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WAR,
CULTURE AND SOCIETY,
1750–1850

The French Debate

Constitution and Revolution, 1795–1800

Marcus Ackroyd
 War, Culture and Society, 1750–1850

Series Editors
Rafe Blaufarb, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
Alan Forrest, University of York, York, UK
Karen Hagemann, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel
Hill, NC, USA
The series aims to the analysis of the military and war by combining polit-
ical, social, cultural, art and gender history with military history. It wants
to extend the scope of traditional histories of the period by discussing
war and revolution across the Atlantic as well as within Europe, thereby
contributing to a new global history of conflict in the eighteenth and
nineteenth century.
For more information see: wscseries.web.unc.edu

More information about this series at

https://link.springer.com/bookseries/14390
 Marcus Ackroyd

The French Debate

Constitution and Revolution, 1795–1800
Marcus Ackroyd
London, UK

ISSN 2634-6699 ISSN 2634-6702 (electronic)

War, Culture and Society, 1750–1850
ISBN 978-3-030-95208-2 ISBN 978-3-030-95209-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95209-9

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
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His ignorance was limitless and appalling. He once asked me, for instance,
whether Napoleon lived before Jesus Christ or after. Another time, when I
was looking into a bookshop window, he became very perturbed because one
of the books was called “Of the Imitation of Christ”. He took this for
blasphemy. “What de hell do dey want to go imitatin’ of him for?” he
demanded angrily.
George Orwell, Down and Out in Paris and London

The trouble is there is little the dead can do; otherwise they wouldn’t be the
dead. No! But on the other hand it would be a great mistake to assume the
dead are absolutely powerless. They are powerless only to give the full answer
to the new questions posed for the living by history. But they try!
Ralph Ellison, Invisible Man
To Kit and Caroline
 Series Editors’ Preface

The century from 1750 to 1850 was a seminal period of change, not
just in Europe but across the globe. The political landscape was trans-
formed by a series of revolutions fought in the name of liberty—most
notably in the Americas and France, of course, but elsewhere, too: in
Holland and Geneva during the eighteenth century and across much of
mainland Europe by 1848. Nor was change confined to the European
world. New ideas of freedom, equality and human rights were carried to
the furthest outposts of empire, to Egypt, India and the Caribbean, which
saw the creation in 1801 of the first black republic in Haiti, the former
French colony of Saint-Domingue. And in the early part of the nineteenth
century they continued to inspire anti-colonial and liberation movements
throughout Central and Latin America.
If political and social institutions were transformed by revolution in
these years, so, too, was warfare. During the quarter-century of the
French Revolutionary Wars, in particular, Europe was faced with the
prospect of ‘total’ war, on a scale unprecedented before the twentieth
century. Military hardware, it is true, evolved only gradually, and battles
were not necessarily any bloodier than they had been during the Seven
Years War. But in other ways these can legitimately be described as the first
modern wars, fought by mass armies mobilized by national and patriotic
propaganda, leading to the displacement of millions of people throughout
Europe and beyond, as soldiers, prisoners of war, civilians and refugees.

ix
x SERIES EDITORS’ PREFACE

For those who lived through the period these wars would be a formative
experience that shaped the ambitions and the identities of a generation.
The aims of the series are necessarily ambitious. In its various volumes,
whether single-authored monographs or themed collections, it seeks to
extend the scope of more traditional historiography. It will study warfare
during this formative century not just in Europe, but in the Americas, in
colonial societies, and across the world. It will analyse the construction
of identities and power relations by integrating the principal categories of
difference, most notably class and religion, generation and gender, race
and ethnicity. It will adopt a multi-faceted approach to the period, and
turn to methods of political, cultural, social, military, and gender history,
in order to develop a challenging and multidisciplinary analysis. Finally,
it will examine elements of comparison and transfer and so tease out the
complexities of regional, national and global history.
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 Acknowledgements

I have incurred numerous debts in the course of this book’s scenic route
to publication. In particular, three historians played a direct role in its
composition. Sir Colin Lucas first pointed me in the direction of the later
years of the revolutionary decade, banned my pen from ‘taking potshots
at various decorated gables’ and sent me several blasts of transatlantic
sanity. Professor Laurence Brockliss was a patient and probing reader of
my work as it developed, and always reminded me of the virtues of context
and coherence. All along, I benefited, as so many scholars have in recent
decades, from the boundless expertise and goodwill of Professor Alan
Forrest. I thank these three for their guidance and inspiration. In addi-
tion, the related publications of numerous historians consistently moved
this study forward. These included major studies published in English by
Howard Brown, Andrew Jainchill, James Livesey and Isser Woloch; and
substantial equivalents in French by Lloris Chavanette, Bernard Gainot,
Pierre Serna and Michel Troper. Their combined works were essential in
the formation and evolution of this book as they accompanied and some-
times re-routed my long journey through the primary sources at the heart
of The French Debate. I would also like to thank the anonymous readers
of my work for their acute and constructive criticism of the various drafts
I submitted to Palgrave Macmillan. At Palgrave, Emily Russell has been
a model of encouragement and patience. Michelle Brumby provided a

xi
xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

professional index at great speed. Finally, this book would never have
been finished without the love and friendship of the one and only Seana
Lanigan.

Tottenham, North London, UK Marcus Ackroyd

April 2022
 Contents

1 Introduction 1
2 ‘The Constitution, the Whole Constitution, Nothing
But the Constitution’ 11
2.1 Ending Revolutionary Government 12
2.2 The Last of the Crowd 15
2.3 The Public Powers Re-Drawn 17
2.4 Civil Equality: Equality Within Reason 28
2.5 Indefinite Articles: Rights and Liberties 37
2.6 The Two-Thirds Decrees: Conviction and Consequences 46
3 Minds Innocent and Quiet: Conservatives
and the Private Domain, 1795–1797 55
3.1 Private Citizens, Public Speakers 55
3.2 From Brumaire IV to the Elections of the Year V
(November 1795–March 1797) 57
3.3 From the Year V Elections to 18 Fructidor V
(April–September 1797) 86
3.4 18 Fructidor an V (4 September 1797) 103
4 Republicans, Revolution and Law, 1795–1798 107
4.1 The Rules of the Law-Makers 107
4.2 Before Fructidor (October 1795–September 1797) 109

xiii
xiv CONTENTS

4.3 18 Fructidor Year V (4 September 1797) 124

4.4 After Fructidor 138
4.5 Republicans, Revolution and Law: Reprise 152
5 Brumaire: The Politics of Experience 157
5.1 Brumaire: Context 158
5.2 Brumaire: Sequence 163
5.3 Brumaire: Exegesis 179
5.4 Brumaire: Fabrication 195
6 Conclusion 201

Chronology 1794–1800 205

Biographies 215
Bibliography 225
Index 243
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Which came first, written Constitutions or Declarations and Bills of

Rights? The two major Revolutions of the late eighteenth century
produced both answers. In the newly formed United States, the ratifi-
cation of the Bill of Rights in December 1791 followed the adoption
of the Constitution, operative from 1789. In France, the Constitution
of 1791 grew out of the 17 articles in the original Declaration of the
Rights of Man and Citizen minted by the National Assembly in August
1789. In the events, the United States Constitution has endured into
its third century, supplemented by 27 amendments. In direct contrast,
the first French Constitution lasted only until August 1792, when the
overthrow of Louis XVI ended 800 years of Capetian monarchy. The
authors and advocates of these fresh Constitutions shared the convic-
tion that they embodied the rejection of rule by might, caprice and
custom, a seminal moment of emancipation from colonial subjugation
and monarchical tyranny. Written Constitutions as supreme laws of nation
states wrenched political authority from the arbitrary, entrenched machi-
nations of old orders in the name of a new set of imperatives: sovereignty
of the people, representative government, individual rights, checks and
balances, government accountability and judicial independence. For their
pioneers, written Constitutions were instrumental in a seismic and self-
conscious shift from government by ‘accident and force’ to government

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2022
M. Ackroyd, The French Debate, War, Culture and Society, 1750–1850,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95209-9_1
2 M. ACKROYD

by ‘reflection and choice’.1 Le siècle des lumières was also, at its end, le
siècle constitutionnel.2
This transformation was fundamental to the political culture of the
French Revolution. Questions of legitimacy and legality were at the heart
of the political Revolution of 1789, most notably in the Third Estate’s re-
invention as the National Assembly in June 1789 and in the hyper legal
content of the original Declaration of Rights, dominated by the principle
and corollaries of equality before the law. For the Revolution’s first legis-
lators, the language of liberty was predominantly the language of law,
the master principle of their new polity. Law could be made consistent,
universal and rational; law restrained public powers from exceeding their
mandates; law assured the citizenry of their inalienable rights.3 In one
sense, the early years of the Revolution was the story of the National
Assembly’s attempt to apply this template to the political, legal and
administrative institutions of late eighteenth-century France. A smooth
transition would have been an astonishing outcome. The practical and
theoretical obstacles were many and various: the ambiguous position of
the King; the problems inherent in defining the new political nation; the

1 See J. Madison, A. Hamilton & J. Jay, The Federalist Papers (London, 1987), p. 1.
Originally published in 1787–88 as The Federalist: A Collection of Essays, Written in
Favour of the New Constitution, as Agreed upon by the Federal Convention, September 17,
1787 . In the American context note Jack Rakove’s tribute to ‘the American success in
distinguishing a constitution from ordinary law and in developing a method for making
the adoption of a national constitution the result of an unambiguously clear and definitive
deliberative process’: J. Rakove, ‘Constitutionalism. The Happiest Revolutionary Script’,
in K. M. Baker and D. Edelstein (eds.), Scripting Revolution. A Historical Approach to
the Comparative Study of Revolutions (Stanford, 2015), p. 106. For a recent discussion
of the inception of the American Constitution, see, for example, Mary Sarah Bilder, ‘The
Constitution to The Constitution’, Boston College Law School Faculty Papers, 9 December
2018.
2 For the phrase ‘le siècle constitutionnel’ see Annie Jourdan, ‘République Française,
Révolution batave: le moment constitutionnel’, in Pierre Serna (ed.), Républiques Sœurs
Le Directoire et la Révolution Atlantique (Rennes, 2009), p. 301. For the enduring
significance of the French Constitution of 1791, see Michael P. Fitzsimmons, ‘Sovereignty
and Constitutional Power’, in David Andress (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the French
Revolution (Oxford, 2015), pp. 201–17.
3 Note the extent to which these perceptions emerged from ‘the extraordinarily creative
process of the Assembly itself’ rather than as a direct consequence of a pre-existing agenda
among former members of the Third Estate: see Timothy Tackett, Becoming a Revolu-
tionary: The Deputies of the French National Assembly and the Emergence of a Revolutionary
Culture (1789–1790) (Princeton, 1996), quote on page 307.
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

reluctance of swathes of the French population to accept the initiatives

of the new regime, most obviously the Civil Constitution of the Clergy
from July 1790; and the colossal impact of war from April 1792.
In this schema, the most radical phase of the Revolution obliterated the
alliance between liberty and law, as the absolutism of the Terror matched
the absolutism of the monarchy. From the autumn of 1792 until the
fall of Robespierre in July 1794, revolutionary justice was often more
vicious—and arguably more systematic—than any of the abuses that had
flourished in the judicial forest of Grocéliande sustained by the Ancien
Régime.4 Though still a revolutionary government in practice, the Ther-
midorian Convention defined itself as the antithesis of the Terror, reviving
the légicentrisme of the first phase of the Revolution as the cornerstone
of original revolutionary intent.5 With justice now the order of the day,
law regained its place at the heart of the debates in the Thermidorian
Convention and into the years of the Directory. Mostly set between 1795
and 1800, the content and significance of these later debates form the
basis of this work. Specifically, this book illuminates the second half of
the revolutionary decade through a prolonged analysis of the genesis,
history and replacement of the Constitution of the Year III, devised and
debated by the Thermidorian Convention through the summer of 1795
and overhauled at the start of Napoleon’s Consulate late in 1799.
The years of the Thermidorian Convention and the Directory have
now benefited from several mature works of detailed re-appraisal, partic-
ularly over the past three decades. Three of the most important of these
studies appeared in English: James Livesey’s revelation of the democratic
ideals and practices in the ‘commercial republicanism’ operative in France
between 1795 and 1799; Howard Brown’s far-reaching analysis of the
First Republic’s attempt to develop a stable post-revolutionary regime,
firmly linked to the theme of a developing security state; and Andrew
Jainchill’s reading of the post-Terror debates as a major starting point

4 For this allusion to the fabled forest of Grocéliande, see Robert Badinter, ‘Naissance
d’une justice’, in Badinter (ed.), Une Autre Justice 1789–1799 Etudes publiées sous la
direction de Robert Badinter (Paris, 1989), p. 9.
5 For the légicentrisme of 1789, see Stéphane Rials, La declaration des droits de l’homme
et du citoyen (Paris, 1988), p. 13. Taken up for 1795 by Loris Chavanette, Quatre-vingt-
quinze La Terreur en procès (Paris, 2017).
4 M. ACKROYD

in the lineage of French liberalism.6 Individually and collectively, these

works interred the age-old verdict that from 9 Thermidor an II (27
July 1794) the French Revolution ‘sped swiftly into the Inane’.7 They
helped to rescue the second half of the revolutionary decade from its often
underexplored status as postscript to the Terror and prelude to Napoleon.
Concurrently, numerous works published in French have contributed
to this new landscape. In the process, some of the most relevant material
has become more accessible and familiar, both in print and online. For
instance, when the French jurist Michel Troper published a full reprint
of the Year III Constitution he included substantial excerpts from the
debates in the Thermidorian Convention alongside his analysis.8 These
fresh studies examined ongoing tensions and contingencies within the
French Revolution, rather than re-tread the path to well-known outcomes
or pace the corridors and cul de sacs of individual careers. Again, to
take only three examples, they included Bronislaw Baczko’s assessment
of the many predicaments faced by the Thermidorian Convention in
the aftermath of the Terror through 1794 and 1795; Pierre Serna’s
inclusion of the Directorial debates in his pursuit of the ‘radical centre’
through the quarter century of the revolutionary and Napoleonic era; and
Bernard Gainot’s comprehensive study of the momentum and substance
of Jacobin activism in the year immediately preceding Bonaparte’s coup
of 18 Brumaire an VIII (9 November 1799).9 These works respected
and investigated fissures, false steps and areas of shadow. In short they

6 See James Livesey, Making Democracy in the French Revolution (Harvard, 2001);
Howard Brown, Ending the French Revolution: Violence, Justice and Repression from the
Terror to Napoleon (Charlottesville, Vancouver, 2006); and Andrew Jainchill, Reimagining
Politics after the Terror: The Republican Origins of French Liberalism (Ithaca and London,
2008). See also the insightful Martyn Lyons, Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the
French Revolution (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1994).
7 Thomas Carlyle, The French Revolution (Glasgow, 1869), p. 588.
8 Michel Troper, Terminer la Révolution La Constitution de 1795 (Paris, 2006). Online
see especially the abundance of original documents now available on Gallica, the digital
library of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, www.bnf.fr.
9 See Bronislaw Baczko, Comment Sortir de la Terreur Themidor et la Révolution (Paris,
1989); Pierre Serna, La République des girouettes. 1789–1815, et au-delà: une anomalie
politique, la France de l’extrême centre (Paris, 2005); and Bernard Gainot, 1799, une
alternative à Brumaire, le jacobinisme et la représentation démocratique (Paris, 2001).
Among many other publications, see, for example, the essays and papers in P. Bourdin &
B. Gainot (eds.), La République Directoriale (2 vols., Clermont Ferrand, 1999); in J.
Bernet, J-P. Jessenne & H. Leuwers (eds.), Du Directoire au Consulat (4 vols., Presses
 1 INTRODUCTION 5

bore belated witness to the ‘very complicated and even contradictory

narratives’ played out in France through the late 1790s.10
The Constitution of the Year III provides the basis for this addition
to this growing literature. Throughout the twentieth century, histor-
ical verdicts on the Constitution emphasised its narrow definition of the
political nation, its length, its complexity and its inability to end the Revo-
lution. More recently, marking the quiet bicentenary of 1795, several
collections of scholars assessed numerous aspects of the Constitution: its
authors, its context, its content, its omissions and its ramifications.11 This
volume places the Constitution centre stage for the duration of 1795 to
1800 and offers a fresh reading of the French debates of the late 1790s
on that understanding. This sustained focus on the Constitution—before,
during and immediately after the Directorial years—represents a response
to the hunt for ‘new conceptual approaches to the years beyond the
Terror’ prospected by one writer at the start of the twenty-first century.12
To assemble this reading of the career of the Constitution, the chap-
ters below follow the arguments of four sets of political voices discernible
in the period from 1795 to 1800. They will appear as Thermido-
rians, Conservatives, Republicans and Brumairiens. Specifically, Chapter 2
provides a detailed examination of the imperatives and dilemmas apparent
in the Thermidorian attempt to settle the Revolution in the summer of
1795, primarily the debate and construction of the Constitution but also
the Convention’s final acts of exceptional legislation. This chapter features
the leading architects and sponsors of the Constitution—notably François
Boissy d’Anglas and Pierre Daunou—but also prominent critics and
commentators, headed by the Revolution’s most famous Constitutional
theorist, Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès. Chapter 3 explores the Conservative
challenge to the First Directory in the two-year period from the start of

Universitaires du Septentrion, France, 1999–2001); and in Chavanette (ed.), Le Directoire

Forger la République (1795–1799) (Paris, 2020).
10 Livesey, ‘The Political Culture of the Directory’, in Peter McPhee (ed.), A
Companion to the French Revolution (Oxford, 2015), p. 329.
11 See especially, G. Conac & J-P. Machelon (eds.), La Constitution de l’an III Boissy
d’Anglas et la naissance du libéralisme constitutionnel (Paris, 1999). See also the essays in
R. Dupuy & M. Morabito, Pour une République sans Révolution (Rennes, 1996); and in
J. Bart, J.-J. Leclerc, C. Courvoisier & M. Verpeaux (eds.), La Constitution de l’an III,
ou l’ordre républicain (Dijon, 1998).
12 Brown, in Brown and J. A. Miller (eds.), Taking Liberties: Problems of a New Order
from the French Revolution to Napoleon (Manchester, 2002), p. 1.
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6 M. ACKROYD

the regime in October 1795 to the coup d’état of 18 Fructidor an V

(4 September 1797). The main players in this chapter are deputies who
sat in the two legislative Councils until their proscription in the Fructidor
coup, such as Claude Emmanuel Pastoret in the Council of Five Hundred
and Jean-Etienne-Marie Portalis in the Council of Elders. Beyond the
Councils, this chapter incorporates works published by writers vehe-
mently opposed to laws of exception and exclusion, including disaffected
philosophes such as Jean François La Harpe and André Morellet.
The legislative debates of the First Directory again provide the main
content of Chapter 4, evoking the permanent tension between Constitu-
tion and Revolution from the perspective of Republican deputies such
as Antoine Boulay de la Meurthe in the Five Hundred and Claude
Ambroise Régnier in the Elders. Integrating statements and instruc-
tions from the Directors, and publications from outside the Councils,
this chapter extends beyond the Fructidor coup to take in two of the
key developments of 1797–98, the anti-nobles law of 9 Frimaire an VI
(29 November 1797) and the purge of the neo-jacobin deputies on 22
Floréal an VI (11 May 1798). Finally, Chapter 5 introduces the category
of Brumairiens to follow the rationales at work in the coup of 18–19
Brumaire an VIII (9–10 November 1799) and in the major reforms which
followed the replacement of the Directory. These final voices include
the two major figures of Brumaire, Sieyès and Bonaparte, and a selec-
tion of supporters and opponents of the coup needing varying levels of
introduction: ministers, deputies, journalists and intellectuals.
In structure and terminology this is only one way to process the
mass of evidence—and argument—available. Ultimately, the Constitu-
tion was not the Directory any more than the Committee of Public
Safety was the Terror or Louis XVI the Ancien Régime. The four cate-
gories—Thermidorian, Conservative, Republican, Brumairien—are, of
course, imperfect and impressionistic. They derive from sustained immer-
sion in traditional historical sources, mostly male, mostly printed and
mostly Parisian. These sources include government proclamations, legisla-
tive reports and speeches, newspapers, political pamphlets and memoirs.
These are all liable to give political answers and—read in too much isola-
tion—risk leaving author and readers orbiting ‘at an Olympian distance
 1 INTRODUCTION 7

from the ground’.13 Furthermore, the categories are not mutually exclu-
sive. Several Thermidorians—first presented here in their incarnation
as authors and debaters of the Constitution in 1795—reappear either
among the Conservatives of Chapter 3 or the Republicans of Chapter 4.
Similarly, several Republicans from Chapter 4 become Brumairiens in
Chapter 5. Notably, too, the Conservatives in Chapter 3 shade into Royal-
ists, belonging in part to ‘a spectrum of opinions ranging from moderate
constitutionalists to those who would restore the Old Regime in full, with
considerable range and fluidity in between’.14 Finally, to a degree, the
separation of Conservatives and Republicans through Chapters 3 and 4
sacrifices the dynamic of opinion and riposte on display in the primary
sources.
Nonetheless, these categories are also workable and rewarding. Their
imposition encourages analysis rather than narrative. They confirm the
tenacity of the decade-long revolutionary preoccupation with unity and
indivisibility, a political culture where affiliation always implied faction,
and faction always implied conspiracy. These presiding obsessions mili-
tated strongly against the formation of official political parties and
guaranteed electoral instability. The absence of parties contrasted with
the abundance of opinions articulated and recorded between 1795 and
1800. Dozens of speakers and writers appear in the following chap-
ters: Directors, government ministers, deputies, officials, journalists and
commentators. Only two of these—Bonaparte and Sieyès, dominant in
Chapter 5—are major historical figures. Specialists of the Revolutionary
and Napoleonic era will be familiar with numerous others: Thibaudeau,
Roederer, Cambacérès and Bailleul, for example.15 In addition, and to
confirm the breadth and depth of the debates, many much more obscure
figures also speak in these pages: unheralded deputies such as Audouin
and Pelet; Muraire and Lemerer; Riou and Creuzé-Latouche; Harmand
and Bérenger.
Yet if some of the reputations are slight and even non-existent, the
material is consistently significant and often extremely vivid, witness one

13 S. J. Kaplan, Farewell, Revolution: The Historians’ Feud, France 1789/1989 (2 vols.

Ithaca and London, 1993), I: 72.
14 Darrin McMahon, Enemies of the Enlightenment: The French Counter-Enlightenment
and the Making of Modernity (Oxford, 2002), p. 74.
15 All identifiable as career politicians: see their multiple appearances in Isser Woloch,
Napoleon and His Collaborators: The Making of a Dictatorship (Norton, New York, 2001).
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Flourens, after its removal from a pigeon, found an utter lack of
harmonized movement in walking, springing or balancing. Luciani
removed the organ from a bitch and, after full healing of the part,
found a lack of muscular tone (a cerebellar ataxy), so that no great
muscular effort could be satisfactorily accomplished. After months,
marasmus set in and proved fatal. The lack of coördination is
especially connected with lesions of the vermiform process, those of
the posterior portion causing falling forward and those of the
anterior portion, falling backward. Injury to the middle peduncle on
one side causes turning or rolling to the opposite side. Under slighter
injuries there may be only unsteadiness and staggering like a
drunken man. Nausea and vomiting, with more or less stiffness of
the neck or oposthotonos, may be present. Rolling of the eyes or
squinting may occur.
Focal Cortical Centers of the Cerebrum. Cortical
Localization. Much has been done experimentally and by
observation of morbid lesions to locate functions in the different
convolutions, and though the subsidiary implication of adjacent and
interdependent parts interferes with a perfectly confident diagnosis,
yet certain fundamental facts may be borne in mind as contributing
to a satisfactory diagnosis.
Arloing, on the basis of his own experiments and those of his
predecessors, gives the following as applicable to the equine (ass)
brain:
1. Stimulation of the origin of the front part of the first frontal
convolution, or of the anterior part of the pre-Sylvian convolution,
causes approximation of the feet on the opposite side of the body.
2. Stimulation of the superior part of the first frontal convolution
or of the superior part of the post-Rolandic convolution causes
closure of the jaws and diduction.
3. Stimulation of the anterior end of the upper orbital convolution,
or of the anterior part of the pre-Rolandic convolution, leads to
movements of the nose and upper lip.
4. Stimulation of the antero-superior part of the lower frontal
convolution, or the union of the post-Rolandic with the Sylvian
convolution causes movement of tongue and jaws.
 5. Stimulation of the union of the vertical and horizontal parts of
the orbital convolution or frontal lobe, causes opening of the jaws
and bending of head and neck.
6. Stimulation in the front of the union of the frontal and
longitudinal convolutions, or at the union of the Sylvian and second
parietal convolution causes rolling of the opposite eye.
7. Stimulation of union of the frontal and parietal parts of second
parietal convolution leads to closure of both eyelids or, with a strong
current, of lids on both sides.
8. Stimulation of the second parietal convolution, above and a
little behind the extremity of the Sylvian fissure, causes opening of
the eye and adduction of the ear on the opposite side, or, if a very
strong current, on both sides.
9. Strong stimulation of the posterior part of the first and second
parietal convolutions causes tonic convulsions.
10. Currents through the posterior parts of the third and fourth
parietal convolutions gives similar convulsions with violent
trembling of the trunk and members.
In the Dog’s Brain localization is easily made by reference to the
crucial fissure which passes outward, right and left, at right angles
with the longitudinal fissure about the junction of its anterior with its
middle third. Also by four parietal convolutions which run backward
from near the crucial fissure, parallel with the longitudinal fissure.
They are counted from without inward. Fritsch, Hitzig and Ferrier
have mapped out the following motor areas:
1. The convolution in front of the outer end of the crucial sulcus
controls the muscles of the neck.
2. The bend of the same convolution backward, opposite the outer
extremity of the crucial sulcus, controls the extensors and adductors
of the fore limb.
3. The convolution just behind the outer end of the crucial sulcus
controls the muscles which flex and rotate the fore limb.
4. The same convolution behind the middle of the crucial fissure
controls the movements of the hind limb.
5. The second convolution back of the crucial fissure controls the
muscles of the face.
 6. The anterior part of the internal (4th) parietal convolution, just
back of the crucial fissure, controls the lateral switching movements
of the tail.
7. The posterior angle of the first post-crucial convolution causes
retraction and abduction of the fore limb.
8. The outer end of the first post-crucial convolution, directly
behind the outer end of the sulcus, causes raising of the shoulder and
extension of the fore limb.
9. The anterior end of the third parietal convolution (the second
from the longitudinal fissure) controls closure of the eyelids, the
rolling of the eyeball upward, and narrowing of the pupil.
10. Stimulation of the anterior end of the second parietal
convolution causes partial opening of the mouth with retraction and
elevation of its angle.
11. Stimulation of the point of union of the first and second parietal
convolutions anteriorly causes opening of the mouth with protrusion
and retraction of the tongue.
12. Stimulation of the median part of the second parietal
convolution, causes retraction and elevation of the angle of the
mouth.
13. Stimulation of the convolution directly in front of the outer end
of the crucial sulcus causes dilatation of the eyelids and pupil while
the eyes and head are turned toward the opposite side.
14. Stimulation of the convolution behind the crucial fissure causes
contraction of the muscles of the perineum.
15. Stimulation of the convolution in front of the crucial fissure, on
its anterior and sloping portion, causes movements of the pharynx
and larynx (swallowing).
16. Stimulation of motor areas of the cortex, by scraping, irritation,
or disease tends to produce spasmodic contractions of certain groups
of muscles (Jacksonian Epilepsy). Strong stimulation may cause
general epileptiform spasms, which are at first tonic, then clonic.
One such seizure strongly predisposes to a second. If, during an
attack, the cortical centres presiding over a special group of muscles
were sliced off, such muscles relaxed, though the general spasms in
the other muscles continued.
 Localizations of Spinal Lesions.
Being at once a conductor between the brain and nerves, and a
reflex nerve centre, we must consider both rôles in seeking to locate
lesions from symptoms. In passing from the nerves to and from the
sensorium both sensory and motor currents cross so that one side of
the brain presides over the other side of trunk and limbs. This
crossing of the motor fibres takes place in the medulla oblongata,
while that of the sensory fibres occurs in the spinal cord close in
front of the nerve from which they have entered.
Cross-Section of one lateral half of the spinal cord
therefore causes motor paralysis and rise of temperature of the
whole of that side of the body posterior to the lesion, while it induces
sensory paralysis and cooling on the opposite side of the body up to
the same point. A very limited sensory paralysis on the same side
occurs corresponding to the few sensory fibres passing outward
obliquely through the portion injured by the cross-section.
A vertical section of the cord separating the one lateral
half from the other does not necessarily affect the motor currents,
while it produces a limited anæsthesia on each side in the area of
distribution of the nerves, the sensory fibres of which crossed in the
seat of the lesion.
Transverse section of the superior columns causes
hyperæsthesia and lack of coördination.
Transverse section of inferior columns, or of the inferior
horn of gray matter, if close behind the medulla, causes no motor
paralysis, but if farther back induces motor paralysis on the same
side of the body.
Transverse section of the cervical lateral columns causes
motor paralysis of the lateral walls of the chest (respiratory tract). If
the section is made in the dorsal or lumbar region it is the same as
lesion of the superior columns.
Among reflex centres in the cord the following may be named:
 The Respiratory Tract in the cervical lateral columns just
referred to.
A Glycogenic Centre in the anterior cervical section between the
bulb and the fourth cervical nerve.
Centres which Dilate the Pupil between the fifth cervical and
the sixth dorsal nerve.
Cardiac Accelerator Centres between the three last cervical
and the five first dorsal nerves.
Vaso-Motor Sudoriparous Centres in the central gray matter.
Centre for Anal Sphincter between the sixth and seventh
dorsal nerves.
Centre for Vesical Sphincter between the third and fifth
lumbar nerves.
Genital Centre, opposite the first lumbar nerve.
Vaso-motor and Trophic Centres are found in the inferior
horns of gray matter, and their degeneration causes progressive
muscular atrophy.
The Muscular Sense Tract is located near the surface of the
superior columns, so that a certain amount of incoördination and
unsteadiness of progression follows its destruction.
The Deeper Part of the Superior Columns and the Column
of Goll which bounds the superior median fissure control muscular
sense and coördination, and their disease (posterior lateral sclerosis)
entails locomotor ataxy.
 TABLE SHOWING PROMINENT PHENOMENA
FROM LESIONS OF THE CORD.
Lesions in
Cervical Region. Dorsal Region. Lumbar Region.
Paralysis in Neck muscles; Dorsal, Paraplegia.
diaphragm; trunk; abdominal and
limbs. intercostal
muscles.
Paraplegia.
Sensation Local hyperæsthesia in Hyperæsthesia in Hyperæsthesia
fore limbs. lower part of in zone around
Anæsthesia in rest of abdominal loins;
limbs and trunk. wall. anæsthesia in
hind limbs.
Atrophy Rare in neck; common Slight in muscles In hind limbs.
in fore legs. behind lesion.
Electric Lessened in atrophied Lessened in Lessened in
reaction muscles. dorsal and atrophied
abdominal muscles; in
muscles: ratio.
slightly in
wasted leg.
Bladder Retention or Same as cervical. Incontinence
intermittent from palsy of
incontinence reflex, or sphincter.
(later) from overflow.
Cystitis common.
Bowels Involuntary evacuation Same as cervical. Paralysis of
(reflex spasm) or sphincter with
constipation. incontinence;
costiveness.
Superficial Temporary loss; then Same as cervical. Lost.
reflex rapid increase.
Deep reflex Temporary loss; then Same as cervical. Lost.
slow increase.
Priapism Often present. Often present. Absent.
 HALLUCINATIONS.

Subjective cerebral impressions projected as real. Rabies. Toxins. Poisons.

Essential oils. Chloroform.

Hallucinations are subjective impressions which the animal

supposes to be real. The disorders in his brain are projected outward
and become to him real objects and occurrences.
They may arise from the presence and proliferation of microbes in
the brain as in rabies in animals. They may proceed from poisoning
of the brain by toxins as in anthrax.
They may be developed, in dogs especially, by the action of certain
essential oils on the cerebral cortex. The first two classes will be
considered with those special diseases. The mental disorders from
drugs have been studied experimentally by Cadeac and Mennier, and
may be noticed in this place.
Lavender, fennel and angelica produce in the dog a condition of
extreme terror, and overcome all disposition to exercise self-defense.
Mints and origanum induce hallucinations of odor. The dog seeks
around with head and nose elevated, sniffs the air, moves cautiously,
fixes his eye on some phantom object, and starts to hunt imaginary
game. The love of catmint seems to amount to a mania in the feline
animal.
Kidney vetch evidently causes a sensation of itching or
formication; the dog bites the hair of the tail, the hind limbs or the
flank as if to destroy fleas or other vermin.
Dogs under chloroform have sought to hunt, and stallions under
ether have shown generative excitement with erection of the penis
and movements of coition.
 TIMIDITY. PANIC. STAMPEDE.

Timidity. Panic. Timid driver. Impaired vision. Nervous. Irritability. Gadding.

Gregarious habit. Absence of natural weapons. Treatment. Habit. Substitution.
Absolute constraint. Kindness. Boldness. Work. Moderate diet.

An animal is naturally nervous, and by habit has become timid

until it is virtually impossible to utilize it. In a body of animals, fear is
quickly transferred from one to the other until all join in a wild panic
or stampede. This is common in range cattle or horses, but is found
in army horses as well, and a whole regiment will sometimes refuse
to longer face the enemy and flee in spite of every effort of the rider.
On a smaller scale, two timid horses in a team, scared by some
unusual sight, add each to the sense of fear of the other, as they try to
escape, until they gallop blindly into any danger. This sense of terror
is often fostered by the timid rider or driver, every feeling of
apprehension conveyed through the trembling or uncertain hand, or
the voice which has lost the element of confidence, tending to
undermine the last vestige of trust on the part of the horse. Imperfect
sight is one cause of panic, as the perception of common objects in
distorted form or unwonted situations strikes terror to the timid
animal, causing shying or bolting. Better absolute blindness than
such imperfect vision.
A constitutional timidity tends constantly to increase unless the
animal is judiciously accustomed to the object of terror. The horse
once scared, seems to become more and more watchful for other
objects of dread, and even inclined to bolt from such as are common
and of every day occurrence.
Cattle and sheep attacked by the gadfly (œstrus) flee in great
terror, and this dread is communicated from animal to animal so
that the whole herd or flock is suddenly panic-stricken. The bellow of
the ox attacked and the erection of its tail is the signal for every other
within reach to join the stampede.
These panics are associated with the instinct of these races toward
a gregarious life; they mass together for protection and they learn to
heed the slightest indication of approaching danger. This instinct
grows more powerful by constant exercise, and is most marked in
those genera which have the least natural means of protection.
Hence, of all animals sheep are most easily panic-stricken, and once
affected, they move in mass, one following its fellow, without object,
without definite direction or destination, and without consideration
of the other dangers they are to meet. Hence, if one sheep jumps over
the parapet of a bridge to certain destruction, the whole flock
speedily follows. If one leaps over a fallen tree into a snow bank, all
at once follow suit and pile above each other in one suffocating,
perishing mass.
While this condition is hereditary in gregarious families, it is
essentially a psychosis in those animals that have been often scared
until they are continually on the watch for objects of fear.
Treatment. In the case of horses, the best course is to make the
animal familiar with the object of dread; let him look at it, approach
it slowly, smell it, feel it with his lips. Never turn away his eyes from
it and drive him off, as that confirms the impression of dread, and
the object retains ever after its dreaded appearance. In this way timid
colts become gradually fearless of umbrellas, city sights, street cars,
large vans, flags, music, locomotives and the like,—they become, in
the expressive language of the horseman, road-wise. A paddock or
yard beside a railroad will soon accustom a timid horse to the cars,
and so with other things, experience will remove apprehension.
A more speedy removal of the habit of dread may often be secured
by the principle of substitution. The mind of the animal does not
readily attend to more than one matter at a time; if, therefore, we can
distract the attention in another direction, the object of fear may be
virtually ignored until the eye has become habituated to it, and it will
be recognized as harmless. Thus it is that a twitch on the upper or
lower lip, a binding of the chin in upon the breast by a Yankee bridle
may make the horse temporarily heedless of the object of terror. So
also in the bolting horse, the obstruction of the breath by a cord with
a running noose around the neck, or the sending of an electric
current through wire reins and bit will promptly check him in his
wild career.
The result is still better when the animal is made to feel his utter
helplessness in the hands of man and the futility of any attempt to
escape. On this are based the method of Rarey and of his various
successors. With fore limbs strapped up, the animal soon exhausts
himself in his efforts to disengage them and escape, and lies down
completely reconciled to his fate. He may now be accustomed to his
objects of terror—the opening and closing of an umbrella, or the
waving of a flag over his head, the discharge of a gun close to his ear,
the passing of car or locomotive, or any other object of his dread.
When allowed to get up he will usually pay no further attention to
these things, especially if patted and spoken to encouragingly, and
perhaps fed apple or sugar, or something of which he is fond. As far
as is consistent with the thoroughness of the subjection, the animal
should be treated throughout with the greatest kindness, so as to
retain and even increase his trust in man and sense of dependence,
while at the same time he is strongly impressed with the futility of
resistance to his will. After the animal has been thus taught to bear
with equanimity his former objects of terror, he should not be at
once allowed to forget them, but by daily experience he should be
confirmed in the conviction that they are harmless, and may be met
with safety. This should be carried out, if possible, in the hands of the
bold and kind operator who has trained him, as, if returned to a
timid driver or rider, he may be easily led back into his former habits
of blind terror. A similar and even easier resort is the process of
turning as given under balking.
Constant hard work, for a time, is an excellent form of accessory
treatment, as the plethora developed by overfeeding and temporary
idleness begets an irritability and impatience of control which is
quite likely to beguile him into his old habits.
In case of runaway, beside the electric and asphyxiating treatment
already referred to, the animal may be blinded and quickly brought
to a standstill. Movable blinds may be used which habitually stand
well out from the eyes, but which may be instantly drawn closely over
them by the simple pulling of a cord. The sudden darkness and the
impossibility of directing his course, brings an instant realization of
the existence of other dangers beside the original bugbear.
 BALKING. RESTIVENESS.

Definition. Common in ass and mule. Causes: low condition; overloading;

nervousness; sluggish nature; irritable driver; shoulder sores; poor collar; hard bit;
sharp or sore maxilla; sores in angle of mouth; mares; racial tendency; going from
stable; a psychosis. Symptoms: stands stock still; plunges, but won’t draw; will
stamp, bite, kick, rear, buck, crowd on wall; lie down. Breach of warranty: sound
price; willfulness; balking of raw horse; diagnosis from nervous disorders; sores,
etc. Time in which returnable. Treatment: preventive; curative; distract attention;
cord on ear; whiff of ammonia or capsicum; closing nostrils; blindfolding; tying up
the fore leg; stroking nose, eyes or ears; tapping flexors of metacarpus; move in
circle with head tied to tail; coax to go.

In general terms this has been defined as a refusal to obey. Usually

in solipeds it is a refusal to move as directed with a load, under the
saddle, or in hand. Though essentially a vice, it may become such a
fixed habit that it appears to dominate the will of the animal and may
thus be called a psychosis—a mental infirmity.
It is much more common in asses and mules than in horses, in
keeping with their more obstinate disposition and too often harsher
treatment.
There may be simple refusal to pull. This often comes from
overloading, and especially when the animal has been sick or idle,
and comes back to work with soft flabby muscles unequal to any
violent exertion. After one or two ineffective efforts he sets himself
back in the harness refusing to try again and the vice is started.
Ordinary loads on bad roads full of holes from which it is impossible
to drag the wheels have a similar effect. The danger is greater if the
animal is naturally of a nervous or impatient disposition, and if he
makes a desperate plunge forward and fails at once to move the load.
Such a horse hitched with a slow steady mate is liable to have
expended his effort before the latter has had time to join him in the
pull, and it becomes impossible to move the load because the two
cannot be started simultaneously. The conditions are aggravated if
the driver is irritable and by voice and acts further excites the already
too excitable animal.
Lesions of various kinds, such as shoulder bruises, abscesses,
abrasions and callouses, saddle bruises, callouses, abscesses or
fistulæ cause acute pain whenever the effort is made, and render the
animal more impatient and indisposed to try again.
Too small a collar or one that fits badly (too narrow, uneven) has
often a similar effect.
Among other causes may be named a hard bit harshly used, a
sharp edge of the lower jaw bone where the bit rests in the
interdental space, sores of the buccal mucous membrane in this
situation, and caries or necrosis of the superficial layer of the bone.
Also chaps, ulcers, or cancroid of the angle of the mouth.
Young horses, that are as yet imperfectly trained, are more readily
driven to balk than old trained animals.
Mares are more subject to the vice than geldings, by reason
apparently of a more nervous disposition, but much more because of
the excitement to which they are subjected, under the periodic
returns of heat.
Pench speaks of rare hereditary cases in which the habit is
uncontrollable and the animal incurable.
Friedberger and Fröhner accuse chestnut and sorrel horses as
being especially liable to balk.
However started the continued exercise of the act fixes it as an
incurable habit a virtual psychosis. Yet the inclination of the animal,
his likes and dislikes to a certain extent control its manifestations,
thus a horse rarely balks in going home, and shows it mostly in going
in the opposite direction, and above all on a new or unknown road.
The Symptoms vary greatly in different cases. One animal stands
stock still propping his legs outward and absolutely refusing to
budge. This may occur even in the stall when it is attempted to take
the animal out. When on the road he is usually willing to turn and go
back, but no persuasion by voice or whip can force him forward.
Other horses make ineffective plunges forward but never throw
weight enough into the collar to overcome any resistance.
 Still others stamp, bite, throw themselves to one side rather than
forward, rear up, strike with the fore feet, and if whipped kick with
the hind. Some will throw themselves down and struggle in this
condition.
Under the saddle the animal may crowd against a wall, rear, kick,
buck or even throw himself down in his efforts to dislodge the rider.
These violent manifestations however rather belong to vice than
mere balking. Trembling, perspiration, frequent rejection of urine,
and general acceleration of pulse and breathing may manifest a
severe nervous disorder.
Diagnosis. It is often important to pronounce upon the exact
nature of this trouble so as to determine whether the seller is
responsible for a breach of warranty given or implied. As regards
implied warranty a sound price for an animal sold to do a given kind
of work implies a mutual understanding that the animal is not
physically or psychically incapacitated for such work.
The balking horse is one that obstinately refuses to perform a piece
of work for which his physical condition seems to be well adapted.
The willfulness of the refusal is the important feature. In case of such
a serious drawback to the value of a horse, the presumption of fraud
on the part of the seller is unavoidable, in case he failed to mention
the habit to the purchaser, but of course this is even more
emphatically certified if he has warranted the animal as a good
worker, or kind, or true in work.
On the other hand he cannot be held responsible for the failure to
perform an act in case the horse has been overloaded when fat or out
of condition, or if he has sores on back, withers or shoulders, a badly
fitting collar, a severe or large clumsy bit, or sores on the lower jaw,
or indeed any temporary physical infirmity, to which the balking can
be fairly attributed.
Balking is not to be confounded with nervous affections (paretic,
spasmodic, congestion) in which the failure to obey is not due to lack
of will, but to lack of power. Nor must it be confounded with the
inability of the paralysis of lead poisoning. It is perhaps most likely
to be confounded with that lack of both sensory and motor power
which attends on ventricular dropsy and other chronic affections of
the brain. In such cases (immobility, coma) the habitual dullness,
drowsiness, general hebetude, and lack of energy contrasts strongly,
with the strength, vigor and general life of the animal which
suddenly, willfully and incorrigibly balks.
The balky horse which has no such nervous disorder as an excuse,
no badly fitting harness, no lesion on shoulder, back, limbs nor
mouth, no unsuitable bit, no special softness nor poverty of
condition, no slow, ill-adjusted mate, no impatient driver, and no
excessive load, nor impassable road, but which jibs without excuse,
as a willful disobedience, may well be cause for annulling a sale. In
most European countries such a horse can be returned to the seller
and the sale set aside within 3 days (Austria), 4 days (Prussia), 5 days
(Saxony), 9 days (Hesse).
Treatment. This should be preventive by avoiding the various
causes above enumerated, for if the habit is once contracted it is too
often impossible to establish a permanent cure. The horse is largely a
bundle of habits and the first act of disobedience has given a bias to
the nerve cells of the cortex cerebri which like a planted seed tends to
reproduce itself whenever an opportunity offers. With every
successive act of the kind, the impression on the nerve cells becomes
deeper and more indelible and the habit fixed the more firmly.
In slight recent cases in the milder dispositions the vice may be
overcome by some resort which engages and engrosses the animal’s
attention. Among these may be named tying a cord round the root of
the ear and tying it down; giving an inhalation of ammonia or a sniff
of powdered capsicum; closing the nostrils until the horse struggles
to breathe; blindfolding for a few minutes; tying up one fore leg until
thoroughly tired; even stroking the nose or ears until the fret is
overcome. Immediately following on any one of these methods, move
the horse gently to the right and left and call him confidently to get
up. Some will start if gently tapped with the toe below the knee until
the foot is lifted and repeating this a few times in succession, then,
after a few steps, reward with an apple, sugar or piece of bread, and
don’t push too far at a time but repeat the lesson often. If among the
first exhibitions of the vice it may be met by occupying the time in a
make-believe fixing of the harness until the animal ceases to fret,
then standing by his head, tap him on the croup with a whip and call
him to go on. Or he may first be moved to the right and left and then
ordered to move. A rather wearisome treatment is to place in the stall
with a man behind him who taps him on the rump every few
minutes, preventing composure, rest, or sleep, and keeping this up
without interval for twenty-four hours or even double that time if
necessary. If he goes well when hitched, he is driven but if he balks,
he is returned to the stall and the treatment continued.
Magner, who mentions all these methods, reserves his highest
commendation for the method of tying the horse’s head round to his
tail and letting him turn in a circle until he is giddy and falls over.
Some stubborn cases get habituated to turning in one direction and
continue obdurate until the head and tail are tied around on the
other side and the rotatory motion reversed. When thoroughly dazed
by this treatment, the animal is hitched up and will usually move on.
If there is still an indisposition, stand by his head and tap the croup
with a whip, calling on him to start. Or subject him to further
rotatory treatment.
 DELIRIUM.

A phenomenon in different morbid states; cerebral hyperæmia, anæmia,

congestion, inflammation, intoxication, toxin poisoning. Symptoms: horse, ox,
sheep, swine, dog. Treatment: adapted to primary disease present, narcotic,
poison, and to degree of violence. Anæsthetics, soporifics, cerebral sedations, cold
to head, eliminants, depletion or tonics and nutritious food.
Delirium or derangement of emotional or mental functions is
usually the result of organic disease of the brain and especially of the
cortical gray matter of the cerebrum. It is seen in hyperæmia,
anæmia, faults of nutrition, intoxications and variations of
temperature. The derangements of circulation may be in the
meninges or in the nervous substance. The intoxications may be with
mineral (lead, mercury), vegetable (opium, Indian hemp,
belladonna, hyoscyamus, stramonium, strychnia), or other poisons,
including the toxic products of microbes (as in pneumonia, scalma,
rabies, influenza, Rinderpest, milk sickness, Texas fever, etc.).
Symptoms. These are usually an extraordinary and disorderly
nervous excitement. Horses take expectant or ready positions of the
limbs, plunge with feet in rack or manger, rear, turn, kick, bite,
spring violently, neigh, and push or knock the head against the wall.
Cattle bellow in a loud or frightened manner, attempt to kick and
gore, grind the teeth and make movements of the jaws, froth at the
mouth, dash themselves in any direction heedless of obstacles, push
the head against the wall breaking teeth or horns, and moving
heedlessly against fences, or trees, or into water or pits even to their
own destruction. Sheep stamp the feet, butt, bleat, work the jaws,
grind the teeth, leap, and move in a given direction regardless of
obstacles. Pigs grunt, tremble, champ the jaws, run against
obstacles, scratch the ground with their feet or snout and creep
under the litter. They may even attempt to bite. Dogs are restless,
whine, move in a circle, snap at straw, bars, doors, and other objects,
and may show a disposition to bite. In all the domestic animals these
delirious symptoms may closely resemble those of rabies. This has
been particularly noticed in certain forms of poisoning. Pascault has
found this in cattle that had eaten garlic and Cadeac in dogs that had
eaten tansy.
The animals in such cases become morbid, dull, taciturn, they
become usually hypersensitive, sometimes hyposensitive, have a
change of voice, and show a readiness to resent and bite if interfered
with, and even to wander away by themselves as in rabies. On the
other hand they may be seized with lethargy and torpor as in dumb
rabies, and with or without access of convulsions may pass away in a
condition of paralysis.
Among other conditions these symptoms have been found to be
associated with epilepsy, foreign bodies in the pharynx, gullet,
stomach or bowels, with intestinal parasites, or with mycotic
poisoning (ergotism, smut, the fungus of coniferous trees, etc.).
The lack of the extreme hyperæsthesia and excitability of rabies,
and usually of the mischievous disposition to bite, the presence of
foreign bodies in the mouth or gullet, and the evidence of disorder of
digestion, with costiveness, tympany, and tenderness, and the
history of the case may serve to differentiate. In cases of doubt the
inoculation of a rabbit on the brain should demonstrate the absence
of rabies by the absence of the characteristic symptoms after sixteen
days.
Treatment. As delirium in animals is a deranged innervation from
congestion, narcotic drugs, ptomaines, etc., it must be looked on as
in most cases a mere phenomenon, pointing to a definite disease, or
to a particular intoxication, and treatment must be directed toward
the removal of the primary cause. Thus the remedial measures must
be directed in the different cases to the encephalitis, meningitis,
digestive disorders, contagious disease, or drug to which the
affection may be traced. The patient must be put in a strong
enclosure or securely tied so that he can do no harm: it will often be
desirable to secure shade or cool air, or to apply cold water or ice to
the head, and to quiet the nervous excitement by inhalations of
chloroform, or ether, rectal injections of chloral, or bromides, or full
doses of hyoscine, sulphonal, trional or tetronal. These may be
pushed to the extent of inducing anæsthesia, sleep or quiet, as the
case may be, and meanwhile other measures should be taken to
eliminate the poisons, correct the congestion, or remove the source
of irritation. Anæmic cases may demand iron and bitters, with an
aliment rich and easily assimilated, while plethoric cases may require
purgation, diuresis or even bloodletting. All noise and any cause of
excitement must be carefully guarded against.
 VICIOUSNESS. AGGRESSIVE VICE.

Subject maliciously using its natural weapons. Horse kicks, bites, crowds against
wall, rears, bucks, plunges, treads upon. Cattle use horns or forehead, or kick. Dog
bites. Cats scratch and bite. Ticklishness different. Developed or inherited.
Revenge. Desperation in pain. Sexual. A psychosis. Responsibility of owner, in
selling, toward employe, in exposing in a public place. Treatment: remove source
of suffering, treat kindly, secure confidence, castrate, place under absolute
constraint, throw a la Rarey, Comanche bridle, tie head to tail and circle, etc.

This word is employed to cover only those forms of vice in which

the animal shows a malignant disposition to attack or injure man or
beast. Each animal uses its natural weapons according to the
occasion.
The horse strikes with his fore feet, kicks with his hind, bites,
crowds his rider’s leg against a wall, or his attendant’s body against
the side of the stall, rears, bucks, plunges, or treads his victim under
his feet.
The ruminants, large and small, use their horns, and cattle their
feet as well. In the absence of horns they still use the forehead, but
much less effectively and usually only with the purpose of defence.
The dog attacks with his teeth and the cat with her claws by
preference, and uses the teeth as a secondary weapon.
Swine use their tusks to rip or disembowel their adversary or
victim.
A very ticklish horse cannot bear to be touched on the flank or
hind parts, without throwing the ear backward, glancing back,
showing the white of the eye, and lifting the foot. But if this is mere
excess of sensitiveness and begets no disposition to kick it is not
viciousness.
 The vicious horse will in such cases bite or kick repeatedly and
with well directed purpose. He will moreover show the movements of
ears and eyes and attack his victim in the absence of any such excuse,
the simple approach being a sufficient occasion. He will bite and
strike with the fore feet at the same time, or he may strike out with
one hind foot or with both at once. He may attack indiscriminately
all who approach him, or reserve his ill-will for particular
individuals, and then he often acts under a feeling of revenge for ill-
usage from this individual or some one he conceives him to
represent.
In some cases viciousness is inherited and certain families have a
bad reputation in this respect. It may be either a survival of the
ancestral disposition of the wild horse, or it may be a trait developed
by ill-usage of a team of more immediate ancestors.
In other cases the habit is acquired by the individual himself, and
in such cases it may be due to brutal treatment at the hands of man;
to a continuous punishment of a high-spirited horse leading to
resentment and retaliation; to acute pain in boils, abrasions or other
sores in the root of the mane, or the shoulder, or the back, where
pressed on by the collar or saddle; or to the generative excitement of
mares in heat. In many such cases the vice lasts only during the
persistence of the cause, in others it becomes permanent. The
stallion is much more disposed to aggressive vice than the gelding.
Whether we may consider the vice a disease or not, it becomes a
habit engrained in the nature, the nerve centres tending to reproduce
their habitual acts indefinitely, so that we may look on the condition
as a psychosis which is too often incurable.
Responsibility of the owner. Dangerous aggressive vice is too
self-evident to the buyer to constitute a good cause for annulling a
sale, but it has this legal bearing, that the owner who keeps an
animal known to be vicious, renders himself responsible for
whatever injury to man or beast he may perpetrate. Thus the vicious
stallion, bull or dog in a public place which damages person or
property, renders his owner liable to the extent of such damages.
This, of course, must be largely qualified by the attendant
circumstances. The man employed to take care of a horse, knows his
habits as fully as the owner, takes his chances and should exercise
due precautions to avoid danger. The person who enters a stall