Wollo University Department of Geography by: Nurhussen A.

Chapter one
Principles of Remote Sensing
1.1 Definition
"Remote sensing is the science and to some extent, art of acquiring information about an
object, area or phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in
contact with the object, area or phenomenon under investigation. This is done by sensing and
recording reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing, and applying that information."

The human visual system is an example of a remote sensing system in the general sense. As you
read this hand out, you are employing remote sensing. Your eyes are acting as sensors that
respond to the light reflected from this page. These data are analyzed and interpreted in your
mental computer to enable you to explain the dark areas on the page as a collection of letters
forming words. Beyond this, you recognize that the words form sentences and you interpreted
the information that the sentences convey.

1.2 METHODS OF DATA ACQUISITIONS

In principle, there are two main categories of spatial data acquisition:

 Ground-based methods such as making field observations, taking in situ measurements

and performing land surveying. Using ground-based methods, you operate in the real
world environment.
 Remote sensing methods: which are based on the use of image data acquired by a sensor
such as aerial cameras, scanners or radar. Taking a remote sensing approach means that
information is derived from the image data, which form a (limited) representation of the
real world. However, that the increasingly remote sensing devices are used in the field
that can acquire data in a fashion similar to air or space borne sensors. Thus, the strict
division between ground based and remote sensing methods is blurring.

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1.3 Elements of remote sensing

Certainly, in much of remote sensing, the process involves an interaction between incident
radiation and the targets of interest. This is exemplified by the use of imaging systems where the
following seven elements are involved (Fig 1.1). Note, however that remote sensing also
involves the sensing of emitted energy and the use of non-imaging sensors.

Fig1.1: Elements of remote sensing

1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) – the first requirement for remote sensing is to have an
energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) – as the energy travels from its source to the target, it
will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction
may take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.
3. Interaction with the Target (C) – once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere; it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered by, or emitted
from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to collect and record
the electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sensor has to be
transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are
processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).

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6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally
or electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.

7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply
the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in order to better
understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.

1.4 LIMITATION OF REAL REMOTE SENSING SYSTEMS

Let us consider some of the basic shortcomings common to all real remote sensing systems in
order to better understand their general operation and utility.
1. The energy source: all passive remote sensing systems rely on energy that is reflected and/or
emitted from earth surface features. The spectral distribution of reflected sunlight and self-
emitted energy is far from uniform. Solar energy levels obviously vary with respect to time and
location, and different earth surface materials emit energy with varying degrees of efficiency.
2. The atmosphere: The atmosphere normally compounds the problems introduced by energy
source variation. To some extent, the atmosphere always modifies the strength and spectral
distribution of the energy received by a sensor.
3. The energy—matter interactions at the earth’s surface: remote sensing would be simple if
every material reflected and/or emitted energy in a unique, known way. Although spectral
response patterns (signatures) play a central role in detecting, identifying, and analyzing earth
surface materials, the spectral world is full of ambiguity.
4. The sensor: at this point, it should come as no surprise that an ideal “super sensor” does not
exist. No single sensor is sensitive to all wavelengths. All real sensors have fixed limits of
spectral sensitivity.
5. The data processing and supply system: the capability of current remote sensors to generate
data far exceeds the capacity to handle these data. This is generally true whether we consider
“manual” image interpretation procedures or digital analyses.
6. The multiple data users: central to the successful application of any remote sensing system is
the person (or persons) using the remote sensor data from that system. The “data” generated by
remote sensing procedures become “information” only if and when someone understands their
generation, knows how to interpret them, and knows how best to use them.

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CHAPTER 2

ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY AND REMOTE SENSING

As noted in the previous section, the first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy
source to illuminate the target (unless the sensed energy is being emitted by the target). This
energy is in the form of electromagnetic energy. The most important source of EME at the
Earth‟s surface is the sun. Many sensors used in remote sensing measure reflected sun light.
Some sensors, however, detect energy emitted by the earth itself or provide their own energy
(Fig 1.2).

Fig 2.1: Electro Magnetic Energy

2.1 Theories of EME

A. Wave Model

In the wave model, electromagnetic energy is considered to propagate through space in the form
of sine waves. These waves are characterized by electrical (E) and magnetic (M) fields which are
perpendicular to each other. For this reason, the term Electromagnetic energy is used. The
vibration of both fields is perpendicular to the direction of travel of the wave. Both fields
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propagate through space at the speed of light (c), which is approximately 3x10 m/s.

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Figure 1.2: Electromagnetic wave

Two characteristics of electromagnetic radiation are particularly important to understand remote

sensing. These are the wavelength and frequency.

The wavelength is the length of one wave cycle, which can be measured as the distance between
successive wave crests or trough. Wavelength is usually represented by the Greek letter lambda
(λ). Wavelength is measured in meters (m) or some factor of meters such as nanometers (nm,
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10 meters), micrometers (μm, 10 meters) or centimeters (cm, 10 meters).

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Frequency, v, refers to the number of cycles of a wave passing a fixed point per unit of time.
Frequency is normally measured in hertz (Hz), equivalent to one cycle per second. Since the
speed of light is constant, wavelength and frequency are inversely related to each other.
Wavelength and frequency are related by the following formula:

c=λν
Where:
λ= wavelength
ν= Frequency (cycles per second, Hz)
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c= speed of light (3x10 m/s)

Therefore, the two are inversely related to each other. The shorter the wavelength is, the higher
the frequency. On the contrary, the longer the wavelength is, the lower the frequency (Figure
1.3). Understanding the characteristics of electromagnetic radiation in terms of their wavelength
and frequency is crucial to understand the information to be extracted from remote sensing data.

Figure 1.3: relationship between frequency and wave length

B. Particle Model
Most characteristics of EM energy can be described using the „wave‟ model as described above.
For some purpose, however, EM energy is more conveniently modeled by the practical theory, in
which EM energy is composed of discrete units called „photon‟ or „quanta‟. This approach is
taken when quantifying the amount of energy measured by a multi spectral sensor. The energy
released from a radiating body in the form of a vibrating photon traveling at the speed of light
can be quantified by relating the energy‟s wavelength with its frequency. The following equation
shows the relationship between wavelength, frequency, and amount of energy in units of joules:

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Q=hν
Where:
Q = energy of a quantum in Joules (J)
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h = Planck’s constant, 6.626 x 10 Js
ν = frequency (Cycles/Second, HZ)
λ= wavelength (m)
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c= 3.00×10 m/s, the speed of light

We can relate the wave and quantum models of electromagnetic radiation behavior by the
following equation:

Because c = λ ν, Q also equals

Q= h × c/ λ

The equation for energy indicates that, for long wavelengths, the amount of energy will be low,
and for short wavelengths, the amount of energy will be high. Thus, the energy of quantum is
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inversely proportional to its wavelength. Gamma rays (around 10 m) are the most energetic, and
radio waves (> 1m) the least energetic. The relationship between energy and the wavelengths has
implications for remote sensing. For example, in order for the sensor to detect low energy
microwaves, which has a large λ, it will have to remain fixed over a site for a relatively long
period of time, known as dwell time.

2.2 Sources of EM energy

The sun is the most obvious source of electromagnetic radiation for remote sensing. However, all
matter with temperatures above absolute zero (0 K, where n °C = n + 273 K) radiates EM energy
due to molecular agitation. Agitation is the movement of the molecules. Thus, terrestrial objects
are also sources of radiation, though it is of considerably different magnitude and spectral
composition than that of the sun.

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2.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

All matter with a temperature above absolute zero (K) radiates electromagnetic waves of various
wavelengths. The total range of wavelengths is commonly referred to as the electromagnetic
spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from the shorter wavelengths (including
gamma and x-rays) to the longer wavelengths (including microwaves and broadcast radio
waves).

There are several regions of the electromagnetic spectrum which are useful for remote
sensing. Most sensors operate in the visible, infrared and micro wave regions of the spectrum.

Figure 1.4: Electromagnetic spectrum which is useful for remote sensing

A. Ultraviolet or UV Region: For most purposes, the ultraviolet or UV portion of the

spectrum has the shortest wavelengths (0.300 to 0.446μm) and high frequency which are

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practical for remote sensing. Some Earth surface materials, primarily rocks and minerals,
fluoresce or emit visible light when illuminated by UV radiation.
B. Visible spectrum: The light which our eyes - our "remote sensors" - can detect is part of the
visible spectrum. It is important to recognize how small the visible portion is relative to the
rest of the spectrum. The visible wavelengths cover a range from approximately 0.4 to 0.7
μm. The longest visible wavelength is red and the shortest is violet (Table 1.1). It is
important to note that this is the only portion of the spectrum we can associate with the
concept of colours. Blue, green, and red are the primary colours or wavelengths of the
visible spectrum.
Table 1.1: Wave length ranges of visible spectrum

C. Infrared (IR) region: covers the wavelength ranges from approximately 0.7 μm to 100 μm -
more than 100 times as wide as the visible portion. The infrared region can be divided into two
categories based on their radiation properties- the reflected IR, and the emitted or thermal IR.
The reflected IR covers wavelengths from approximately 0.7 μm to 3.0 μm. It is valuable for
delineating healthy verses unhealthy or fallow vegetation, and for distinguishing among
vegetation, soil and rocks. The thermal IR region is quite different than the visible and reflected
IR portions, as this energy is essentially the radiation that is emitted from the Earth's surface in
the form of heat. The thermal IR covers wavelengths from approximately 3.0 μm to 100 μm.
These wavelengths are useful for monitoring temperature variations in land, water and ice.

D. Microwave region: The portion of the spectrum of more recent interest to remote sensing is
the microwave region from about 1 mm to 1 m. This covers the longest wavelengths used
for remote sensing. The shorter wavelengths have properties similar to the thermal infrared
region while the longer wavelengths approach the wavelengths used for radio broadcasts.
Microwave remote sensing is used in meteorology, hydrology, oceans, geology agriculture,
forestry, ice and topographic mapping.

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2.4 Interaction of Electromagnetic Energy (EME)

Remote sensing requires that electromagnetic radiation travel some distance through the Earth‟s
atmosphere from the source to the sensor. Radiation from the sun or an active sensor will
initially travel through the atmosphere, strike the ground target, and pass through the atmosphere
a second time before it reaches a sensor. The total distance the radiation travel in the atmosphere
is called the path length.

As radiation passes through the atmosphere, it is greatly affected by the atmospheric particles
and gases it encounters. As a result, three fundamental interactions in the atmosphere are
possible: absorption, transmission and scattering (Figure 2.1). The change the radiation
experiences is a function of the atmospheric conditions, path length, composition of the particle,
the wavelength measurement relative to the diameter of the particle.

Figure 2.1: Energy interaction in the atmosphere and at the surface

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2.5 Electro Magnetic Energy (EME) interaction with the Atmosphere

2.5.1 Absorption and Transmission
Electromagnetic energy traveling through the atmosphere is partly absorbed by various
molecules. Ozone (O3), carbon dioxide (CO2), and water vapour (H O) are the three main
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atmospheric constituents which absorb radiation.

Figure 2.2: Atmospheric windows with wavelength in the x-axis

As Figure 2.2 shows ozone serves to absorb the harmful (to most living things) ultraviolet
radiation from the sun.

The areas of the spectrum that are not severely influenced by atmospheric absorption and thus,
are useful to remote sensors are called atmospheric windows and include:
 A window in the visible and reflected infrared region, between 0.4-2μm. This is the
window where the optical remote sensors operate.
 Three windows in the thermal infrared region, namely two narrow windows around 3 and
5 μm, and a third, relatively broad, window extending from approximately 8 to 14 μm.

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Figure 2.3: Atmospheric windows related to the emitted energy supplied by the sun and the Earth.

2.5.2 Atmospheric Scattering

Atmospheric Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere
interact with and cause the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original path.
There are three (3) types of scattering which take place: Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering and
Non-selective scattering.

• Rayleigh scattering: Rayleigh scattering occurs when particles are very small compared to the
wavelength of the radiation.

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Figure 2.5: Rayleigh scattering is caused by particles smaller than the wavelength and is
maximal for small wavelengths
Rayleigh scattering is the dominant scattering mechanism in the upper atmosphere. The fact that
the sky appears "blue" during the day is because of this phenomenon. As sunlight passes through
the atmosphere, the shorter wavelengths (i.e. blue) of the visible spectrum are scattered more
than the other (longer) visible wavelengths. In contrast, our moon has no atmosphere;
subsequently, there is no Rayleigh scatter. This explains why the moon‟s sky appears black.

In the context of satellite remote sensing, Rayleigh scattering is the most important type of
scattering. It causes a distribution of spectral characteristics of the reflected light when compared
to measurements taken on the ground; due to the Rayleigh effect the short wavelengths are
overestimated.
• Mie scattering
Mie scattering occurs when atmospheric particles are just about the same size as the wavelength
of the radiation. Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are common causes of Mie scattering
which tends to affect longer wavelengths than those affected by Rayleigh scattering. Mie
scattering occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere where larger particles are more
abundant, and dominates when cloud conditions are overcast. This type of scattering explains the
reddish hues of the sky following a forest fire or volcanic eruption.

• Non-selective scattering
Non-selective scattering occurs when the particles are much larger than the wavelength of the
radiation. Water droplets and large dust particles can cause this type of scattering. Nonselective
scattering gets its name from the fact that all wavelengths are scattered about equally (Figure
2.6). This type of scattering causes fog and clouds to appear white to our eyes because blue,
green, and red light are all scattered in approximately equal quantities (blue + green + red light =
white light).

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Figure 2.6: Non-Selective scattering

2.6 ENERGY INTERACTIONS WITH THE EARTH’S SURFACE

Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in the atmosphere can reach and interact with the
Earth's surface. There are three forms of interaction that can take place when energy strikes, or is
incident (I) upon the surface.

These are: absorption (A); transmission (T); and reflection (R) (Figure 2.7). The total incident
energy will interact with the surface in one or more of these three ways. The proportions of each
will depend on the wavelength of the energy and the material and condition of the feature.

Figure 2.7: Energy interaction with the earth surface

Absorption occurs when radiation (energy) is absorbed into the target while transmission occurs
when radiation passes through a target. Reflection occurs when radiation "bounces" off the target

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and is redirected. In remote sensing, we are most interested in measuring the radiation reflected
from targets. In this regard, there are two types of reflection, which represent the two extreme
ends of the way in which energy is reflected from a target: specular and diffuse reflection.

• Specular reflection, or mirror-like reflection, typically occurs when a surface is smooth and
all (or almost all) of the energy is directed away from the surface in a single direction. It is
most likely to occur when the sun is high in the sky. Specular reflection can be caused, for
example, by a water surface or a glasshouse roof.
• Diffuse reflection occurs when the surface is rough and the energy is reflected almost
uniformly in all directions. Most earth surface features are neither perfectly specular nor
diffuse reflector.

Figure 2.21: Specular reflection or mirror-like reflection (left) and diffuse reflection (right).

Diffused reflection contains spectral information on the “color” of the reflecting surface, whereas
specular reflections do not. Hence, in remote sensing, we are most often interested in
measuring the diffuse reflectance properties of terrain features.

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