LABORATORY MANUAL

B.SC. I SEMESTER
(ELECTRONICS)

Department of Pure & Applied Physics

Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya

(A Central University)
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:

1. To Verify the Thevenin’s Theorem

2.To Verify the Norton’s Theorem

3.To Verify the Kirchhoff’s Laws

4. To Verify the Maximum Power Transfer

Theorem
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Aim:- To Verify the Thevenin’s Theorem
Theory : Thevenin’s theorem states that it is possible to simplify
any linear circuit, irrespective of how complex it is ,to an equivalent
circuit with a single voltage source and a series resistance .
In other words, any linear electrical network containing only
voltage source, current source and resistances can be replaced at
terminals A – B by an equivalent combination of a voltage source
Vth in a series connection with a resistance RTH.

▪ (VTH) the equivalent voltage vth is the voltage

obtained at terminal A-B of the network with
terminals A-B open circuited.
▪ (RTH) the equivalent resistance Rth is the resistance
tha the circuit between terminals A&B would have it
all ideal voltage sources in the circuit.
Thevenin’s theorem circuit diagram

Thevenin’s theorem circuit step 1

Thevenin’s theorem circuit step 3

 Thevenin’s theorem circuit step 4

Step of process:-
I. Remove that resistance in which current is wanted.
II. Find the open circuit Voltage, called Thevenin’s
equivalent voltage, Vth.

III. Find the total resistance, from open terminals A and B

side is called Thevenin’s equivalent resistance, Rth
removing actual voltage source from the circuit.
IV. Connect Vth and Rth in series. This will be the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit.
V. Reconnect the between the open terminals of the
Thevenin’s of the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
VI. Find the current in RL

As both resistances are connected in series so the in RL.

and Rth are same.

TABLE – 1
(Calculated value )

S.N. IL VTH RTH RL

1.
2.
3.
(NOTE:First find value using appropriate formulas)
 TABLE – 2
(Experimental value)

S.N. IL VTH RTH RL

1.
2.
3.
(NOTE: Value obtained from experiment)

Results -:
Due to this experiment, we calculated VTh and RTh
relation for equivalent circuit. The value of a resistance
must remain constant. The output voltage of the power
supply should remain constant while taking the date for
the VL – IL plot.
After comparing the theoretically and measured values
we found that there are some changes with the values.
This change is occurred by instruments.

Precautions -:
• Take the readings without parallel error.
• Set the ammeter pointers at zero position.
• Avoid short circuit of RPS output terminals.
 NORTON’S THEOREM
Aim: To Verify the Norton’s Theorem

Norton’s theorem states that any 2-terminal linear and bilateral network or circuit
having multiple independent and dependent sources can be represented in a
simplified equivalent circuit known as Norton’s equivalent circuit.

Norton’s equivalent circuit consists of Norton’s current source IN in parallel with

Norton’s resistance RN. The parallel combination of current source and resistor is a
practical current source. Hence, we can say that Norton’s equivalent circuit is nothing
but a practical current source.

PROCEDURE TO FIND NORTON’S CURRENT:-

Calculate Norton Current

1. Remove the load resistance RL (through which the current is required) and
short circuit it. Let terminals of load are labelled as a-b. Therefore a-b is short
circuited.
2. Find the current through the terminal a-b by applying KVL. KCL, Ohm’s Law or
Superposition principle. This Current is the short circuit current and it is known
as Norton’s equivalent current (IN).

Calculate Norton Resistance (equal to Thevenin resistance)

3. Set all Independent voltages Sources as short circuit and Current Sources open
circuit. Dependent sources will not be changed.
4. Calculate the resistance as “seen” through the terminals a-b into the network
the resistance is known as Norton’s equivalent resistance (RN).

RN = R3 + [1/ (1/R1 + 1/R2)]

RN = R3 + (R1 x R2 / R1 + R2)
 Draw Equivalent Circuit

5. Replace the entire network by Norton’s equivalent current (IN) in parallel with
Norton’s equivalent resistance (Rint) and connect the load resistance RL.

To Find current through load resistance

IL = Is/c x (Rint / Rint + RL)
Table for calculated value:-

Serial No. IL Is/c Rint RL

1.
2.
3.

Table for experimental value:-

Serial No. IL‘ Is/c Rint RL

1.
2.
3.

Result:-
The current IL and RL measured and calculated in the table 1 and 2 are equal for the
same value of IN.

Precautions:-

• To measure In the load RL, should be removed for each time.

• The RN computed should be nearly equal to the measured RN value.
 Kirchhoff’s Law
Aim: To Verify the Kirchhoff’s Laws

Theory: Many of the electrical circuits are complex in nature and the
computations required to find the unknown quantities in such circuits,
using simple ohm’s law and series/parallel combination simplifying
methods is not possible. Therefore, in order to simplify these circuits
Kirchhoff’s laws are used.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

It states that the algebraic sum of currents
at any node is zero. Thus the current
entering at a node must be equal to sum of
current out of the node.

I1 + I2 + (-I3) + (- I4) = 0
I1 + I2 = I3 + I4
Procedures :
1. Connect the circuit in the trainer kit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Adjust the input voltage by adjuster for different reading.
3. Connect the ammeters to get the respective currents meeting at
the required node.
4. Repeat the same procedure for different observation.
5. Compare the value with theoretical results.

Observation Table :

Input I1 I2 Total Total

supply (mA) (mA) current current
voltage (V) (mA) (mA)
Calculated Theoretical

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of voltages in a
closed path is equal to zero i.e. the sum of source voltages is equal
to the sum of voltage drops in a circuit.
V1 + (-IR1) + (-IR2) + (-
V2) + (- IR3) + (-IR4) +
V3 + (-IR5) + (-V4) = 0

V1 – IR1 – IR2 – V2 –
IR3 – IR4 + V3 – IR5 – V4
=0

V1 – V2 + V3 – V4 =
IR1+ IR2 +IR3 + IR4 +
IR5

Procedures :
1. Connect the circuit in the trainer kit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Adjust the input voltage by adjuster for different reading.
3. Connect the voltmeter to get the required voltage.
4. Repeat the same procedure for different observation.
5. Compare the value with theoretical results.
Observation Table :

Loop no. Supply VR1 VR2 VR3 Algebraic

Voltage (V) (V) (V) sum of
(V) voltages
1.
2.
3.
Result :
The Kirchhoff’s law (KCL & KVL) is verified with a percentage error of
_______

Precautions :
1. Avoid loose connections.
2. Keep all the knobs in minimum position while switch is on and
off of the supply.
 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

Aim:-To Verify the Maximum Power Transfer

Theorem
➢ APPARATUS -

Breadboard, Batteries or DC regulated power supply, Resistors,

Digital multimeter, Connecting wires, Alligator clips, Computer and
Multisim software for simulation .

➢ THEORY -

The maximum power transfer theorem states that in a linear,

bilateral DC network, maximum power is delivered to the load when
the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of a source.

FIGURE 1. Concept of maximum power transfer theorem.

Rs = Source resistance also called Thevenin’s resistance. RL =

Load resistance.

V = Source applied.

I = Current flowing through the circuit.

➢ Steps to calculate Pmax by using Maximum power transfer theorem

1. Remove the variable load resistor RL.

2. Find the open circuit voltage VTH across points A and

3. Find the resistance RTH as seen from points A and

4. Find the resistance Rlfor maximum power.

5. Find the current

6. Find the maximum power by using formula

Or
 ➢ CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

[You can take any value of source resistance RTH and then can vary load
resistor with respect to RTH , accordingly make changes in observation table.]
➢ PROCEDURES
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 1.
2. Vary the load resistor RL in steps of 100 Ω and take the readings of
voltmeter (VL) and ammeter (IL) for different values of RL.
3. Take 10 to 15 readings as per observation table.

4.Calculate power P for each value of RL.

5.Plot the graph RL on X-axis versus power P on Y-axis.

➢ OBSERVATION TABLE

current P = V* I
S. voltage current ( RL = V/R
I(amp)
No. (volt) mA ) W (watt)
Ω (Ohm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
➢ CALCULATIONS
RS = RTH = Ω

V = VTH = 12 V

Theoretically maximum power delivered by the source to load

resistance,

➢ PRECAUTIONS

I. Before circuit connection working condition of all the components must be

checked.
II. All the connection should be tight.
III. Ammeter must be connected in series while voltmeter must be connected in
parallel to the components (resistors).
IV. The electrical current should not flow the circuit for long time, otherwise its
temperature will increase and the result will be affected.

➢ RESULTS
Calculated maximum power delivered by the source to load
resistance
Pmax=

Practically maximum power delivered by the source to load

resistance
Pmax=
➢ CONCLUSIONS
Power delivered by the source to load resistor is maximum when load
resistance is equal to source resistance (RL = RS). Also, Theoretical
and practical value of maximum power is found to be nearly same
hence maximum power transfer theorem is verified.