Beyond Binary:

Bridging the Quantum Divide

Matea Bagnell
 Beyond Binary:
Bridging the Quantum Divide

Prepared for:
Mr. James Ross

Prepared by:
Matea Bagnell

November 17th, 2023

Cover image: (Wroblewski, 2022)

Table of Contents

1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 1

2. Technical Background ........................................................................................................................... 1

2.1 History of Quantum Computers ......................................................................................................... 1

2.2 Current Quantum Computers ............................................................................................................ 2

2.2.1 Development ............................................................................................................................... 3

2.2.2 Maintenance................................................................................................................................ 4

3. Societal Impacts.................................................................................................................................... 5

3.1 Potential Risks of Quantum Computers ............................................................................................ 5

3.2 Ethical Concerns of Quantum Computers ......................................................................................... 5

4. Applications .......................................................................................................................................... 5

4.1 Current Applications........................................................................................................................... 6

4.2 Future Applications ............................................................................................................................ 6

5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................ 6

References .................................................................................................................................................... 7

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Table of Figures

Figure 1: Google's Quantum Processor "Sycamore" (Aaronson, 2019). ....................................................... 2

Figure 2: When can useful quantum computers be expected? (adapted from Dyakonov, 2019). ............... 3

Figure 3: Qubits and superpositioning electrons (Soseman, 2019). ............................................................. 3

Figure 4: Quantum computer and the Quantum Processing Unit (QPU) (Soseman,2019). ......................... 4

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1. Introduction

The rapid progression of technology is made clear through the evolution of mobile and smartphones,
which operate 5000 times faster than the most powerful supercomputer of the 20th century (Adobe
Acrobat Team, 2022). Despite rapid and continuous technological advances, certain challenges persist
beyond the reach of our most capable smartphones or even today’s most advanced supercomputers. The
ever-changing landscape of technology has entered a new phase, where quantum mechanics converges
with computing, unlocking unparalleled capabilities in information processing (Maslov et al., 2019).

2. Technical Background

Standard digital computers are built on bits (McKinsey & Company, 2023). Bits store information in the
form of ones or zeros (McKinsey & Company, 2023). When a standard computer is presented with a
complex multivariable problem, it must perform a new calculation for each variable possibility. This is why
when a standard computer fails, it is typically due to a high level of complexity (IBM, n.d.).
Consider the dual nature of electrons. These subatomic particles have the ability to exhibit properties of
both a particle and a wave. While this duality remains mostly a mystery in the world of physics, it is the
perfect introduction to quantum nature (Blencowe, 2010). Quantum computing uses subatomic particles,
such as electrons, which allows a standard computer “bit” to experience a similar duality (Blencowe,
2010). Quantum bits, or “qubits”, can store any combination of zeros and ones simultaneously, and that is
the basis of quantum computing (Maslov et al., 2019). A quantum computer can explore different
calculations with different variables simultaneously, and succeed where our standard computers fail (IBM,
n.d.).

2.1 History of Quantum Computers

The idea of a quantum computer was first presented by Richard Feynman, a well-known man in the field
of computation (Preskill, 2021). At a conference in May of 1981, he presented the concept of a computer
which would use quantum mechanics to process complex problems which are beyond the scope of a
typical digital computer (Sexton, 2023). Feynman believed that due to quantum nature, his theorized
computers would be able to simulate complex multivariable problems which exceed digital computer
abilities. Feynman brought his groundbreaking presentation to an end with a captivating conclusion
(Preskill, 2021):
Nature isn’t classical, dammit, and if you want to make a simulation of Nature, you’d better
make it quantum mechanical, and by golly it’s a wonderful problem because it doesn’t
look so easy.

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To this day, Feynman’s quote rings true. Quantum computing has proved to be both a wonderful problem
and remains not so easy.

2.2 Current Quantum Computers

Quantum supremacy is a term which first came from the physicist John Preskill (Aaronson, 2019).
According to Dr. Scott Aaronson (2019), this term describes when a quantum computer will be able to
complete a calculation faster than any supercomputer invented. Google was the first to reach quantum
supremacy, when in 2019 its quantum computer, “Sycamore”, was given a complex problem, and
successfully solved this nearly impossible problem in less than three minutes (Sexton, 2023). The core of
their quantum computer, the processor, is pictured in Figure 1. Google claims that it would have taken the
most powerful classic supercomputer
approximately ten thousand years to
complete (Gibney, 2019). IBM debated
that Google was incorrect regarding the
estimated time it would take a classical
computer to complete this problem, and
produced evidence that it could be done
in 2.5 days using a more efficient method
(Sexton, 2023). Regardless of which
timeline is accurate, this is a breakthrough
for quantum computing, as prior to this,
quantum computing and its applications
had remained largely theoretical.
Since this breakthrough, Sycamore has
increased from 53 qubits to 70 qubits Figure 1: Google's Quantum Processor "Sycamore" (Aaronson, 2019).
(Sexton, 2023). This is a substantial
improvement and makes the new processor approximately 241 million times more robust than the earlier
version (Sexton, 2023). It would take the world’s fastest supercomputer, “Frontier”, only 6.18 seconds to
match a calculation from the early version of the Sycamore (Sexton, 2023). However, a calculation done
by the latest version of Sycamore would take the Frontier 47.2 years to match (Sexton, 2023).

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2.2.1 Development

While IBM and Googles quantum computers are

functional, many experts still doubt that useful
quantum computers will be developed for many
years (Dyakonov, 2019). The opinion of different
experts on when useful quantum computers will be
developed is shown in Figure 2. Quantum computers
have been theorized for upwards of 40 years, and
while examples of functional quantum computers
have been developed, they still have a long way to go Figure 2: When can useful quantum computers be expected?
before replacing current personal desktop and laptop (adapted from Dyakonov, 2019).
computers (Sexton, 2023).
A classical computer has a circuit element called the “transistor”, and in quantum computing, the
transistor is replaced by qubits (Dyakonov, 2019). As Figure 3 shows, a qubit and a bit both have two
possible states. A bit must either be in one state or another (1 or 0), while a qubit can be in any
configuration of these states simultaneously, which is called superposition (Frankenfield, 2023). The
number of possible states can be determined with a simple equation, 2𝑛 , n being the number of qubits or
bits (Dyakonov, 2019). A classical computer must be in one of those calculated states, but a quantum
computer can be any configuration simultaneously (Frankenfield, 2023). This phenomenon is the basis of
not only the power of a quantum computer, but also the developmental barriers (Dyakonov, 2019). Experts
estimate that for a quantum computer to be equivalently capable at problem solving as a standard laptop,
it needs between 1000 and 100 000 qubits (Dyakonov, 2019). After 40 years of theorization, the leading
company in quantum computing has just developed a 433-qubit processor (IBM, 2022). Progressing from
433 qubits to 1000 qubits increases the number of possible states by 4 ∗ 10170 . The difficulty of
manipulating these qubits without error is tremendous, and the leading reason for the development delay
of quantum computation (Dyakonov, 2019).

Figure 3: Qubits and superpositioning electrons (Soseman, 2019).

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2.2.2 Maintenance

The troubles of successfully building a quantum computer don’t end after development (Frankenfield,
2023). For a qubit to gather information, it must remain in a state of superposition, falling out of
superposition leads to computational errors (Frankenfield, 2023). This state can be destabilized
instantaneously by any disturbances in the qubit environment, leading to atoms moving, colliding with
each other, or interacting with the environment. These interferences are prevented by placing the
computation system within extreme insulation and supercooled with a refrigeration unit to maintain a
temperature of zero kelvin and to protect it from earth’s magnetic field and atmospheric pressure
(Frankenfield, 2023). The insulation and refrigeration units are represented in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Quantum computer and the Quantum Processing Unit (QPU) (Soseman,2019).

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3. Societal Impacts

When functional quantum computers are developed, they will fill many technological gaps in our society
(Possati, 2023). However, the existence of these technical gaps results in gaps in regulation towards the
future applications of quantum computing. (Possati, 2023). Given that quantum computing is
underdeveloped, it is difficult to fully understand the impact it will have on society upon its emergence.

3.1 Potential Risks of Quantum Computers

The method in which data is encrypted reflects the fact that supercomputers are unable to solve complex
number systems (Forbes Technology Council, 2022). Currently, encryption systems rely on large number
factorization, which supercomputers are unable to do in short periods of time (Sexton, 2023). Quantum
computing will excel at cryptography, which will put most web interactions at risk upon the development
of this technology (Sexton, 2023).
The largest risk with the emergence of quantum computation is the unknown. With all technological based
applications of our society being based off the power of supercomputers, quantum computation will
discover unknown vulnerabilities in systems and bring them to the surface (Forbes Technology Council,
2022).

3.2 Ethical Concerns of Quantum Computers

When standard encryption methods are deemed useless, many nations will be left vulnerable to cyber-
attacks in the event of warfare (Forbes Technology Council, 2022). Given the extensive funds and research
power required to develop a functional quantum computer, most nations will not have access to this
powerful tool (Herman, 2018). It will be capable of threatening the economic security of entire countries
by opening the encrypted information of nations (Herman, 2018). This brings the question of whether
quantum computing is morally acceptable, given the catastrophic effect it could have.

4. Applications

Quantum computing and its applications have been a topic of debate and conversation for the past 40
years, since Feynman presented the idea of this technology (Preskill, 2021). Now that quantum supremacy
has been reached, quantum computing is expanding from the theoretical world into the world of
applications.

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4.1 Current Applications

Although quantum supremacy has been reached, quantum computing still has many limitations which
restrict its current applications (Frankenfield, 2023). As previously discussed, a barrier in quantum
computing is the extreme conditions under which a quantum computer functions. One company in
Colorado has a fascinating approach to developing its own quantum computer, free of the typical
restrictions (Gossett, 2022). ColdQuanta uses laser- cooled atoms to act as qubits, which allows for the
machine to be kept at room temperature while the atoms are targeted and kept cold (Gossett, 2022). This
technology has also been used by NASA in their Cold Atom Laboratory, and ColdQuanta’s technology was
shipped to the International Space Station in 2019 and is theorized to be used to support global
communications (Gossett, 2022).

4.2 Future Applications

Feynman’s words from 1981 perfectly describe the value of quantum computing. He stated that “If you
want to make a simulation of Nature, you’d better make it quantum mechanical” as he closed his
presentation. According to Bova et al. (2021b), “The simulation of quantum mechanics was a key
motivation in Richard Feynman’s initial proposal to build a quantum computer”. One of these possible
simulations of nature is the interactions between molecules as found in drug manufacturing. As the
number and complexity of molecules grows, as does the number of possible configurations (Bova et al.,
2021a). The interaction between these molecules becomes a complex multivariable problem, at which
quantum computers excel (Bova et al., 2021a). Quantum computers are predicted to play a crucial role in
drug development and medical research (Sexton, 2023).

5. Conclusion

After 4 decades of research and development, quantum computing has finally exited the world of
theorization (Sexton, 2023). Its unparalleled capabilities in informational processing open new doors in
the world of drug development and medical research (Bova et al., 2021a). With the great power of
quantum computing, come the ethical concerns surrounding cybersecurity and the risk it brings to
encrypted data (Possati, 2023). Quantum computing has come a long way, from Feynman’s discussion in
1981 to Google’s quantum breakthrough in 2019 (Sexton, 2023). The possible applications of quantum
computing have barely scratched the surface of possibility and have the potential to change technology as
we know it (Sexton, 2023).

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