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International Journal Of Engineering And Computer Science
Volume 13 Issue 01 January 2024, Page No. 26015-26032
ISSN: 2319-7242 DOI: 10.18535/ijecs/v13i01.4786

Machine Learning Algorithms for Predictive Maintenance in

Autonomous Vehicles
Chirag Vinalbhai Shah,
Sr Vehicle Integration Engineer GM

Abstract
The complexity and hazards of autonomous vehicle systems have posed a significant challenge in predictive
maintenance. Since the incompetence of autonomous vehicle system software and hardware could lead to life-
threatening crashes, maintenance should be performed regularly to protect human safety. For automotive
systems, predicting future failures and taking actions in advance to maintain system reliability and safety is very
crucial in large-scale product design. This paper will explore several machine learning algorithms including
regression techniques, classification techniques, ensemble techniques, clustering techniques, and deep learning
techniques used for system maintenance need assessment in autonomous vehicles. Experimental results indicate
that predictive maintenance can be greatly helpful for autonomous vehicles either in improving system design
or mitigating the risk of threats.

Keywords: Machine Learning Algorithms, Industry 4.0, Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI),
Machine Learning (ML), Smart Manufacturing (SM),Computer Science, Data Science,Vehicle, Vehicle
Reliability

1. Introduction operation and maintenance plan. Machine learning

In recent years, driven by advancements in areas methods and their predictive maintenance
such as machine learning, connectivity of vehicles, application can play a great role in optimizing the
and an increasing demand for shared mobility, a operation and maintenance of AVs, reducing
large number of companies have invested in operational costs, and ultimately the cost of the
autonomous vehicles (AVs) which are expected to mobility service. This paper demonstrates and
substantially change the transportation and energy evaluates the benefits of using machine learning
sectors. Nevertheless, the operation of shared algorithms under a predictive maintenance
autonomous vehicles is a great challenge, as these perspective for an actual case study of a company
vehicles can operate up to 12-15 hours per day, with providing shared AVs.Many machine learning
only very short time windows available for vehicle algorithms are available. In this work, artificial
inspection and maintenance. As such, the vehicles neural networks, decision trees, and random forests
are expected to be highly reliable, which requires were used to forecast vehicle issues and to derive a
high-quality components and a well-designed regular maintenance plan, and their performance

Chirag Vinalbhai Shah, IJECS Volume 13 Issue 01 January, 2024 Page 26015
was compared. The predictive maintenance plan systems.The development and installation of
obtained is compared with the company's actual predictive maintenance systems are capable of
maintenance plan, and it is demonstrated that using identifying failures before they occur and
the predictive maintenance plan it is possible to preventing them from causing more problems or
reduce cost and vehicle downtime. Results show destroying the systems or equipment. Therefore, it
that machine learning algorithms can be is possible to ensure greater operational safety of
successfully used to create predictive maintenance vehicle systems and thus allow the vehicle to fully
plans for vehicles and that predictive maintenance comply with its function. In the context of
represents a highly valuable tool for shared AVs, autonomous vehicles, the use of predictive
and will also be important in large-scale electric and maintenance systems is a great alternative,
autonomous vehicle rollouts. especially in the case of flights of long unmanned
vehicles. This work provides an analysis of the most
used machine learning algorithms in predictive
maintenance systems for cars, the development of
these autonomous vehicles, and which of these
algorithms the scientific community believes is the
best in terms of accuracy in predicting that a fault
will occur.

2. Autonomous Vehicles and Predictive

Maintenance
Fig :1: An illustration of Autonomous Vehicle The application of machine learning in predictive
equipment. maintenance for autonomous vehicles has a huge
promise in reducing downtime and overall
1.1.Background and Significance maintenance costs. The autonomy of self-driving
Autonomous vehicles represent the most important vehicles makes the maintenance mechanism of
innovation that the automobile industry has seen in traditional human-driving vehicles less suitable,
decades. It is expected that shortly, these vehicles e.g., the current maintenance scheduling system
will quickly dominate the market as they will may not capture all aspects of self-driving vehicles'
reduce accidents, traffic jams, fuel consumption, health issues, because self-driving vehicles involve
and driving times. This transportation technology is more decision support systems and robotic/drive-
driving progress toward a future with safer, more by-wire technologies that are not within the
efficient roads, cleaner air, and an improved category of human-driven vehicle's monitoring
passenger experience. Nevertheless, safety is still a scope. As a result, a data-driven approach that
source of concern with autonomous vehicles since it incorporates a large amount of real driving data for
is imperative to ensure that the vehicle operates road-induced hazards and maintenance expenses
safely and correctly. In this sense, to guarantee the can provide clear insights to optimize the self-
operation of an autonomous or unmanned vehicle, it driving vehicle's maintenance scheduling and
is essential to predict when a failure in the vehicle prolong the lifespan of necessary vehicle
system can occur and to take appropriate measures components.As all the electronic and power
so that the fault can be corrected even before it components might fail, the vehicle reliability of
happens. Systems developed to perform the mission essential mission-critical components such
prediction of when a failure can occur in a vehicle as the sensor system, vision recognition systems,
are classified as predictive maintenance on-board drone machine systems, and mechanical

Chirag Vinalbhai Shah, IJECS Volume 13 Issue 01 January, 2024 Page 26016
parts of the vehicle such as braking systems that whereas vehicles at stage 1 have specific systems
would pose significant safety risks to the intended derived from the intelligent transportation systems
environment could lead to a safety hazard or fatal concept such as intelligent speed control, adaptive
crash. Therefore, these vehicle components require cruise control, or lane departure warning. These
much tighter control and need to be monitored and vehicles still require constant monitoring from the
maintained meticulously. In contrast, some of the driver and can, in no circumstances, drive
warranty-provided parts are expected to have a themselves. Likely, as part of stage 2, the vehicle
certain lifespan and should be fully utilized without can already perform some tasks without human
spending add-on costs until their end of life (45,000 interference such as accelerating, braking, keeping
miles) is reached. the vehicle centered in the lane, and approaching
other vehicles. At this stage, even though the driver
should always supervise the vehicle, they can
relinquish control for a short period. These are
important stages for safer vehicles because, in 2018,
the number of traffic fatalities resulted in 1.35
million lives lost, and 54% of the cases involved
vehicle occupants and motorcyclists in the age
Fig :2: Data flow and exchange among
range of 15-49. With the development of vehicle
applications, sensor vehicles and the DBDA
safety systems installed in the fleet, we hope to
platform
make roads safer. Moreover, these systems will
evolve to include more automation capabilities.
2.1. Overview of Autonomous Vehicles
With vehicle autonomy stages specified by the
The increasing demand for autonomous vehicles is
automation levels, in which 5 is completely
a consequence of the urge for safer, more efficient,
autonomous and 0 is the state of a vehicle without
and more convenient transportation systems. At the
automation capabilities, the driverless vehicles are
same time, the potential for numerous applications
expected to have more passenger focus. In other
has supported the development of autonomous
words, the vehicle is designed to accommodate
vehicles, which include driverless public
passengers with diverse activities such as reading,
transportation, autonomous taxis, autonomous
speaking on the phone, and working, in which the
deliveries, and self-driving cars. The vision for the
passenger is not worried about the route or the
future of driverless cars considers both long-term
intersection. The driver cannot be the person who
and short-term perspectives. The long-term vision
automatically takes responsibility for the vehicle
focuses on a world where humans are freed from
under critical situations. Thus, all the vehicle
the driving task and cars are autonomously
technology should be designed and implemented
operated. Given the enormous potential, researchers
taking the passengers' safety into account.
in academia and industry are actively working
toward the resolution of key technical issues for
2.2. Importance of Predictive Maintenance
realizing reliable and fully automated driving. The
Predictive maintenance is an important task within
short-term vision describes stages of incremental
the maintenance strategy. The purpose of predictive
innovations as caused by the gradual development
maintenance is to reduce downtime by controlling
toward realizing ultimate automation.Currently, we
the state of the parts or devices. This is achieved by
have discerned stages 0, 1, and 2 associated with
monitoring parameters and analyzing the historical
advanced driver assistance systems. Vehicles at
behavior of the machines. It is a strategy that
stage 0 have no advanced assistance systems,
optimizes the balance between the cost of operation

Chirag Vinalbhai Shah, IJECS Volume 13 Issue 01 January, 2024 Page 26017
and the reliability of the components. Some of its base of knowledge about equipment are some of the
advantages are cost reduction, improved product benefits of PM. Especially for the big modern
quality, a longer duration of the tools, and increased industries, PM can provide benefits such as
overall productivity. In the most critical industries, avoiding penalties for non-performance penalties in
any failure can lead to losses greater than $20,000 SLA, maintenance cost reduction and avoiding
per minute. On the other hand, the productivity of over-maintenance, inventory cost reduction based
vehicles dedicated to public transport should be on the balance between stock levels and production,
improved and breakdowns avoided because and availability improving by scheduling
passenger safety is at stake.The predictive maintenance during non-peak hours. [...]A third and
maintenance of machines is not something new, it recent way to implement PM in (Autonomous)
has been accomplished through different techniques Vehicles is the usage of (Deep) Neural Networks
or manual inspections. Nowadays, the deployment (DNN). Modern vehicle or car health monitoring
of the Internet of Things (IoT) in the industry has usually relies on structured and qualitative data
given rise to the so-called Industrial Internet of driving to qualitative and subjective conclusions.
Things (IIoT). This has many characteristics and The available data usually consist of vehicle error
produces a quantity of information that does not codes, OBD readings, fuel consumption sensors'
follow traditional data processing methods. Today it measurements, and vehicle usage records, e.g.
is possible to connect devices, sensors, and systems distances covered, fuel consumptions used, time
in the company. This has led to the production of a since vehicle startup, etc. ANN (Artificial Neural
large amount of data which, depending on its use, Networks), specifically DL (Deep Learning)
gives rise to the term Big Data. architectures such as Convolutional Neural
Networks (CNNs), Recurrent Neural Networks
3. Machine Learning in Predictive Maintenance (RNNs), Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)
Subject expert: Nikos Maroulis, Department of models, etc. have attracted the interest of industrial
Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of equipment, cars, and automotive vehicle
Patras, RIO-Patras, Greece Editor: Yannis Maroulis manufacturers. In general, one common technique is
Antonis Xakalis Department of Electrical & to first build statistical models to calculate
Computer Engineering, University of Patras, RIO- indicators that capture the degradation of monitored
Patras, GreeceToday, with the unprecedented components before they break down and then to
evolution of computational power, Predictive train a neural network using these indicators. [...]
Maintenance has become a clinical choice. PM
enhances the reliability of a manufacturing system
by forecasting the state of its components, ensuring
that anything that has reached its threshold gets
repaired, and avoiding spending, thus eliminating
unscheduled downtime. It keeps the system in a
good and operational condition preventing or
reducing the probability of a breakdown. A
manufacturing or any other industrial process
performance highly depends on how the service Fig :3: Machine learning workflow for anomaly
levels of its equipment are met. These service levels detection
may concern, for example, quality, inventory, lead
time, delivery, etc. Maintaining equipment in good 3.1. Types of Machine Learning Algorithms
condition, preventing it from failure, and creating a

Chirag Vinalbhai Shah, IJECS Volume 13 Issue 01 January, 2024 Page 26018
Several studies have utilized these machine learning based maintenance, predictive maintenance can
techniques to develop predictive maintenance truly realize the potential of the Internet of Things
algorithms. In this study, we have chosen to focus and big data. This new concept of vehicle
on the most popular types of predictive algorithms maintenance does not use a manual time node to
(supervised algorithms). Our focus on supervised replace damaged parts or use visual inspection to
learning techniques was motivated by their capacity check the damage but uses machine learning
to learn complex relationships between prognostic algorithms and real-time data from automobiles to
features and reliability issues. From a reliability estimate the wear and degradation of automotive
engineering perspective, supervised learning parts and predict if these damages may cause
techniques allow probability prediction models vehicle failure.Mehta et al. designed a Wireless
leveraging failure history to provide significantly Data Acquisition Node for large-scale data
more information than baseline no-performance- acquisition. Instead of counting the number of
change predictions. As such, leveraging supervised rotations, the researchers detected changes in the
technique capabilities could enhance predictive sound spectrum indicating the status of brakes and
algorithm performance. We have found that support tires and movements of the steering and the
vector machines, logistic regression, and artificial suspension, which can be used as indicators of
neural network supervised learning algorithms are wear, tear, and faults. This method can reflect the
most popular in the context of PHM.Classification- wear condition of automobile parts in real-time, and
supervised machine learning algorithms like vehicle owners only need to replace car components
decision trees, k-nearest neighbors (K-NN), random when they need them, thus saving unnecessary
forest, gradient boosting, and Gaussian process can costs. The costs that arise when production is
efficiently predict categorical dependent variables. interrupted, such as loss of revenue, penalties for
These algorithms predict the categorical outcome non-compliance, and unexpected costs, can be
variable by learning features of labeled data sets. reduced accordingly. In any environment where
Such binary classification problems are frequently conditions can be collected from the Internet of
utilized in the context of predictive maintenance, for Things based on wireless sensors, predictive
instance, predicting failure and no failure. maintenance can be implemented, such as in
Documented reliability predictions can be viewed as vehicles, machinery, and buildings.
a binary classification problem: will performance
continue consistent with a set of predefined 4. Case Studies and Examples
thresholds based upon the learned patterns The complexity and the increasing number of
(failure/no failure)? While numerous studies have sensors and embedded systems of autonomous
implemented classification techniques. vehicles lead to machine learning algorithms that
can be useful to enhance their development.
3.2. Applications in Predictive Maintenance Predictive maintenance is a machine learning
Predictive maintenance can be simply described as problem with important implications for industry,
a model that estimates vehicle conditions based on civil engineering, aviation, telecommunication, and
the vehicle's past operation and its current condition several other areas. The automatic knowledge
to predict faults and failures before they occur. The extraction from the data associated with the wear of
goal of predictive maintenance is to reduce capital essential components, using low-cost sensor
owner costs, maximize the useful life of the networks (a modification of what is called the
physical capital, and maintain the reliability and Internet of Things for industrial or professional civil
performance of machine learning or statistical engineering automation), has as a direct result the
models. Compared with calendar-based and usage- possibility of reducing costs of maintenance on

Chirag Vinalbhai Shah, IJECS Volume 13 Issue 01 January, 2024 Page 26019
manufacturing floors, transportation programs, and transportation networks, and construction sites.
construction sites.In autonomous vehicle predictive Such predictive capabilities not only optimize
maintenance, the failure of some components such maintenance schedules but also empower human
as a bearing, a rotor, a sensor wire, or an electrical designers with critical insights for enhanced system
communication bus generates a cascade of reliability and performance.
additional hurdles for the vehicle, and even for
other systems linked to its operation. The use of a
bearing on a rotating vehicle usually does not
generate an expected lifetime. The number of
acceleration events and the power spectral density
of the forces induced by the bearings on other
components reflect their working status. The
occurrence of these events propels flaws in
gearboxes and electric engines. This raises some
interesting correlations of abnormal function related
to the source of the failure. Using machine learning Fig :4: Maintenance strategies time frames
algorithms such as decision trees, random forests,
support vector machines, and extreme learning 4.1. Real-world Implementations
machines, the discrimination and prediction of the Real-world implementations of predictive
different sources of the fault is possible. The worst- maintenance (PdM) can be found in various
case scenario is an accidental datum cluster that can industries. In the automotive industry, several major
be correlated with the cause of the driven scatter. manufacturers have predictive maintenance systems
Some of those algorithms are general optimization to identify faults before the vehicle breaks down.
methods that can also be used to map other different This results in a reduction of unscheduled
scenarios. Those algorithm maps are quite useful to maintenance downtime. Thanks to modern
the human designer, who possesses the final expert technology like machine learning (ML),
fault judgment.In the realm of autonomous vehicles, manufacturers of pod taxis are now able to predict
predictive maintenance leveraging machine learning the wear and tear of critical components and avoid
algorithms is crucial for preemptively addressing breakdowns. In this chapter, we will first cover the
component failures like bearings, rotors, sensor major areas where high-confidence deployment of
wires, and communication buses. These failures can predictive maintenance can get leads.DOA level
cascade, affecting vehicle operations and forecasting can trigger an alarm at SNR labs, which
interconnected systems. Monitoring factors such as manages and monitors the road/train safety
acceleration events and power spectral density from equipment installed in the BoPE and Hot Boxes
sensors can provide insights into component health (components of railway wagons used for reducing
and predict potential failures. Machine learning heating of bearings) of all the rakes of the company.
models like decision trees, random forests, support To meet predefined maintenance measures, it is
vector machines, and extreme learning machines are common to repair or replace the defective
employed to analyze data patterns and correlate components at regular intervals—regardless of the
abnormal behaviors with specific failure sources. actual condition and function of the components.
By effectively discerning and predicting faults, This leads not only to unnecessary maintenance and
these algorithms contribute significantly to reducing related costs, it especially leads to an early
maintenance costs and improving operational replacement of components in otherwise good
efficiency across manufacturing floors, condition and to a loss of service life which creates

Chirag Vinalbhai Shah, IJECS Volume 13 Issue 01 January, 2024 Page 26020
a large amount of CO2 emissions.In various capability of ML models to handle higher numbers
industries, including automotive and transportation, of sensors could lower the costs for maintenance
predictive maintenance (PdM) systems play a and increase the availability of vehicles. Identifying
crucial role in minimizing unscheduled downtime other anomalies present in the sensors, for example,
and optimizing operational efficiency. Major particular noise patterns due to malfunctioning
automotive manufacturers utilize these systems to could also be part of future research to enrich the
preemptively identify faults in vehicles, thereby dataset and learning procedure.One significant
reducing the need for emergency repairs and challenge was that collecting data from the sensors
associated costs. Similarly, in innovative sectors available on first-grade banks was particularly
like pod taxis, advancements in machine learning complicated at the beginning of the project.
technology enable predictive analysis of critical Technical limitations of the vehicles that we were
components, ensuring proactive maintenance to able to use were not only due to software issues but
prevent breakdowns.In railway operations, such as also because the vehicles were in practice driving
those managed by SNR Labs, predictive commercially and they could not be stopped for
maintenance is employed to monitor the condition long periods. In this sense, future research to
of safety equipment on roads and trains, as well as enlarge the amount of data available could see data
components like BoPE and Hot Boxes in railway coming from our fleet of vehicles. Other sources of
wagons. Traditionally, maintenance measures are data include modeling the behavior of the sensors,
often scheduled based on predefined intervals rather like the most frequent of their values when the
than the actual condition of components, leading to vehicle is being utilized in different conditions, and
unnecessary costs and premature replacement of using these as benchmarks for future problems.
parts that may still be functional. This approach not Nevertheless, this work contributes as a first proof
only increases operational expenses but also that data science can rapidly contribute and leverage
contributes to higher CO2 emissions due to the state of the art in vehicle health management in
premature component replacement.By adopting the short term, transforming a state-of-the-art
predictive maintenance strategies driven by data problem into a value proposition.
analytics and machine learning, industries can shift
towards a more efficient and sustainable approach.
This proactive maintenance not only extends the
service life of critical components but also reduces
environmental impact by minimizing unnecessary
resource consumption and emissions associated
with premature replacements.

5. Challenges and Future Directions

As ML models play a significant role in the field of
connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs),
enabling predictive maintenance, there is still room Fig :5: Continuous Feedback: Definition,
for improvement regarding their capability to Management, and Benefits
handle higher numbers of sensors and imperfections
in data. Future directions of research may include 5.1. Current Limitations
developing novel models that can handle data Recent approaches utilize machine learning models
imperfections more efficiently without the need to to identify breakdowns before they happen and plan
discard information. Additionally, increasing the vehicle maintenance and repair activities to prevent

Chirag Vinalbhai Shah, IJECS Volume 13 Issue 01 January, 2024 Page 26021
interruptions and avoid safety problems. Most of the Whatever the reason for the failure, the overall
existing vehicle predictive maintenance techniques challenge is not the development of algorithms that
concentrate on conventional vehicles. There are help understand failure events more precisely and
only a handful of papers that address autonomous prevent similar incidents from happening in the
vehicle predictive maintenance, which is almost future. The focus of this work is the transformation
solely restricted to empirical validations. Our of algorithmic learning into an innovative problem-
approach involved autonomously navigating the solving approach in the field of predictive
vehicle to acquire operational measurements, which maintenance for autonomous vehicles or drones to
would be used as a measure of the car's health state enhance their reliability, safety-relevant availability,
for predictive maintenance approaches. The and lifetime.In recent years, significant research
restrictions and obstacles that may arise when progress has been made in using machine learning
different types of operational measurements are for predictive maintenance. Uncommon is,
acquired are currently being addressed and then however, that so far this academic work - and even
used according to the vehicle's operational more so the established business of predictive
state.Because predictive maintenance uses the maintenance solutions - is tailored to the conditions
health status of the vehicle to execute maintenance and requirements of autonomous vehicles. In the
and repairs before the vehicle fails and each vehicle state of the art, predictive maintenance supported by
uses different operational measurements in the machine learning has rather been applied in
autonomy phases, our predictive maintenance traditional manufacturing settings on electric motors
technique focuses on the vehicle itself. Only the and other technical equipment.In those cases, data
autonomous vehicle itself can internally collect the summaries of operational parameters such as time
data needed for predictive maintenance, essentially series of the temperature and vibration of machinery
obviating the need for any additional sensors. provide indications about its condition. Typically,
Software implemented on the vehicle receives the such machinery is available in large quantities of
requisite measurements and uses machine learning near-identical makeup, environmental conditions
to predict material damage. The vehicle are controlled, and the system is known. Remedial
management infrastructure sends a request to actions can be taken easily, such as replacing a
change the navigational policy to prolong the life of machine in a production line. Furthermore, the
the vehicle. However, long-term predictive service life of machinery is known, and failure data
maintenance systems and natural protection are can be gathered in a supervised manner, enabling
required. More research is needed in this area the full utilization of established machine learning
before this is a viable alternative. concepts. The area of predictive maintenance for
autonomous vehicles, however, encompasses an
entirely different business case with a different
underlying system.

6. Conclusion
This work outlines two ML algorithms for PdM in
AVs based on real-world data. The ML algorithms
Fig 6: Isolation Forest Model are used to predict the SOH of one of the most
important components of the vehicle: the high-
5.2. Opportunities for Improvement voltage battery. To our knowledge, and we
underline it again, we present the first two ML-
based PdM algorithms that use real data from AVs

Chirag Vinalbhai Shah, IJECS Volume 13 Issue 01 January, 2024 Page 26022
for predicting the SOH of the battery. Our deep to 100% of clients, according to the European
learning model, a Stacked Autoencoder, has proven Union, with a ceiling of 100% for gun-nr. On the
to be the best algorithm for our current dataset in other hand, the European Union and member states
terms of accuracy and response time. The second must monitor new technologies and their
model, the Random Forest regressor, has also applications daily, while supervising and reviewing
proven, more or less, to be a good model with the scope of Explanatory-AI, to ensure that their
accuracy values close to the SLA values and a supervision is compatible with current legislative
similar response time as the SLA model. decisions, especially in the field of artificial
The development of not only PdM but also DISMO intelligence that uses Personal Data to take
is needed to ensure the safe and reliable operation decisions concerning an individual and exempt
of AVs. The main limitation of this work is the data these interim sanctions and fines. For software that
itself. The data used to train and test the ML relies on complex algorithms, access to the
algorithm were generated during the prototype car processes, knowledge, and reasoning behind the
phase. For mapping the test results to our physical decision, including AI, is essential.
testing environment, we used a simple voltage-
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