Course: Manufacturing Processes

(MP)
Course Code: ES 119

By: Dr. Sonal Khurana

Assistant Professor (VIPS-TC)
School of Engineering &
Technology
 TEXT BOOKS
✓[T1] Manufacturing processes Vol. 1, by H.S. Shan, Pearson Education
✓[T2] Manufacturing Engineering & Technology by Kalpakjian, Pearson Publication

REFERENCE BOOKS:

✓[R1] Mikell P. Groover" Principles of Modern Manufacturing, 5th Edition SI Version ,

Wiley
✓[R2] Jain P.L., ―Principles of Foundry Technology‖, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 1998.
✓[R3] Sharma P.C., ―A Text Book of Production Engineering‖, Vol.1, S. Chand
Publication, New Delhi, 2001.
✓ [R4] Little Richard L, ―Welding & Welding Technology, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi,
2003.
✓[R5] Jain, R.K., ―Production Technology‖, Khanna Publishers, 2001.
Further Reference:
✓ National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL)

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 Course Outcomes (COs)
After the course , the student will be able to understand the
following:

CO1: Understand casting process.

CO2: Understand joining process.
CO3: Understand forging and sheet metal work.
CO4: Basic understanding of powder metallurgy and
manufacturing of plastic components.
 Introduction
• Ability to convert raw material into a final product or end
product by application of processes or by use of men,
machine, resources.

• Manufacturing is a value addition process i.e. it has a

value defined as monetary worth or market value
 Manufacturing
• Manufacturing is used for giving desired
shape, size: casting, welding, machining
properties: Heat treatment, coatings
surface finish: polishing, laping, honing
to the material being processed.
• Shape: from simple to complex
Size: from small to large
Properties: mechanical, physical and chemical
surface finish: from rough to smooth
Production is a broad term and every
production may not be mfg but vice
versa is true.
Manufacturing Animation
Classification of manufacturing processes
1. Primary shaping process (Neutral or zero
process): Casting, forging/forming, powder
metallurgy
2. Fabrication/joining process (Positive process):
Welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive joining
3. Material removal/machining process (Negative
process): Metal cutting, grinding, conventional
and non conventional process
4. Surface finishing process: Polishing, laping,
Honing
5. Improving/affecting the properties of material:
Annealing, normalizing, case hardenings, coatings
 Introduction to properties
• The practical application of engineering materials in
manufacturing engineering depends upon a thorough
knowledge of their particular properties under a wide
range of conditions.

• The term ”property” is a qualitative or quantitative

measure of response of materials to externally imposed
conditions like forces and temperatures.

• However ,the range of properties found in different

classes of materials is very large.
Classification of material property:

The properties
that are
measurable
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:
• Materials are characterised by their
properties. They may be hard, ductile or
heavy. Conversely, they may be soft, brittle or
light.
• The mechanical properties of materials are
the properties that describe the behaviour of
the material under the action of external
forces.
• They are usually related to the elastic and
plastic behavior of the material.
 Why significant ?
Manufacturing of a component is normally
influenced by the mechanical and thermal
properties of the work material. Also the
mechanical properties are affected by the
manufacturing process employed. Either way
the knowledge of mechanical properties of
engineering materials is important to an
engineer.
 STRENGTH
• Strength is defined as the ability of the
material to resist, without rupture, external
forces causing various types of stresses.
• Depending upon the type of stresses induced
by external loads, strength is expressed as
tensile strength, compressive strength or
shear strength.
 ELASTICITY
• Elasticity is defined as the ability of the
material to regain its original shape and size
after the deformation, when the external
forces are removed.
 PLASTICITY
• Plasticity is defined as the ability of the
material to retain the deformation produced
under the load on a permanent basis.
 Elasticity Vs Plasticity
Elasticity Plasticity

The amount of elastic Plastic deformation is relatively

deformation is very small more

During elastic deformation, atoms During plastic deformation, atoms

of metal are temporarily of metal are permanently
displaced from their original displaced from their original
positions but return back when positions and take up new
the load is removed. positions.
stress–strain relationship is linear stress–strain relationship is non-
in the elastic range linear in the plastic range

Elasticity is an important Plasticity is desirable for

consideration in machine-tool components made by press
components working operations
 STIFFNESS
• Stiffness or rigidity is defined as the ability of
the material to resist deformation under the
action of an external load.
• For a given stress within elastic limit, the
material that deforms least is the stiffest.
• Modulus of elasticity is the measure of
stiffness.
 MALLEABILITY
• Malleability is defined as the ability of a material to deform to
a greater extent before the sign of crack, when it is subjected
to compressive force.
• Malleability is an important property when the component is
forged, rolled or extruded.
• Examples of malleable metals are gold, iron, aluminium,
copper, silver and lead.
• Plastic is a material consisting of a wide range of synthetic or
semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and,
therefore, can be molded into solid objects. Plasticity is the
general property of all materials that involves permanent
deformation without breaking.
 DUCTILITY
• Ductility is defined as the ability of a material to
deform to a greater extent before the sign of crack,
when it is subjected to tensile force.
• Mild steel, Cu and Al are ductile materials.
• Ductility is measured in units of percentage
elongation or percentage reduction in area in a
tension test.
• All ductile materials are also malleable; however, the
converse is not always true. Cu & Al are both ductile
& malleable. They can be drawn into thin sheets &
wires.
• Ductility is desirable when the component is formed
or drawn.
 BRITTLENESS
• Brittleness is the property of a material which
shows negligible plastic deformation before
fracture takes place.
• Cast iron is an example of brittle material.
• In ductile materials, failure takes place by
yielding. Brittle components fail by sudden
fracture.
 To be continued in the next class
• Stress and strain concepts in detail.
• Hooke’s law

• If any doubts, kindly mail them to

• [email protected]
Lecture : Introduction to Casting

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 Introduction

• A process based on the property of liquid to take up the shape of the vessel
containing it.
• A cavity of desired shape is made, contained in a mold.
• Carried out in a foundry.

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• It is oldest
manufacturing process.

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• Ancient process, started
5000 years ago.

• Jaivana- 50 tons cannon

was built in 17th century
in Jaipur.

• Used for making arrows,

coins, knives etc.
World’s largest Cannon in
Jaipur, made by casting

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 Casting
Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold where it
solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity
 The term casting also applies to the part made in the process
 Steps in casting seem simple:

1. Melt the metal

2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze

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 Why Casting?

 A job of 5m diameter and 10m length.

 A job with a hole of 2m diameter, made of very hard material.
 Parts of very complicated shapes.

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Have you seen any similar process before?

• What do we control?
• Size & shape of cavity and mold
• Mixture composition
• Temperature
• Cooling time
• Carefully remove it

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 Capabilities and Advantages of Casting
• Can create complex part geometries that can not be made by any other process
• Can create both external and internal shapes
• Some casting processes are net shape; others are near net shape
• Can produce very large parts (with weight more than 100 tons), like m/c bed
• Casting can be applied to shape any metal that can melt
• Some casting methods are suited to mass production
• Can also be applied on polymers and ceramics

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 Disadvantages of Casting

 Different disadvantages for different casting processes:

 Limitations on mechanical properties

 Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some processes; e.g.,
sand casting
 Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals
 Environmental problems

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 Parts Made by Casting

 Big parts

 Engine blocks and heads for automotive vehicles, wood

burning stoves, machine frames, railway wheels, pipes, bells,
pump housings
 Small parts

 Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, frying pans

 All varieties of metals can be cast - ferrous and nonferrous

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 Basic steps in Casting

 Pattern making
 Mold making
 Melting of metal and pouring
 Cooling and solidification of metal
 Cleaning of casting and inspection

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 1. Pattern

 Replica of the desired product

 Has somehow different dimensions than the actual part to be manufactured
 Used to form the mold cavity

1. Materials used
2. Types of patterns
3. Pattern Allowances

Pattern
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29-09-2024 13
 2. Molding (Mold making)

 The term moulding process refers to the method of making the mould and the
materials used.
 Moulding processes have certain features in common-
 The use of pattern.
 Some type of aggregate mixture comprising a refractory and binders.
 A means of forming the aggregate mixture around the pattern.
 Hardening of aggregate or developing its bond while in contact with the
pattern.
 Withdrawal of the pattern from the mould.
 Assembly of the mould and core pieces to make a complete mould, metal
then being poured into the mould.
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 The Mold in Casting
 Mold is a container with cavity whose geometry determines part shape

 Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly oversized to allow

for shrinkage of metal during solidification and cooling
 Molds are made of a variety of materials, including sand, plaster,
ceramic, and metal

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 Open Molds and Closed Molds
Cavity is closed
Cavity is open to atmosphere

Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the shape of the desired
part; and (b) closed mold, in which the mold geometry is more complex and
requires a gating system (passageway) leading into the cavity.

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 Two Categories of Casting Processes

1. Expendable mold processes – uses an expendable mold which must be destroyed to remove
casting

 Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials, plus binders

2. Permanent mold processes – uses a permanent mold which can be used over and over to
produce many castings

 Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory material)

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Not considered important
enough to be saved

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Expendable mold casting

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Sand Casting

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 Common features

Schematic illustration of sand casting showing various features.

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 Features/Elements
 Pattern: A pattern is made of wood or metal, is a replica of the final product and is used for preparing
mould cavity
 Riser: A column of metal placed in the mold to feed the casting as it shrinks and solidifies. Also
known as a "feed head."
 Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
 Cores: A separated part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create
openings and various shaped cavities in the casting.
 Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the casting cavity.

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 Parting Line: Joint where mold separates to permit removal of the pattern and which shows how and
where to open the mold. Sand: A sand which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or
gases.
 Chaplet: A metal support used to hold a core in place in a mold.
 Not used when a core print will serve.
 Binders: Materials used to hold molding sand together.
 Pouring basin: Filling the mold with molten metal. Shrinkage: The decrease in volume when molten
metal solidifies.
 Mould: The mould contains a cavity whose geometry determines the shape of cast part.
 Mould material should posses refractory characteristics and withstand the pouring temperature

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 Forming the Mold Cavity
 Cavity is inverse of final shape with shrinkage allowance
Pattern is model of final shape with shrinkage allowance
Wet sand is made by adding binder in the sand
 Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a pattern
When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity of the packed sand has desired shape of cast part
 The pattern is usually oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal during solidification and cooling

Difference among pattern, cavity & part ?

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 Use of a Core in the Mold Cavity
 Cavity provides the external features of the cast part
 Core provides internal features of the part. It is placed inside the mold cavity with
some support.
 In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand

Difference b/w, cavity & core ?

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 Gating System
It is channel through which molten metal flows into cavity from outside of mold
 Consists of a down-sprue, through which metal enters a runner leading to the main cavity
 At the top of down-sprue, a pouring cup is often used to minimize splash and turbulence as
the metal flows into down-sprue

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 Riser
It is a reservoir in the mold which is a source of liquid metal to compensate for shrinkage of the part during solidification
Most metals are less dense as a liquid than as a solid so castings shrink upon cooling, which can leave a void at the last
point to solidify. Risers prevent this by providing molten metal to the casting as it solidifies, so that the cavity forms in
the riser and not in the casting.
When the metal shrinks from liquid to solid, it is known as solidification shrinkage.

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 3. Heating the Metal

 Heating furnaces are used to heat the metal to molten temperature sufficient
for casting
 The heat required is the sum of:
1. Heat to raise temperature to melting point
2. Heat to raise molten metal to desired temperature for pouring

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 3. Pouring the Molten Metal
 For this step to be successful, metal must flow into all regions of the mold, most importantly the
main cavity, before solidifying
 Factors that determine success

 Pouring temperature
 Pouring rate
 Turbulence
 Pouring temperature should be sufficiently high in order to prevent the molten metal to start
solidifying on its way to the cavity

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 Pouring the Molten Metal
Pouring rate should neither be high nor very low that may
start solidifying on its way to the cavity

Turbulence should be kept to a minimum in order to ensure

smooth flow and to avoid mold damage and entrapment of
foreign materials. Also, turbulence causes oxidation at the
inner surface of cavity. This results in cavity damage and poor
surface quality of casting.

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 Fluidity

A measure of the capability of the metal to flow into and fill the mold before freezing.
• Fluidity is the inverse of viscosity (resistance to flow)
• Fluidity increases and viscosity decreases with temperature.
Factors affecting fluidity are:
- Pouring temperature relative to melting point
- Metal composition
- Viscosity of the liquid metal
- Heat transfer to surrounding

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 4. Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling

Shrinkage occurs in 3 steps: a. while cooling of

metal in liquid form (liquid contraction); b. during
phase transformation from liquid to solid
(solidification shrinkage); c. while solidified metal
is cooled down to room temperature (solid thermal
contraction).

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(2) reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity caused by solidification
shrinkage; (3) further reduction in height and diameter due to thermal contraction
during cooling of solid metal (dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity).
Why cavity forms at top , why not at bottom? 29-09-2024 33
 Sand casting
 Sand casting uses ordinary sand as the primary mould material.
 The sand grains are mixed with small amounts of other materials, such as
clay and water, to improve mouldability and cohesive strength, and are
then packed around a pattern that has the shape of the desired casting.
 The pattern must be removed before pouring, the mold is usually made
in two or more pieces.
 An opening called a sprue hole is cut from the top of the mold through
the sand and connected to a system of channels called runners.

Contd
….
 The molten metal is poured into the sprue hole, flows through the runners,
and enters the mold cavity through an opening called a gate.
 Gravity flow is the most common means of introducing the metal into the
mold.
 After solidification, the mold is broken and the finished casting is removed.
 The casting is then “fettled” by cutting off the ingate and the feeder head.
 Because the mold is destroyed, a new mold must be made for each
casting.

Contd…
 Casting Terms
 Flask: A moulding flask is one which holds the sand mould intact. It is made
up of wood for temporary applications or metal for long-term use.

 Drag: Lower moulding flask.

 Cope: Upper moulding flask.

 Cheek: Intermediate moulding flask used in three-piece moulding.

 Pattern: Pattern is a replica of the final object to be made with some
modifications.

 Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that
makes up the sand mould.

 Bottom board: This is a board normally made of wood, which is used at the
start of the mould making.
 Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the
inner surface of the moulding cavity to give better surface finish to the
castings.

 Moulding sand: The freshly prepared refractory material used for making
the mould cavity. It is a mixture of silica, clay and moisture in appropriate
proportions.

 Backing sand: This is made up of used and burnt sand.

 Core: Used for making hollow cavities in castings.

 Pouring basin: A small funnel-shaped cavity at the top of the mould into
which the molten metal is poured.

 Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin
reaches the mould cavity.

 Runner: The passage ways in the parting plane through which molten metal
flow is regulated before they reach the mould cavity.

 Gate: The actual entry point through which molten metal enters the mould
cavity in a controlled rate.
 Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support cores inside the mould cavity.

 Chill: Chills are metallic objects, which are placed in the mould to increase
the cooling rate of castings.

 Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the casting so that hot

metal can flow back into the mould cavity when there is a reduction in
volume of metal due to solidification
 Advantages of casting
 Large size objects can be produced by casting only
 More complex objects can be produced
 Less expensive tools
 Any type of material can be casted i.e. soft, hard, brittle or ductile

Disadvantages of casting
• Laborious and time consuming process
• Very poor surface finish
• Very difficult to eliminate the casting defects
properly
• Not having uniform mechanical properties
throughout the cross section.
 Applications of casting
 Machine tool beds
 Turbine housing
 Rolled rollers
 Gear box housing
 Sequential steps in making a sand
casting
 A pattern board is placed between the bottom (drag) and top (cope) halves
of a flask, with the bottom side up.

 Sand is then packed into the drag half of the mold.

 A bottom board is positioned on top of the packed sand, and the mold is
turned over, showing the top (cope) half of pattern with sprue and riser pins in
place.

 The cope half of the mold is then packed with sand.

Contd…
 The mold is opened, the pattern board is drawn (removed), and the
runner and gate are cut into the surface of the sand.

 The mold is reassembled with the pattern board removed, and molten
metal is poured through the sprue.

 The contents are shaken from the flask and the metal segment is
separated from the sand, ready for further processing.
 Pattern
A pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the casting process,
with some modifications.
The main modifications are
 The addition of pattern allowances,
 The provision of core prints, and
 Elimination of fine details, which cannot be obtained by casting and
hence are to be obtained by further processing
 Pattern Allowances
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance

2. Draft or taper allowance

3. Machining or finish allowance

4. Distortion or camber allowance

5. Rapping allowance
 Shrinkage allowance
 All metals shrink when cooling except perhaps bismuth.

 This is because of the inter-atomic vibrations which are amplified by an

increase in temperature.

 Solid contraction is compensated by increasing the size of pattern in the

form of shrinkage allowance in terms of linear dimensions

 The shrinkage allowance is always to be added to the linear dimensions.

Even in case of internal dimensions as the material has the tendency to
contract towards the centre and thus are to be increased.
Liquid shrinkage and solid
shrinkage
Liquid shrinkage and solid shrinkage

 Liquid shrinkage refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes
from liquid to solid state at the solidus temperature. To account this, risers
are used in the moulds.
 Solid shrinkage is the reduction in volume caused when metal loses
temperature in solid state. The shrinkage allowance is provided to take
care of this reduction.
 Steel blocks 200 x 150 x 100 mm are to be cast in sand moulds.
Shrinkage allowance for pattern making is 21mm/m. The dimensions
of the pattern will be?
Ans: 200 * 21/1000=4.20mm
150* 21/1000=3.20mm
100*21/1000=2.10mm
So adding these dimensions to the steel block dimensions:
204.2*153.2*102.1.
 Draft/Taper allowance
 To reduce the chances of the damage of the mould cavity at the time of
pattern removal, the vertical faces of the pattern are always tapered from
the parting line as they are in contact with the sand. This provision is called
draft allowance.

 Inner surfaces of the pattern require higher draft than outer surfaces.
DRAFT ALLOWANCE
 Shake/Rapping Allowance

 At the time of pattern removal, the pattern is rapped all around the
vertical faces to enlarge the mould cavity slightly to facilitates its removal.

 It is a negative allowance and is to be applied only to those dimensions,

which are parallel to the parting plane.
Shake/Rapping Allowance
 Machining/Finish Allowance
 The casting objects are not having better surface finish, therefore
machining is required.

 Allowance depends on amount of surface finish required on the casting,

size of silica grains present in the moulding sand.
Pattern Materials
 The pattern material should
be
 Easily worked, shaped and joined

 Light in weight

 Strong, hard and durable

 Resistant to wear and abrasion

 Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions

 Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and

humidity.

 Available at low cost.

 Pattern Types
1. Single piece pattern:
▪Used for simple shaped & large
cas tings.
▪Pattern and cavity produced by it a
re completely in the lower flask (i.e.
drag)
▪Causes difficulty in making the mol
d.
 Pattern Types
2. Split pattern:
▪Split pattern models the part as
two separate pieces that meet along
the parting line of the mould
▪Two parts are aligned by Dowel
pin.
 Pattern Types
3.Loose Piece pattern:
1. As per the name Pattern Contain One or more than one loose piece
2. Loose piece is used to make removal of pattern easy frommould box
3. Loose pieces are attached to main body with the help of dowel pins or wire
4. First main pattern is drawn and then carefully loose pieces

5. Moulding with this pattern is expensive and require more skill

6. Loose piece pattern is used when the contour of the part is such that withdrawing the
pattern from the mould is not possible. Hence during moulding, the obstructing part of
the contour is held as a loos piece by a wire.
 Pattern Types
4. Match-plate pattern:
▪Similar to a split pattern, except that each half of the pattern is attached to
opposite sides of a single plate.
▪Match plate confirms the parting line
▪Ensures proper alignment of the mould cavities in the cope and drag and
the runner system can be included on the match plate.
▪Used for larger production quantities.
▪IC Engines piston rings
 Pattern Types
5. Cope-Drag pattern:
▪It is similar to split pattern
▪Each half of the pattern is attached to a separate plate and the mould
halves are made independently.
▪Pattern is made in two halves and split along parting line
▪These two halves are known as cope and drag
▪There moulding done independently
▪After moulding they are assembled to form complete mould box
▪Often desirable for larger castings
 Pattern Types
6. Gated pattern:
▪In this pattern of gate and riser or runner are permanently
attached to regular pattern
▪They are used to manufacture multiple casting in on time
▪Each pattern is connected with common runner.
▪Suitable for pouring small castings and for mass production
▪It save labour and time
 Pattern Types
7. Sweep pattern:
▪A sweep is a section or board (wooden) of proper contour that is rotated
about one edge to shape mould cavities having shapes of rotational
symmetry.
▪This type of pattern is used when a casting of large size is to be produced in
a short time. Large kettles of C.I. are made by sweep patterns.
 Pattern Types
8. Skeleton pattern:
A skeleton of the pattern made of strips of wood is used for
building the final pattern by packing sand around the
skeleton. After packing the sand, the desired form is
obtained with the help of a strickle. This type of pattern is
useful generally for very large castings, required in
small quantities where large expense on complete
wooden pattern is not justified.
 Pattern Types
9. Follow Board Pattern:
▪A follow board is not a pattern but is a device (wooden board) used for
various purposes. It is used to support the castings under the force of
ramming if it is structurally weak.
 Types of Moulding Sands
▪ Green Sand:
➢ Natural sand prepared as a mixture of silica sand with 18-30 %
clay and 6-8 % moisture.

➢ Fine, soft, light and porous.

➢ The name ‘Green sand’ employs for damped i.e. it contains
moisture and the mould made of this sand is used immediately
to pour the molten metal.

➢ Easily available and has low cost.

 Types of Moulding Sands
▪ Dry Sand:
➢ Green sand that has been dried or baked in between 250° to
550° in suitable oven after the making mould and cores, is cal
led dry sand.

➢ More strength, rigidity and thermal stability.

➢ Suitable for larger castings.

 Types of Moulding Sands
▪ Parting Sand:
➢ It is used to keep away the green sand from sticking to the patt
ern and to allow the sand on the parting surface of the flasks to
separate without clinging.

➢ It is free from clay and is dry.

➢ It is washed and non sticky sand

 Types of Moulding Sands
▪ Core Sand:
➢ Used to make core.
➢ Should be stronger than the moulding sand.
➢ It is made by mixing core linseed oil with silica sand,
➢ It is also called as soil sand
 Backing/Burnt/Floor sand
▪ It usually contains burnt facing sand, moulding
sand and clay.
▪ It is old and repeatedly used sand and used for
baking facing sand
▪ It is filled behind the facing sand in the mould
box or flask.
 Facing sand
▪ It is mixture of floor sand and new moulding
sand with suitable binder and moisture.
▪ It is used next to the parting surface and comes
in contact with molten metal when poured into
the mould
▪ It is used around a pattern to cover it upto 2.5 to
5cm
 Properties of Moulding Sand
1. Refractoriness:
▪The ability of moulding sand to withstand high temperatures w
ithout breaking down or fusing.

▪The degree of refractoriness depends on SiO2 content and sh ape

& grain size of the particle.
▪To enhance the property, sand should have lower percentage of
lime, magnesia, alkali, oxides of metals.
▪Refractoriness is measured by Sinter point rather than its melting
point. ( At sintering temperature, the moulding sand adheres to the
casting)
 Properties of Moulding Sand

2. Permeability:
 ▪Also referred as porosity, is the property of sand allow the escape of any air, gases or
moisture present or generated in the mould wh en the molten metal is poured into it.

 ▪Liquid metals cause evolution of gases due to their reaction with moulding sand
ingredients.

 ▪Permeability is a function of:

1. Grain size

2. Grain shape

3. Moisture and clay contents in the moulding sand.

 Properties of Moulding Sand

 3. Cohesiveness:
 ▪Also referred to as the strength of sand.
 ▪It is property of moulding sand by virtue which the sand grain part
icles interact and attract each other within the moulding sand.
 ▪Moulding sand should be capable of withstanding the compressiv e
and erosive force exerted by liquid metal while filling the cavity.
 ▪Low strength mouldings result in defective castings.
 ▪It depends upon the grain size, sand particle shape and size, moi
sture content and density,
 ▪strength inversely affect the porosity
 Properties of Moulding Sand
4. Adhesiveness:
▪It is property of moulding sand to get stick or adhere with foreign
material such sticking of moulding sand with inner wall of mouldin
g box.
▪It helps the sand to retain the mould cavity and stay in the box.
 Properties of Moulding Sand
 5. Flowability:
 ▪It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a fluid.
 ▪It will flow uniformly to all portions of pattern when rammed and distr
ibute the ramming pressure evenly all around in all directions.
 ▪In general, flow ability increases with decrease in green strength, and ,
decrease in grain size.
 ▪flow ability also varies with moisture and clay content.
 ▪It is also called as plasticity fluidity.
 Properties of Moulding Sand

 6. Collapsibility:
 ▪After solidification of the molten metal, the casting is required to b e
removed from the mould.
 ▪If the moulding sand is easily collapsible, free contraction of the metal
as well as easy removal of the casting is possible.
 ▪If the sand is not collapsible, it will strongly adhere to the casting,
becoming very hard to separate after metal solidification.
Elements of gating system
Gating System

Cont
d…
 Gating System
 Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top
of the mould into which the molten metal is poured.

 Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal,

from the pouring basin, reaches the mould cavity. In
many cases it controls the flow of metal into the
mould.

 Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is

carried from the sprue to the gate.

Cont
d…
 Ingate: A channel through which the molten metal
enters the mould cavity.
 Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape
of air and gases.
 The goals for the gating
system
 To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into
the mold
 To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the
metal starts to solidify
 To avoid shrinkage
 Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the
solidifying casting so that the shrinkage if occurs must
be in the gating system not in the required cast part.
 Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic
inclusions.
 Sprue
 Sprue: Sprue is the channel through
which the molten metal is brought
into the parting plane where it enters
the runners and gates to ultimately
reach the mould cavity.
 The molten metal when moving from
the top of the cope to the parting
plane gains in velocity and some low-
pressure area would be created
around the metal in the sprue.
 Since the sand mould is permeable,
atmospheric air would be breathed
into this low-pressure area which
would then be carried to the mould
cavity.
 To eliminate this problem of air
aspiration, the sprue is tapered to
gradually reduce the cross section as
it moves away from the top of the
cope
 Gating ratio
 Gating ratio is defined as: Sprue area: Runner area:
Ingate area.

 For high quality steel castings, a gating ratio of 1: 2: 2

or 1: 2: 1.5 will produce castings nearly free from
erosion, will minimize oxidation, and will produce
uniform flow.

 A gating ratio of 1: 4: 4 might favour the formation of

oxidation defects.
 Chills
 External chills are masses of high-
heat-capacity, high-thermal-
conductivity material that are
placed in the mould (adjacent to
the casting) to accelerate the
cooling of various regions. Chills can
effectively promote directional
solidification or increase the
effective feeding distance of a riser.
They can often be used to reduce
the number of risers required for a
casting.
 Internal chills are pieces of metal
that are placed within the mould
cavity to absorb heat and promote
more rapid solidification. Since some
of this metal will melt during the
operation, it will absorb not only the
heat-capacity energy, but also some
heat of fusion. Since they ultimately
become part of the final casting,
internal chills must be made from the
DIE CASTING
 WHAT IS A DIE?
 A die is a specialized tool used in manufacturing industries to cut or shape
material mostly using a press tool , mould & die casting. Like molds, dies
are generally customized to the item they are used to create. Products made
with dies range from simple paper clips to complex pieces used in advanced
technology.

PRESS TOOL MOULD DIE CASTING

 DIE CASTING

Die casting is a permanent mold casting procedure, in which the mold is made of metal and
large number of castings are produced from it.
 DIE CASTING
 Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal
under high pressure into a mold cavity. The mold cavity is created using two hardened
tool steel dies which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection
mold during the process.
 Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically

1.) zinc
2.) copper
3.) aluminium
4.) magnesium
5.) lead
6.) pewter : 85–99% tin along with copper , antimony , bismuth.
7.) tin based alloys
o Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used.
 DIE CASTING
Mold:

o T h e mold is made of special diesteels.

Die: The mold made of metals is called “die”.

o T hes e steels have very high melting point and must resist very high
temperatures
 CLASSIFICATION OF DIES IN
DIE CASTING

ON THE BASIS OF ON THE BASIS OF

APPLICATION OF
NUMBER OF MATERIAL
PRESSURE
IMPRESSIONS POURED

SINGLE MULTI HOT COLD

IMPRESS IMPRESSI CHAMBER DIE CHAMBER DIE
ION ON CASTING CASTING

LOW HIGH
GRAVITY VACCUM SQUEEZE
PRESSURE PRESSURE
DIE DIE DIE
DIE CASTING DIE CASTING
CASTING CASTING CASTING
 SINGLE CAVITY DIES
 As the name indicates, here the no. cavities is only one. This means the die produces only
one component per shot. The single are used when,
 With the available Die casting machine, only single cavity die can be accommodated, w.r.t.
the locking force, shot weight and die size.
Advantages
 Die cost is low and design and manufacturing is easy.
 Die is smaller in size, which makes it possible for use of smaller capacity
machine.
Disadvantages
 Unit cost per casting is more.
 Production capacity is less.
 MULTIPLE CAVITY DIES
 The Multiple cavity dies have more than one or several cavities and all
cavities are similar or identical, such that identical components are
produced. Multiple cavities dies are used when,

 The required production volume is large.

 The available die casting machine can accommodate more
than one cavity die
 It becomes economically feasible to go for multiple die wrt the
investments unit cost price.
 Advantages
 Production rate is high.
 Unit cost per component is less.

 Disadvantages.
 Initial investment of the is more.
 With increase in number of cavities, the feed balancing and thermal
balancing becomes more complicated.
 With increase in number of cavities, the design and
manufacturing becomes more complex.
 These require larger capacity machines which reduces the number shots
per hour. This is because the operating speed in larger capacity
machines is less compared to that of smaller capacity machines.
 Gravity Die Casting

Molten metal is poured under gravity (i.e. without pressure).

o I n gravity die casting or Permanent Mold Casting, fluid metal is
poured by hand into metal molds.
o B o t h ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be casted.
o Production rate is slow.
o T h e casting is not so smooth or dimensionally accurate.
❑ Pros

 Good surface texture

 Equipment costs are relatively low
 No need for applied pressure, so mould designs tend to be quite simple
 Scrap metal can be recycled
 Quick set up times

❑ Cons

 High percentage of scrap metal

 Only good for simple 3D shapes, cannot be used for complex shapes
 COLD CHAMBER DIE CASTING
 The essential feature of this process is the independent holding and injection units.

 In the cold chamber process metal is transferred by ladle, manually or automatically, to the
shot sleeve. Actuation of the injection piston forces the metal into the die. This is a single-
shot operation. This procedure minimizes the contact time between the hot metal and the
injector components, thus extending their operating life. The cold chamber process is used
for the production of aluminum and copper base alloys and has been extended to the
production of steel castings.

 The mold has sections, which include the “cover” or hot side and the “movable” or ejector
side. The die may also have additional moveable segments called slides or pulls, which are
used to create features such as undercuts or holes which are parallel to the parting line. The
machines run at required temperatures and pressures to produce a quality part to near net-
shape.
 Some application for Aluminum Die Castings:
 Automotive industry
 Electrical Metal frames and housing
 Complex shapes with thin walls
 Advantages

• High melting metal can be cast

• Cold chamber die casting products have some advantages like intricate
detail, thin walls, and superior mechanical properties.
• Equipment cost is less

 Disadvantages.
 Lower production rate
 Need more pressure than hot chamber
 HOT CHAMBER DIE CASTING

 In hot chamber die casting manufacture, the supply of molten metal is attached to the
die casting machine and is an integral part of the casting apparatus for this
manufacturing operation.
 The metal for casting is maintained at an appropriate temperature in a holding furnace
adjacent to, if not part of, the machine.
 The injection mechanism is located within the holding furnace and a substantial part of it is
therefore in constant contact with the molten metal.
 Pressure is transmitted to the metal by the injection piston, which forces it through the
gooseneck and into the die.
 On the return stroke metal is drawn into the gooseneck for the next shot. In this process there
is minimum contact between air and the metal to be injected, thus minimizing the tendency
for turbulent entrainment of air in the metal during injection.
 Due to the prolonged contact between the metal and parts of the injection system hot
chamber is restricted to zinc- base alloys.
❑ Some applications of Zinc Die Castings:
 Automotive Industry
 Fuel Pumps
 Carburetor Parts
 Valve Covers
 Handles
 Advantages

• Close tolerances i.e. 0.002 mm

• Excellent surface finish 1-2.5 microns
• Intricate detail, thin walls can be produced
• Mass production and faster rate of production
 Disadvantages.
 Cost of equipment is high
 High die cost
 Only suitable for non ferrous materials.
 Not suitable for small scale production
 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
• This process utilizes
inertia (caused by rotation) to force
the molten metal into the mold cavities.
Types:
1. True centrifugal casting
2. Semi centrifugal casting
3. Centrifuging
 TRUE CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
• In this process, molten metal is poured into a rotating mold
and held against the mould wall by centrifugal force until
it is solidified. The axis of rotation is usually horizontal, but
can be vertical for short workpieces.
• Molds are made of steel, iron, or graphite, and may be
coated with a refractory lining to increase mold life. The
mold is coated with a refractory coating.
• Because of density differences, lighter elements (such as
dross, impurities, and pieces of the refractory lining in the
mold) tend to collect on the inner surface of the casting
• Here, axis of rotation of mould coincides with axis of
True centrifugal casting
 CHARACTERISTICS
• The mechanical properties of centrifugally cast jobs are
better compared to other processes, because the inclusions
such as slag and oxides get segregated towards the centre
and can be easily removed by machining. Also, the
pressure acting on the metal throughout the solidification
causes the porosity to be eliminated giving rise to dense
metal.
• No cores are required for making concentric holes in the
case of true centrifugal casting.
 ADVANTAGES
• Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the
casting free of gas and shrinkage cavities and porosity
• Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores
• Can produce a wide range of cylindrical parts,
including ones of large size.
• Good dimensional accuracy, soundness, and cleanliness
• There is no need for gates and runners, which increases
the casting yield, reaching almost 100 %.
 LIMITATIONS
• Shape is limited.
• Spinning equipment can be expensive
 COMMON METALS
• Iron
• Steel
• Stainless steel
• Alloys of aluminium, copper, and nickel
 APPLICATIONS
Hollow cylindrical parts such as
• Pipes
• gun barrels
• Bushings
• engine-cylinder liners
• bearing rings with or without flanges
• street lampposts
 SEMI-CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
• To produce symmetrical objects other than hollow parts.
• In this, mould is rotated in vertical axis, liquid metal will
enter into the cavity at the centre due to gravity force and
it is moved away from the centre with the help of
Centrifugal force.
• Rotational speeds are lower than for true centrifugal
casting
• Corescan be used to increase the complexity of the
product.
• Here, axis of rotation of mould coincides with axis of
object.
Semi-centrifugal casting
 APPLICATIONS
• Spoked wheels
• Alloyed wheels
• Gear blank
 CENTRIFUGING
• Also called centrifuge casting.
• Uses centrifuging action to force the metal from a central pouring
reservoir into separate mold cavities that are offset from the axis of
rotation.
• Casting yield is very less (50 to 60 %).
• Low speed
• Here, axis of rotation of mould does not coincide with axis of
object.
• To produce unsymmetrical small size objects in mass production. For
this match plate pattern is used.
Method of casting by the centrifuging process
 Special casting processes

Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting

operation.
 Sand casting processes described so far are not suitable and economical in many
applications. In such situations special casting processes would be more
appropriate.
 Precision Investment Casting
 Also called the lost-wax process since mould is prepared around an expendable
pattern .
Basic steps
1. The first step in this process
is the preparation of the
pattern for every casting to be
made. To do this, molten wax
which is used as the pattern
material is injected under
pressure into a metallic die
and has the cavity of the
casting to be made.
2. The wax when allowed to
solidify would produce the
pattern. The pattern is
ejected from the die.
 Precision Investment Casting
3. Then the cluster of wax
patterns is attached to the
common gating system by
applying heat to make one
mould, called a tree. This
approach significantly
enhances the production rate.
4. To make the mould, the
prepared pattern will be
dipped into the slurry of
refractory materials such as
very fine silica and binders,
including water, ethyl silicate,
and acids. The excess liquid is
allowed to drain off from the
pattern.
 Precision Investment Casting
5. Dry refractory grains such as
fused silica or zircon are
“stuccoed” on this liquid
ceramic coating. Thus a small
shell is formed around the wax
pattern.
6. The shell is cured and then the
process of dipping and
stuccoing is continued with
ceramic slurries of gradually
increasing grain sizes. Finally
when a ceramic shell of
sufficient thickness is reached,
the mould is ready for further
processing.
 Precision Investment Casting
7. The next step is to remove the
pattern from the mould which is
done by heating the mould to melt
the pattern. The melted wax is
completely drained through the
sprue by inverting the mould.
8. The moulds are then pre heated to
reduce any last traces of wax left
off and permit proper filling of all
mould sections. The molten metal is
poured into the mould under gravity
and under slight pressure, by
evacuating the mould first.
 Precision Investment Casting
• Other pattern materials used are plastics and
mercury in place of wax.
• When used mercury, process is called ‘Mercast’ The
main advantage of mercury as a pattern material is
that it does not expand when changed from solid to
liquid state as wax.
 Advantages
 Tight dimensional tolerances

 Excellent surface finish (1.2 to 3.0 m )

 Machining can be reduced or completely eliminated

 High melting point alloy can be cast, almost any metal can be cast

 Almost unlimited intricacy

 Limitations

 Costly patterns and moulds

 Labour costs can be high

 Limited size
 Applications

 Aerospace and rocket components.

 Vanes and blades for gas turbines.

 Surgical instruments

 Medical implants

 Ornaments
 Casting Defects
The following are the major defects, which are likely to occur in sand castings:

 Gas defects

 Shrinkage cavities

 Molding material and methods

 Pouring metal defects

 Mold shift

 Metallurgical defects
Gas Defects: Blow holes/open
blows
 These are the spherical, flattened or
elongated cavities present inside the casting
or on the surface.
 On the surface they are called open blows
and inside, they are called blow holes.
 These are caused by the moisture left in the
mould and the core. Because of the heat in
the molten metal, the moisture is converted
into steam, part of which when entrapped in
the casting ends up as blow hole or ends up as
open blow when it reaches the surface.
 Reason: Lower venting and lower permeability
Gas Defects: Air inclusion
 The atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the molten metal in the
furnace, in the ladle, and during the flow in the mould, when not allowed to
escape, would be trapped inside the casting and weaken it.
 Reason: Higher pouring temperatures, which increase the amount of gas
absorbed
 Gas Defects:Scar/blister
 If the gas defects form on flat surface of casting, then it is called scar.
 A scar covered by thin layer of metal is known as blister
 Gas Defects: Pin hole porosity
 Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of hydrogen gas, which gets
entrapped during heating of molten metal.
 Hydrogen gas is produced by the dissociation of water inside the cavity
 H2 gas will try to escape from its original position due to pressure difference, it
will create a path known as pin hole porosity
 Reason: High Pouring temperature
 Gas Defects: Remedies
 Heat the metal in the furnace upto the pouring temperature.
 Before pouring the molten liquid metal, convert green sand into dry sand (in the
oven upto 1100C)
 Select the sand which is having better permeability.
 Shrinkage Cavities
 These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring
during the solidification of the casting.
 To compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid
metal is required. For this reason risers are
placed at the appropriate places in the mold.
 Sprues may be too thin, too long or not attached
in the proper location, causing shrinkage
cavities.
 It is recommended to use thick sprues to avoid
shrinkage cavities.
 Molding Material Defects
 Cuts and washes,

 Metal penetration,

 Fusion, and

 Swell
 Cut and washes
 These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by
erosion of molding sand by the flowing metal.
 This is caused by the molding sand not having enough strength and the molten
metal flowing at high velocity.
 The former can be taken care of by the proper choice of molding sand and the
latter can be overcome by the proper design of the gating system.
 Metal penetration
 When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the result is a
rough casting surface.
 Reason
 Too coarse grain size
 No mould wash applied
 Higher pouring temperature
 Mould wash is a carbonaceous material in the form of paste added inside the mould cavity
to get better surface finish of casting.
 Fusion
 This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten metal, giving a
brittle, glassy appearance on the casting surface.

 The main reason for this is that the clay or the sand particles are of lower
refractoriness or that the pouring temperature is too high.
 Swell
Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold wall may move back
causing a swell in the dimension of the casting. A proper ramming of the mold
will correct this defect.

Inclusions
Particles of slag, refractory materials sand or deoxidation products are trapped in
the casting during pouring solidification. The provision of choke in the gating
system and the pouring basin at the top of the mold can prevent this defect
 Pouring Metal Defects
The likely defects in this category are

 Misruns and
 Cold shuts

 A misrun is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity completely
and thus leaves unfilled cavities.
 A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting in the mold cavity, do not
fuse together properly thus forming a discontinuity in the casting.
 The misrun and cold shut defects are caused either by a lower fluidity of the
mold or when the section thickness of the casting is very small.
 Fluidity can be improved by changing the composition of the metal and by
increasing the pouring temperature of the metal.
 Mold Shift
 Reason: Due to improper aligning of cope and drag

 Remedy: Moulding clamps are required, for split pattern dwell pins are
required
 Core Shift
 Reason: Shifting of core from its original position due to upward lifting
force.

 Remedy: Provide core prints and chaplets

 Metallurgical defects
 Hot tears: Since metal has low strength at higher temperatures, any unwanted
cooling stress may cause the rupture of the casting. The main cause for this is the
poor casting design.

 Hot spots: Hot spot defects occur when an area on the casting cools more rapidly
than the surrounding materials. Hot spot are areas on the casting which is harder
than the surrounding area. It is also called as hard spot.
Metallurgical defects