossectomy or near total glossectomy.
 Carcinoma of the posterior 1/3 of tongue :
- Total glossectomy (removing the whole tongue) is done.
 If the tumor infiltrates the mandible :
- COMMANDO operation is done.
Combined glossectomy
+ mandibulectomy and neck dissection operation
- The resulting defect is closed by pectoralis major myo-
cutaneous flap + rib graft (contralateral 5th rib)
Treatment of L.Ns
 Total block neck dissection is done whether nodes are palpable
or not as nodal involvement is early & common.
Palliative treatment (for inoperable patient)
 Indications :
 Unresectable 1ry tumor.
 Fixed lymph nodes in the neck.
 Distant metastasis.
 Methods of palliation :
 Palliative resection of 1ry tumor if possible.
 Chemotherapy & radiotherapy are recommended.
 Analgesic, naso-gastric feeding or tracheostomy may be required.
PROGNOSIS
5 years survival rate depending on 
 Presence of L.Ns or not.
 Site (anterior better than posterior)
 T.N.M staging.

261
 N.B RADICAL BLOCK NECK DISSECTION

DEFINITION
Removal of all lymph nodes on one side of the neck,
in one mass (En block).
INDICATIONS
1- Operable 1ry malignancy of the head or neck,
with palpable malignant cervical lymph nodes

2- Prophylactic radical block neck dissection,

with malignancies that are known for their high tendency to
lymphatic spread. These include carcinoma of the tongue.

TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
 Incision : GOBLET is the most popular
 Structures that are removed in
radical block neck dissection :
 All lymph nodes on one side of the neck.
 Other structures are also removed because of
their close proximity to the cervical nodes.
 The sternomastoid muscle.
 The carotid sheath.
 The internal jugular vein.
 The sub-mandibular salivary gland.
 The lower part of the parotid gland.
 Structures to be preserved radical block neck dissection :
 The Carotid artery.
 The Vagus nerve.
 The Accessory nerve.

VARIATIONS OF RADICAL BLOCK NECK DISSECTION

1- Supra-hyoid block dissection
Indicated with
- Cancer lip

2- Radical block neck dissection

Indicated with
- Cancer tongue

N.B : Bilateral block neck dissection :

Preservation of one jugular vein on the less affected side is
Necessary to provide adequate venous drainage from brain

262
 5. TONGUE ULCERS
Traumatic ulcers
1- FRENULAR (POST-PERTUSSIS) ULCER
- It usually affects children with whooping cough.
2- DENTAL ULCER (See table)
Inflammatory ulcers:
 Acute
1- DYSPEPTIC ULCER (See table)

2- HERPETIC ULCER Painless, multiple & small ulcers.

3- LICHEN PLANUS Auto immune disease affects the skin & oral mucosa.
 Chronic
1- T.B ULCER (See table) 2- $ ULCER (See table)

3- CHRONIC SUPERFICIAL GLOSSITIS (See before)

Malignant ulcer (See before)

DYSPEPTIC ULCER DENTAL ULCER

• Causes G.I.T troubles Sharp tooth.
or follows influenza
• Number • Multiple • Single
• Site • Tip & side of the tongue. • Side of tongue opposite sharp tooth
• Shape • Rounded • Oval
• Size • Small • Moderate.
• Edge • Sloping • Punched out
• Margin • Hyperemia • Hyperemia
• Floor • Yellowish • Unhealthy granulations
• Discharge • No discharge • Blood & pus
• Base • Soft • Indurated
• Regional L.Ns • No lymph nodes • Firm & tender lymph nodes
• Treatment • Painting by gention vilot • Removal of sharp tooth.

T.B ULCER $ ULCER

• Causes Open pulmonary T.B 3ry stage (Gumma)
• Number • Multiple • Single
• Site • Tip & base of the tongue. • Dorsum of tongue in the midline
• Shape • Rounded • Oval
• Size • Small • Large.
• Edge • Undermined • Punched out
• Margin • Bluish (cyanotic) • ------
• Floor • Casseation • Leathery sloughs
• Discharge • Serous • Scanty
• Base • Soft • Indurated
• Regional L.Ns • Matted lymph nodes • ------
• Treatment • Anti-T.B. drugs • Anti-syphilitic drugs
• Improve oral hygiene • Improve oral hygiene.

263
 6. CYSTIC SWELLINGS OF THE FACE
AETIOLOGY

1- Sebaceous cyst
2- External angular dermoid
3- Mucocele of the lacrimal sac
4- Meningocele

7. CYSTIC SWELLING OF THE FLOOR OF THE MOUTH

Ranula
AETIOLOGY
It is a retention cyst or extravasation cyst of
sublingual gland
PATHOLOGY
Site
1- Simple ranula :
In one side of the floor of the mouth pushing the
tongue to the other side
2- Plunging or dissecting ranula :
Dissect its way behind the posterior border of
the mylohyoid muscle to appear in the neck
i.e. submandibular region (Thompson's ranula)
Composition
It contains jelly-like material rich in mucin

CLINICAL PICTURE
Age
Usually in infant or early childhood.
Characters
Bluish translucent large cystic swelling pushing
the tongue to one side & it may cross the midline &
become constricted by the franulum to give an
hourglass appearance.
COMPLICATIONS
It may cause dysphagia, dysarthria & dyspnea.
TREATMENT
1- Simple ranula :
Surgical excision is very difficult. Marsupilization is the treatment of
choice by deroofing of the cyst & suturing the wall to the oral mucosa.
2- Plunging or dissecting ranula :
It may need cervical incision for its dissection
.

264
 8. SWELLINGS OF THE JAW

Cancer maxilla
PREDISPOSING FACTORS
Multiple maxillary polyps & chronic sinusitis.
INCIDENCE
Male > Female & 40 years
PATHOLOGY
 Site : At maxillary antrum.
 N/E : It invades by a papillary growth & rarely malignant ulcer.
 M/P : Squamous cell carcinoma or columnar cell carcinoma.

CLINICAL PICTURE
( Depends on which wall of the maxillary antrum is involved )
 Medial wall : Unilateral nasal obstruction.
 Roof : Unilateral proptosis & diplopia.
 Floor : Bulging in the roof of oral cavity.
 Antero-lateral wall : Bulging & swelling of the cheek.
 Post wall : Encroaches on the naso-pharynx
 change of voice & difficulty of breathing.
INVESTIGATIONS
CT scan & MRI : Diagnostic
TREATMENT
Either radical surgical excision or irradiation.

265
 1. Epulis
An epulis = mass riding over gums
A- Benign epulides
1. Fibrous epulis
PATHOLOGY
 Site : Between 2 teeth.
 N/E : Arising from the outer fibrous layer of periosteum.
 M/P : Fibrous tissue with spindle cells & plasma cells.
CLINICAL PICTURE
The swelling is painless, well defined edge, pedunculated shape.
firm in consistency, pinkish in color & covered with intact mucous membrane.
TREATMENT
Excision of tumor with adjacent tooth + removal of wedge of bone with its
mucoperiosteum.
2. Granulomatous epulis
PATHOLOGY
 Site : Around a carious tooth.
 N/E : Mass of granulation tissue.
 M/P : Granulation tissue (capillaries & fibroblasts)
CLINICAL PICTURE
The granulation tissue may be 
- Healthy : Pink, painless doesn't bleed or ooze easily.
- Unhealthy : Yellow, painful, bleed or ooze easily.
TREATMENTS
Extraction of the carious tooth + curettage of unhealthy granulation tissue.

B- Locally malignant epulides

Giant cell ( myeloid ) epulis
PATHOLOGY
 Site : Undergums ( lower jaw > upper jaw)
 N/E : Arising from osteoclastic layer of periosteum
 M/P : Giant cells in a matrix of fibrous tissue.
N.B It is not malignant but locally malignant
CLINICAL PICTURE
The swelling is painless, sessile in shape, soft in consistency, violet in color
from vascularity so ulceration leads to severe hemorrhage..
TREATMENTS
Wide excision with part of bone which carries the epulis.

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 C- Malignant epulides
Carcinoma Squamous cell carcinoma of gums.
Sarcoma Parosteal fibrosarcoma or periosteum of mandible.

2. Odontoma
These are cysts related to teeth remnant
A. Dental cyst B. Dentigerous cyst

INCIDENCE
- Age • Old • Adult & young
- Sex • Male > Female • Male > Female
- Site • Upper Jaw • Lower Jaw
AETIOLOGY • Chronic infected root of a tooth. • Non erupted permanent tooth.

PATHOLOGY • Chronic infection  stimulation of • Cystic degeneration of a dental

epithelial debris of the Malassez follicle  dentigerous cyst.
- Mechanism
 proliferation  mass which
undergo central degeneration
 dental cyst.
- N/E • Small, unilocular cyst. which is • Expanded outer table of the
slowly growing expansion of the jaw only.
jaw on both sides equally.
- M/E • Lined by squamous epithelium & • Lined by squamous epithelium
contains mucoid fluid rich in & contains a missed tooth and
cholesterol. viscid fluid

CLINICAL • Painless, well defined mass • Painless, ill-defined mass

PICTURE
related to infected tooth at related to missed tooth at
upper jaw lower jaw.

INVESTIGATION • Plain X-ray shows  • Plain X-ray shows 

Radiolucent area at upper jaw Cyst with tooth inside it

TREATMENT
1- DENTAL CYST :
Extraction of the affected tooth & excision of the wall of the cyst.
2- DENTIGEROUS CYST :
De- roofing of cyst & lining epithelium with missed tooth.

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 C- Adamantinoma
Eve's tumor
Ameloblastoma

ORIGIN " Locally malignant tumor "

Arising from (Ameloblast) = Para-dental cells of Malassez.
PATHOLOGY
 Site : Starts at angle of mandible & grows slowly in
both vertical & horizontal directions.
 N/E : - Pink or white in color & well encapsulated.
- Solid mass with cystic areas & almost equal
lobulations.
- Fibrous tissue trabeculations in between.
 M/P : Basal cell carcinoma.
CLINICAL PICTURE
 Age : 20 - 40 years.
 Sex : Female > male.
 Presentation :
- Symptoms :
• Painless, lobulated, slowly growing swelling in the lower jaw .
- Signs :
• Expansion with intact overlying skin & mucus membrane
• Egg shell crackling sensation if enlarged with no L.Ns .
• Later on  Ulceration & infection
 Bleeding from mucus membrane.
 Falling of teeth

D.D Adamantinoma Osteoclastoma

Eve's tumor Giant cell tumor

Site • Angle of mandible. • Symphysis menti

Growth • Both horizontal & vertical. • Only horizontal
Shape • Equal lobulations & expanded • Unequal lobulations & expanded
more at outer side. equally on both sides

INVESTIGATION
1- X-ray shows fine soap bubbles appearance
related to angle of mandible.
2- C.T scan & MRI
TREATMENT
Hemi-mandiblectomy
+ rib graft from contra-lateral 5th rib.
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 9. SALIVARY GLAND DISEASES

I- Anatomy of the parotid gland

 Site between the angle of mandible & sternomastoid muscle
 Parts
(1) PAROTID GLAND
- Relations :
( a ) Upper end is related to :
1- Superficial temporal vessels.
2- Auriculo-temporal nerve.
3- Cartilaginous part of E.A.M
4- Temporal branch of facial n.
( b ) Lower end is related to :
1- Cervical branch of facial nerve.
2- Retromandibular vein.
3- It overlaps the posterior belly of digastric muscle.
4- ECA
( c ) Anterior border is related to :
1- Temporal branch of facial nerve.
2- Zygomatic branch of facial nerve.
3- Parotid duct.
4- Buccal branch of facial nerve.
5- Mandibular branch of facial nerve.
( d ) Lateral surface is related to :
1- Skin & fascia.
2- Parotid LNs.
( e ) Antero-medial surface is related to :
1- Ramus of the mandible.
2- Masseter muscle

( f ) Postero-medial surface is related to :

1- Mastoid process.
2- Sternomastoid muscle

(2) PAROTID ( STENSEN'S ) DUCT

- It is a 5 cm long
- It emerges from the anterior border
- It runs superficial to masseter m. then pierces the buccinators to opens in the
vestibule of mouth, opposite the upper 2 molar tooth.
 Structures within the gland
1- External carotid artery (deepest).
2- Retromandibular vein (superficial to artery).
3- Facial nerve (superficial to the vein).

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 Blood supply
ARTERIAL SUPPLY
External carotid artery inside the gland
VENOUS DRAINAGE
Retromandibular vein inside the gland
 Lymphatic drainage
Parotid L.Ns  upper deep cervical L.Ns.

 Surface Anatomy
(1) PAROTID GLAND (by 3 points)
A • Point on tragus.
B • Point on mastoid process.
C • Point on (one inch below & behind angle of the mandible).
(2) PAROTID DUCT (Middle 1/3 of a line between)
A • Tragus.
D • Mid-point between ala of nose & angle of mouth
 Points of Surgical importance
PAROTID ABSCESS should be drained by Hilton technique
(to avoid injury of the facial nerve).

II- Anatomy of the facial nerve ( VII )

 Site
- It passes in auditory meatus & emerges through the stylomastoid foramen.
- It enters the parotid gland where it gives its 5 terminal branches.
 Branches
(1) IN FACIAL CANAL It gives :
Chorda tympani which carries taste sensation to the ant 2/3 of the tongue.
(2) AFTER ITS EXIT FROM STYLOMASTOID FORAMEN It gives :
1- Nerve to stylohyoid.
2- Nerve to posterior belly of digastric.
(3) INSIDE THE PAROTID GLAND It gives 5 braches :
1- Temporal branch
2- Zygomatic branch
3- Buccal branch
4- Mandibular branch
5- Cervical branch (which supplies the platysma)

270
 III- Anatomy of the submandibular gland
 Site in the digastric triangle, partly below & partly deep to the mandible
 Parts
(1) SUPERFICIAL PART
Wedge shaped, extending :
Posteriorly : to the angle of mandible.
Superiorly : to mylohyoid line of mandible.
Inferiorly : it overlaps the 2 bellies of
digastric muscles.
(2) DEEP PART
Small part lying deep to mylohyoid muscle
It lies between lingual nerve above & hypoglossal nerve below.

(3) SUBMANDIBULAR ( WARTON'S ) DUCT

5 cm long, has the following course & relations :
It arises from the deep part & passes
deep to mylohyoid muscle
It ends by opening into the floor of
the mouth

 Lymphatic drainage
Submandibular L.Ns  upper deep cervical L.Ns
.

SALIVARY GLAND DISEASES

1. Sialectasis
Degenerative disease
DEFINITION
Abnormal dilatation of the small branches of the salivary ducts.
AETIOLOGY
Not known but the childhood type is known to be a familial disease.
CLINICAL PICTURE
Unilateral recurrent attacks of sialadenitis.
INVESTIGATIONS
Sialography : Snow storm appearance.
TREATMENT
 Conservative : Massage the affected gland & antibiotics

 Surgical : Excision of the gland

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 2. Acute parotitis
AETIOLOGY
 Organism : Usually staph. aureus.
 Route of infection :
 Retrograde infection from the mouth through the duct
 Blood borne infection
 Predisposing factors :
 Dehydration & reduced saliva with fasting or
medications with atropine.
 Lack of oral hygiene.
 Obstruction of the parotid duct e.g. stone.
 Typhoid & cholera (dry infected mouth)
CLINICAL PICTURE
General Toxic symptoms (fever, headache,... .etc)
Local  Painful swelling at parotid region.
 The opening of the duct is red, raised with
possibility of purulent discharge
TREATMENT
 Prophylactic : Correct dehydration & care of oral hygiene
 In early cases : Antibiotic therapy
 In fulminating cases : i.e. parotid abscess
Don't wait for fluctuation
So - A vertical skin incision is done in front of ear .
- The deep fascia is incised transversally to avoid
injury of facial nerve & its branches.
- A sinus forceps is introduced closed & then opened
to drain the pus i.e. Hilton's method.

3- Salivary fistula
TYPES
Internal opens in the mucus membrane.
External opens in the skin.
AETIOLOGY
1- Traumatic : Usually operative or penetrating facial injuries.
2- Inflammatory : Acute abscess + Rupture. chronic inflammation with stone.
3- Neoplastic : Malignant tumors infiltrating the skin.
C/P Watery discharge from ectopic site over the gland or duct
INVESTIGATIONS Sialogram

TREATMENT
1- If submandibular (duct or gland) : Submandibular sialadenectomy.
2- If parotid gland : Superficial conservative paratidectomy.
3- If parotid duct : Excision & end to end anastomosis
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 4. Salivary calculi
INCIDENCE
The submandibular glands : parotid gland ratio is 50 : 1
because  The submandibular secretion is more viscid.
 The submandibular duct lies in the floor of mouth
so liable to be blocked by food particles
 The submandibular gland drainage is inadequate
as it ascends upwards.
PATHOGENESIS
Obstruction  stasis  infection  change of pH of saliva  stone
PATHOLOGY
 Site : The stone are impacted inside the gland or in the duct.
 Number : The stone may be single or multiple.
 Nature : The stone composed of calcium, magnesium phosphate
& carbonate (radio-opaque)
CLINICAL PICTURE
Symptoms
Attacks of pain (at submandibular swelling) during meals,
Signs
 Pain & size of gland are increased when patient is given
a piece of lemon to suck i.e. ( Lemon test ).
 Enlarged, tender, palpable gland & can not be rolled over the lower
border of the mandible = D.D. from submandibular LNs
 The stone may be felt in the duct
COMPLICATIONS
 Salivary fistula.
 Sialectasia i.e. dilated duct.
INVESTIGATIONS
 Plain x-ray : Stones are 100 % radio-opaque
 Sialography : Dilated ducts + filling defect of stone.
TREATMENT
" According to site of impacted stone "
 Stone at orifice : Removed through meatotomy.
 Stone in the duct : Cutting directly over it through the floor of mouth.
 Stone in the gland : Total excision of the gland i.e. Sialadenectomy.

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 5. Salivary tumors

CLASSIFICATIONS
Benign tumors Malignant tumors
 Pleomorphic adenoma  Muco-epidermoid carcinoma
( Mixed tumor )
 Adeno-cystic carcinoma.
 Adenolymphoma ( Cylindroma )
= Adenocystic lymphoma
 Acinic cell carcinoma.
( Warthin's tumor )
 Miscellaneous adenocarinoma
 Oxyphil adenoma
( Oncocytoma (  Lymphoma.
 Monomorphic adenoma  Carcinoma on top of pleomorphic
adenoma

A. BENIGN TUMORS
1. Pleomorphic adenoma
Mixed parotid tumor
The commonest salivary gland tumor occurs at any age in both sex
PATHOLOGY
 Site : Usually arises in the superficial part
of the parotid gland.
 N/E : Lobulated, well encapsulated mass.
cut surface is grayish white
 M/P : Epithelial cells arranged in sheets with
blue stroma ( thought to be cartilaginous )
SPREAD
Strands of tumor tend to penetrate the capsule.
So there is high rate of recurrence after enucleation.
CLINICAL PICTURE
Symptoms
Unilateral, painless & slowly growing swelling
Signs
 The swelling elevate the lobule of the ear.
 The consistency is firm ( Never hard (
 Facial nerve is Not affected
 The superficial temporal artery pulsation is felt
 If it affects the deep part, it will push the tonsil medially.
N.B : It turns into malignancy in 3 %

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DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS (SWELLINGS IN THE PAROTID REGION)
1- Extra-parotid swellings
 Lipoma & sebaceous cyst may resemble pleomorphic adenomas.
 Pre-auricular or parotid L.Ns
 Mandibular or maxillary tumors.
 Hypertrophy of masseter muscle.
2- True parotid enlargement
- It is caused by salivary gland disease.
INVESTIGATIONS
 Biopsy : FNAC is usually enough to reach the diagnosis.
 C.T scan & MRI are useful in imaging the deep lobe.
TREATMENT
Enucleation of pleomorphic adenoma is easy but followed by
high rate of recurrence
So the standard operations
1- Conservative superficial parotidectomy :
Removal of superficial part of gland with preservation of facial nerve.
2- Conservative total parotidectomy :
As above + removal of deep part.

2. Adenolymphoma
Adenocystic lymphoma = Warthin's tumor
INCIDENCE
 Account 10 % of parotid tumors.
 It affects males > 40 years.
PATHOLOGY
 Site : Lower pole superficial part of the parotid gland.
 N/E : Cystic encapsulated mass & variable in size.
 M/P : - Cystic spaces with papillary projection.
- Lined by epithelial cells surrounded by lymphoid stroma.
CLINICAL PICTURE
 It presents as a mass which is cystic in consistency
& not raising the ear
INVESTIGATIONS
 Biopsy : FNAC is usually enough to reach the diagnose.
TREATMENT
 Conservative superficial parotidectomy

275
 B. MALIGNANT TUMOR
INCIDENCE
 Parotid gland > submandibular gland
PREDISPOSING FACTORS
 De novo or on top of mixed parotid tumor ( 3 % )
PATHOLOGY
 Site : Superficial or deep parts
 N/E : Infiltrating, non capsulated mass with
areas of hemorrhage & necrosis.
 M/P : Pathological types
 MUCO-EPIDERMOID CARCINOMA (Rare but common with children)
- Arises from epithelial lining the ducts of salivary gland.
- It is a malignant tumor composed of columnar (mucoid)
& squamous (epidermoid)
- 3 grades of malignancy (low, intermediate & high).
- Treated by removal of gland + radiotherapy.
 ADENO-CYSTIC CARCINOMA (CYLINDROMA) (The commonest)
- Arises as layers of cylinders of cells surrounded by hyaline
material forming cylindroma.
 ACINIC CELLS CARCINOMA (uncommon)
- Arises resembling the acinic cells of the parotid gland
 MISCELLANEOUS ADENOCARCINOMA
- Arises by different histologic pattern e.g. anaplastic or mucous.
SPREAD
 Direct : To surroundings e.g. mandible, masseter …….etc.
 Lymphatic : Parotid L.Ns  submandibular L.Ns  upper deep cervical L.Ns.
 Blood : Late & rare to lung, bone …….etc.
CLINICAL PICTURE
Criteria of malignancy
 Tender mass which may be referred to ear
 Hard in consistency
 Irregular surface with ill defined edge
 Enlarged i.e. rapid rate of growth
 Fixed i.e. infiltration of skin, muscles, vessels & nerves
N.B.: Facial nerve is affected with parotid carcinoma but hypoglossal &
lingual nerves are affected with submandibular carcinoma.
Involved L.Ns Stony hard, painless & 1st mobile, later on fixed.

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COMPLICATIONS
 Ulceration, hemorrhage & infection
 Facial palsy with cancer parotid.
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS (SWELLINGS IN THE PAROTID REGION)
1- Extra-parotid swellings
 Lipoma & sebaceous cyst may resemble pleomorphic adenomas.
 Pre-auricular or parotid L.Ns
 Mandibular or maxillary tumors.
 Hypertrophy of masseter muscle.
2- True parotid enlargement
- It is caused by salivary gland disease.
INVESTIGATIONS
 Biopsy : FNAC is usually enough to reach the diagnose.
 C.T scan & MRI are useful in imaging the extent of the tumor.
 Isotopic scan with Tc99 : Salivary neoplasm shows as a cold spot.
 Metastatic work up (C.T brain, chest x-ray, bone scan & liver U/S)
TREATMENT
1- Operable
 CANCER PAROTID GLAND
Total radical parotidectomy
+ total block dissection of neck nodes

N.B : The facial nerve is sacrificed

we will do 
 Grafting by great auricular nerve
 Transposition of hypoglossal nerve then
anastomosing it to the peripheral branches
of facial nerve.
 CANCER SUBMANDIBULAR GLAND
Total radical submandibular sialadenectomy
+ total block dissection of neck nodes

2- Inoperable
 Palliative resection + radiotherapy

277
Neck Surgery

278
 NECK SURGERY
1- BRANCHIAL CYST & FISTULA
Introduction
IN EMBRYO
 The neck starts to develop between the head & the developing heart
 5 Ridges develop on each side of the neck called branchial arches
- The 1st arch forms the mandible & the ear
- The 2nd arch forms the hyoid region
- The 3rd arch forms the neck over the thyroid region.
DURING EMBRYOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
 The 2nd arch grows rapidly covering the 3rd & 4th
arches then it fuse with the 5th arch
 The space between the 2nd arch & the rest of arches
turns into a cervical sinus which soon disappears
if persists it becomes branchial cyst.
Branchial fistula : if the 2nd arch doesn't completely
fuse with the 5th arch

1. Branchial cyst
DEFINITION
Persistent cervical sinus
PATHOLOGY
- The cyst is lined by squamous epithelium
- It is surrounded by lymphoid tissues which
explain its frequent inflammation
- It contains mucus rich in cholesterol crystals
CLINICAL PICTURE
 Age : congenital but may represented at
childhood or later at age of 20 years
 Site : Upper part of side of neck just below the
angle of mandible deep to anterior border
of upper 1/3 of sternomastoid.
 Characters :
 Moderate in size about 5 cm
 Globular, smooth, well-defined, tense cystic & opaque
 On contracting sternomastoid, mass bulge out
TREATMENT
Complete excision through a transverse incision
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 2. Branchial fistula
Congenital branchial fistula
DEFINITION
If the 2nd arch doesn't completely fuse with the 5th arch
PATHOLOGY
- The track is lined by squamous epithelium
& extends up to the side wall of naso-pharynx
i.e. " fossa of Rosen Muller "
- It is surrounded by lymphoid tissues which
explain its frequent inflammation
- It contains mucus rich in cholesterol crystals
CLINICAL PICTURE
 Age : Present since birth.
 Site : External opening lies deep to lower 1/3
of sternomastoid near its anterior border.
N.B. : The fistula passes between E.C.A & I.C.A
to end highly in the pharynx behind tonsil,
usually blind or rarely opened into it
 Characters :
 It represents as a pin point opening.
 Fistula is felt as a thread passing up & deeply through anterior
part of sternomastoid .
 It discharges mucus or pus if infected.
N.B. : The fistula may be confused with T.B sinus
TREATMENT
Complete excision of the whole track through,
multiple transverse neck incisions ; a small one
around the external opening and the other at a
higher level just below the Jaw.

Acquired branchial fistula

DEFINITION
Due to rupture of inflamed branchial cyst or incomplete removal of cyst.
CLINICAL PICTURE
Clinically, it differs from congenital fistula in 
 It appears in adulthood, on top of pre-exiting cyst.
 External opening lies high on side of neck (cyst level)
TREATMENT
Complete excision through a transverse incision.

280
 2- CAVERNOUS LYMPHANGIOMA
Cystic Hygroma
It is not a true tumor, but tumor like i.e. hamartoma
Hamartoma = congenital malformation of vessels
AETIOLOGY
 Normal development :
The lymphatic system develops by the coalescence of multiple small lymph
vesicles. A large accumulation of theses lymph vesicles are present lateral
to jugular vein & called jugular lymph space.
 Abnormal development :
If some of the lymph vesicles of the jugular lymph sac fail to join the lymph
system they become sequestrated & form a CYSTIC HYGROMA.
PATHOLOGY
● It consists of multiple intercommunicating cystic lymph space.
● It is lined by endothelial cells.
● It contains clear lymph.
CLINICAL PICTURE
● Age : Since birth or shortly after.
● Site :  Common at lower part of the post. triangle.
 The next common site is axilla alone or with neck.
● Clinical features :
- The swelling is translucent to light.
- Bluish swelling as the overlying skin is thin.
- Soft, compressible but non pulsating mass.
TREATMENT
● Excision as early as possible.
N.B.: This could be facilitated by preoperative injection of boiling water
in the swelling to induce fibrosis to make it smaller.

3- CELLULITES OF THE NECK

Ludwig’s angina
AETIOLOGY
● It is inflammatory swelling of the submandibular
region due to streptococcal infection.
CLINICAL PICTURE
● The swelling is painful, red, warm, tender and
the overlying skin is edematous .

TREATMENT
● Antibiotics & drainage through an incision beneath the jaw

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 4. THORACIC OUTLET SYNDROME
Introduction
ANATOMY
 The brachial plexus & the subclavian artery
pass to the upper limb through a narrow
triangle in the base of the neck.
 This triangle is made up of 
- Anterior :
Scalenous anterior muscle.
- Posterior:
Scalenous medius muscle.
- Inferior :
The 1st rib.
 At this narrow space compression of
nerves & artery may occur.
AETIOLOGY
1- Cervical rib :
Which may be complete or incomplete. this bony
structure extends from the 7th cervical vertebra to
the 1st rib.
N.B : A fibrous band extending from an incomplete
cervical rib & ending at 1st rib
2- A tight scalene muscle.

3- Post-fixation of brachial plexus :

In this case the lower root of brachial plexus arises
from T2 instead of T1, Thus, this nerve becomes
excessively bent over the 1st rib.
COMPLICATIONS
Post-stenotic dilatation
It is an aneurysmal dilatation of subclavian artery,
which may send a shower of emboli to the index &
middle fingers as they are the direct continuation
of the brachial artery.
CLINICAL PICTURE
 Age : > 20 years.
 Sex : Female > male.
 Symptoms :
- vascular : Intermittent claudication.
- Vasomotor : Raynaud's phenomenon due to irritation of sympathetic fiber
- Nervous : Tingling & numbness especially in the medial aspect of forearm
& hand due to compression on lower root of plexus.
282
  Signs :
- Bony swelling at base of posterior triangle i.e. cervical rib.
- Hypothesia & wasting of hand muscles may be noticed.
- Adson's test :
 1st palpate the radial pulse then ask
patient to turn his head & elevate his
chin, then take deep inspiration.
 Palpate again, if the pulse becomes
weak = +ve test for cervical rib.
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
1- Other causes of localized pressure
 Cervical spondylosis.
 Carpal tunnel syndrome
2- Other causes of Raynaud's phenomenon
 Systemic lupus
 Collagen disease
INVESTIGATIONS
 Plain X-ray (neck & chest)
may detect bony cervical rib.

Bilateral cervical rib Unilateral cervical rib

 Arteriography as subclavian angiography.

 Nerve conduction Study :
To detect delayed conduction between neck &
forearm so help in D.D between the thoracic
outlet syndrome & carpal tunnel syndrome
TREATMENTS
 Asymptomatic cases : No treatment.
 Physiotherapy to strengthen the shoulder muscles.
 Surgery :
 Excision of bony cervical including its periosteum.
 Excision of 1st rib to relieve the lower compression .
 Incision of scalenous anterior muscle i.e. scalenotomy.

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 5. CONGENITAL TORTICOLLIS
Sternomastoid tumor
EMBRYOLOGY
 Sternomastoid muscle develops through
the union of 3 somites each with its blood supply.
AETIOLOGY
- Sometimes at birth, an interruption of blood supply to
the central portion occurs causing muscle infarction.
the infarcted portion becomes swollen, hence the
name sternomastoid tumor
- After a while the infracted portion is replaced by fibrous
tissue that contracts causing congenital torticollis.
CLINICAL PICTURE
 At birth there will be a swelling, which is firm in
consistency, at the middle portion of the
sternomastoid muscle.
 Later, when torticollis develops, the head will be
tilted to the side of the lesion with the face
looking to the opposite side.
 Facial asymmetry will later occur with flattening of
the side of the face at the side
of the lesion
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
This condition should be differentiated from ( Wry neck )
- Which is fibrositis causing spasm of the sternomastoid muscle.
- This is a temporary disorder lasting for a day or two and responds
to anti-inflammatory drugs.
TREATMENT
 Early after birth ( Physiotherapy )
an attempt to prevent the development of the deformity
by stretching the neck.
 If the deformity is established :
Division of the sternomastoid at its lower part should be done.

6. PNEUMATOCELE
INCIDENCE
 It occurs with emphysematous patient.
AETIOLOGY
 Herniation of pleura through Sibson's fascia which cover the pleura.
due to  Intra-thoracic pressure
CLINICAL PICTURE
 Cystic, compressible, resonant swelling shows expansile
impulse on cough at posterior triangle of the neck.

284
 7. LARYNGOCELE
INCIDENCE
 It occurs with with glass bowers or trumpet players or singers.
AETIOLOGY
 Herniation of laryngeal mucosa through thyro-hyoid
membrane due to  Intra-laryngeal pressure.
CLINICAL PICTURE
 Cystic, compressible, resonant swelling shows expansile
impulse on cough at midline of the neck.

8. PHARYNGEAL DIVERTICULUM
Pharyngo-esophageal diverticulum
DEFINITION
Herniation of pharyngeal mucosa through a weak area in
the posterior pharyngeal wall
AETIOLOGY
Achalasia of crico-pharyngeus muscle i.e. fails to relax
during swallowing   Intra-pharyngeal pressure
 herniation of the mucous membrane posteriorly.
So, food will enter the diverticulum.
CLINICAL PICTURE
Symptoms
- Progressive dysphagia with regurgitation of non
digested food after meals.
- Sense of foreign body in the throat.
Signs
- Swelling characterized by 
 Soft & compressible at posterior triangle
 Dull or resonant on percussion.
 Gurgling sound can be elicited if patient swallows
several glups of air.
INVESTIGATIONS
 Manometric studies for achalasia
of crico-pharyngeus muscle
 Barium swallow
 Endoscopy (not done) because of high risk of perforation.
TREATMENT
According to the size of diverticulum 
 Small : Repeated dilatation of crico-
pharyngeus muscle.
 Moderate : Diverticulopexy
by invagination & plication.
 Large : Diverticulectomy

285
 9. POST-CRICOID CARCINOMA
DEFINITION
Carcinoma of the hypopharynx
at the level of cricoid cartilage.
INCIDENCE
It may occur on top of Plummer Vinson syndrome
which is much more common in female.
PATHOLOGY
Site : It arises from pharyngeal mucosa.
N/E : Usually fungating mass.
M/P : Squamous cell carcinoma.

SPREAD
Direct : To surrounding tissues.
Blood : Mainly to lung.
Lymphatic : To cervical L.Ns.

CLINICAL PICTURE
Symptoms
The early symptom is pain in the throat
referred to side of the neck or the ear
due to stimulation of Arnold nerve.
Signs
- Inspection : Bulge of thyroid cartilage & trachea.
- Palpation : Loss of laryngeal click.

COMPLICATIONS
1- Obstruction : - Oesophageal = Dysphagia
- Laryngeal = Stridor & dyspnea
2- Hoarseness of voice.
3- Ulceration, bleeding & infection..
4- Metastasis.
INVESTIGATIONS
1- Pharyngoscopy & Laryngoscopy :
It shows the tumor & take a biopsy.
2- Barium swallow :
It shows filling defect in the pharynx.
TREATMENT
Operable
Total laryngeopharyngectomy with block dissection of L.Ns
+ permanent tracheostomy + oesophageal replacement.
Inoperable
Radiotherapy.

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 10. DD OF A MASS IN THE NECK

Anatomy of triangles of the neck

Each side of the neck is divided into anterior & posterior triangles by sternomastoid.

Posterior triangles

BOUNDARIES
Anteriorly : Posterior border of sternomastoid muscle.
Base : The clavicle
Posteriorly : anterior border of trapezius muscle.
ROOF
1- Skin.
2- Superficial fascia (contains platysma ).
3- Deep fascia
FLOOR
Muscles : levator scapulae & scalenus medlius.
DD OF MASS
Solid swellings
 Cervical rib. (discuss(
 Sternomastoid tumor (discuss(
 Neurofibroma arising from brachial plexus.
 Enlarged L.Ns.
Cystic swellings
 Cold abscess.
 Pharyngeal diverticulum (discuss(
 Lymphangioma ( Cystic hygroma ) (discuss(
 Pneumatocele (discuss(

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 Anterior triangles

BOUNDARIES
Anteriorly : Midline of the neck.
Base : lower border of mandible.
Posteriorly : anterior border of sternomastoid. muscle.
SUBDIVISIONS
The digastric muscle & superior belly of omohyoid muscle divide the anterior
triangle into 3.5 
1- 0.5 Submental 

2- Digastric ( Submandibular ) 

3- Muscular 

4- Carotid 

1- Submental triangle
BOUNDARIES
Apex : Symphysis menti.
Base : hyoid bone.
On either side : anterior bellies of digastric muscle .
FLOOR
Muscles : mylohyoid muscle .
DD OF MASS
Enlarged submental LNs.

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 2- Digastric triangle
SUBMANDIBULAR TRIANGLE
BOUNDARIES
Above : lower border of the mandible.
Below : 2 bellies of digastric muscle.
DD OF MASS
1- Enlarged submandibular L.Ns.
2- Enlarged submandibular salivary gland.
For D.D : The submandibular L.Ns are multiple & can be rolled over
edge of mandible unlike the submandibular gland.

3- Carotid triangle
BOUNDARIES
Superiorly : Posterior belly of digastric.
Inferiorly : superior belly of omohyoid.
Posteriorly : anterior border of sternomastoid
DD OF MASS
Solid swellings
 Enlarged upper deep cervical L.Ns.
 CAROTID BODY TUMOR ( Potato tumor )
 Its a rare slowly growing malignant tumor.
 It arises from the chemoreceptors which
present at bifurcation of carotid artery
 Its characterized by 
- Oval hard swelling with smooth surface
- Moving from side to side but not along.
- It is pulsating from high vascularity.
- Pressure on swelling may cause fainting attack
i.e. Carotid sinus syndrome
 Investigation :
Angiography which proves widening of carotid bifurcation.
 Treatment :
Excision of tumor with preservation of internal carotid artery.

Cystic swellings
 Cold abscess at upper deep cervical L.Ns (discuss(
 Branchial cyst (discuss(
 Aneurysm of carotid artery.

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 4- Muscular triangle
BOUNDARIES
Anterior : midline of the neck.
Postero-superiorly : superior belly of omohyoid.
Postero-inferiorly : anterior border of sternomastoid.

FLOOR
Muscles : Infrahyoid muscles (strap muscles)
Sternohyoid, sternothyroid & thyrohyoid muscles.
DD OF MASS
Enlarged thyroid gland.

DD OF A MASS IN THE MID LINE OF NECK

Solid swellings
 Submental L.Ns enlargement.
 Pre-tracheal & pre-Iaryngeal L.Ns enlargement.
 Nodule in the isthmus of the thyroid gland .
Cystic swellings
 Cold abscess .
 Thyroglossal cyst (discuss(
 Dermoid cyst : sublingual or supra-sternal.
 Subhyoid bursitis : (It is a rare disease)
Tender & oval swelling which moves up and down
with deglutition and protrusion of the tongue.
 Laryngocele (discuss(
 Cystadenoma of thyroid isthmus .

GOOD LUCK

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 ‫تحــــذير‬
‫هذا الكتاب مسجل ومحفوظ بدار الكتب والوثائق القومية‬
‫دالمالف ودافدالكتافدالتامعف‬

‫هو الناشر والموزع الوحيد‬

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