Some Notations

Some Notations

• N = The set of all natural numbers (It includes zero)

• Z = The set of all integers

Definition 1
A number p is called a rational number if there exist two integers a and b
a
such that p = where b ̸= 0.
b
• Q = The set of all rational numbers
• R = The set of all real numbers

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 1 / 52

 Some Notations

Some Notations

• ∈⇒ element of ⇒ x ∈ A ⇒ A = {x, . . . }
• ∪ ⇒ union ⇒ A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
• ∩ ⇒ intersection ⇒ A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
• ⊂⇒ subset of ⇒ ”A ⊂ B ⇒ x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B”
• \ ⇒ difference of sets or setminus ⇒ x ∈ A \ B ⇒ x ∈ A but x ∈
/B
• ∀ ⇒ for all, ∃ ⇒ exists
• I = R \ Q = The set of all irrational numbers
• <⇒ less than, ≤⇒ less than or equal to
• >⇒ greater than, ≥⇒ greater than or equal to

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 2 / 52

 Intervals

Intervals

• Certain sets of real numbers, called intervals, occur frequently in

calculus and correspond ■
A2 geometrically
APPENDIX A to line segments.
INTERVALS, INEQUALITIES, AND ABSOLUTE V

• For example, if a < b, the open interval from a to b consists of all

numbers between a and b and is denoted by the symbol (a, b).
A
• Using set-builder notation, we Intervals,
can write Inequalities, and Ab

(a, b) = {x ∈ R a < x < b} Certain sets of real nu

spond geometrically t
• Notice that the endpoints of the interval - namely, a and
a to b consists
- are of all
excluded. This is indicated by the round brackets ( ) and by the opennota
Using set-builder
dots in Figure.
a b Notice that the endpo
FIGURE 1 indicated by the round
Open interval (a, b) val from a to b is the
MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 3 / 52
 Intervals
A Intervals, Inequalities, and Abso

Certain sets of real numb

spond geometrically to l
a to b consists of all num
Definition 2 Using set-builder notatio
The closed interval from a to b is the set

a {x ∈ R a ≤
[a, b] = b x ≤ b} Notice that the endpoin
FIGURE 1 indicated by the round br
Here the endpoints of the interval are
Open interval (a, b) included. This is indicated
val from a by
to bthe
is the set
square brackets [ ] and by the solid dots in Figure.

a b Here the endpoints of th

FIGURE 2
ets 关 兴 and by the solid do
Closed interval [a, b]
in an interval, as shown
We also need to cons

▲ Table 1 lists the nine possible types This does not mean that
of intervals. When these intervals are
MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I set of all numbers that
4 / 52 a
 Intervals

It is also possible to include only one endpoint in an interval, as shown in

Table 1.
We also need to consider infinite intervals such as

(a, ∞) = {x ∈ R x > a}

This does not mean that ∞ (“infinity”) is a number. The notation (a, ∞)
stands for the set of all numbers that are greater than a, so the symbol ∞
simply indicates that the interval extends indefinitely far in the positive
direction.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 5 / 52

also
also need to consider infinite
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also need
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MATH 1103 note the following rules. I
MATHEMATICS 3. If a
b and c  0, then 6ac / 52

 Inequalities

Inequalities

Rules for Inequalities

1 If a < b then a + c < b + c,
2 If a < b and c < d then a + c < b + d,
3 If a < b and c > 0 then ac < bc,
4 If a < b and c < 0 then ac > bc,
1
5 If 0 < a < b or a < b < 0 then a > 1b .

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 7 / 52

 Inequalities

Example 3
Solve the inequality x2 − 5x + 6 ≤ 0

Solution.
First we factor the left side:

(x − 2)(x − 3) ≤ 0

We know that the corresponding equation (x − 2)(x − 3) = 0 has the

solutions 2 and 3. The numbers 2 and 3 divide the real line into three
intervals:
(−∞, 2) (2, 3) (3, ∞)

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 8 / 52

 Inequalities

Solution (cont.)
On each of these intervals we determine the signs of the factors.

x 2 3
(x − 2) − 0 + +
(x − 3) − − 0 +
(x − 2)(x − 3) + − +

Then we read from the chart that (x − 2)(x − 3) is negative when

2 < x < 3. Thus, the solution of the inequality (x − 2)(x − 3) ≤ 0 is

{x ∈ R 2 ≤ x ≤ 3} = [2, 3]

Notice that we have included the endpoints 2 and 3 because we are looking for values of
such x that the product is either negative or zero.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 9 / 52

 Inequalities

Example 4
Solve x3 + 3x2 > 4x.

Solution.
First we take all nonzero terms to one side of the inequality sign and factor
the resulting expression:

x3 + 3x2 − 4x > 0 x(x − 1)(x + 4) > 0

As in previous example we solve the corresponding equation

x3 + 3x2 − 4x = 0 and use the solutions x = 0, x = −4 and x = 1 to
divide the real line into four intervals (∞, −4), (−4, 0), (0, 1) and (1, ∞).

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 10 / 52

 Inequalities

Solution (cont.)
On each of these intervals we determine the signs of the factors.

x −4 0 1
x − − 0 + +

(x − 1) − − − +

(x + 4) − 0 + + 0 +

x(x − 1)(x + 4) − + − +

Then we read from the chart that the solution set is

{x ∈ R − 4 < x < 0 or x > 1} = (−4, 0) ∪ (1, ∞).

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 11 / 52

 Cartesian Coordinate System

Cartesian Coordinate System

• Recall that to form a Cartesian or rectangular coordinate system, we

select two real number line and let them cross eachother
perpendicularly through their origins.
• Up and to the right are the usual choices for the positive directions.
• These number lines are called horizontal axis and vertical axis or
together the coordinate axes.
• Horizontal axis is usually called x axis and the vertical line is usually
called y axis.
• The coordinate axes divide the plane into four parts caled quadrants,
which are numbered conterclockwise from I to IV.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 12 / 52

ingly. The coordinate axes divide the plane into four parts called quadrants, which
Cartesian Coordinate System

are numbered counterclockwise from I to IV (see the figure).

Abscissa
y
Ordinate
II 10 I
P  (a, b)
b
Q  (5, 5)
5 Coordinates
Origin
a x
10 5 0 5 10
Axis
5

III IV
10
R  (10, 10)

The Cartesian (rectangular) coordinate system

Now we want to assign coordinates to each point in the plane. Given an arbitrary
point P in the plane, pass horizontal and vertical lines through the point (see figure)
The vertical line will intersect the horizontal axis at a point with coordinate a, and
MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 13 / 52
 Graphs of Equations

Graphs of Equations

• The set of all solutions of an equation given in two variable is called

the solution set.
• Each solution set forms the coordinates of a point in rectangular
coordinate system.
• To sketch the graph of an equation in two variables, we plot
sufficiently many of those points so that the shape of the graph is
apparent.
• Then we connect those points with a smooth curve.
• This process is called point by point plotting.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 14 / 52

 Graphs of Equations

Example 5
Sketch the graph of each given equation in two variable.
• y = 9 − x2
• x2 = y 4

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 15 / 52

Solutions   Graphs of Equations

(A) MakeAfter
up aplotting
table ofthese solutions, is,
solutions—that if there arepairs
ordered any ofportions of the that
real numbers graph that ar
satisfy
the unclear,
• ygiven
=9−x plot additional
equation.
2 For easy points
mentaluntil the shape
calculation, of
choosethe graph
integer is apparent.
values for x. Then
join all the plotted points with a smooth curve (Fig. 1). Arrowheads are used
to indicate
x -4that the
-3 graph-2 continues
-1 beyond
0 the
1 portion
2 shown
3 here
  4 with no
significant
y -7
changes
  0
in shape.
  5   8 9 8 5 0 -7
y
After plotting these solutions, if there are any portions of the graph that are
10
unclear, plot additional points until the shape
(0, 9) of the graph is apparent. Then
(1, 8) (1, 8)
join all the plotted points with a smooth curve (Fig. 1). Arrowheads are used
(2, 5) (2, 5)
to indicate that the graph continues beyond
5 the portion shown here with no
significant changes in shape.
(3, 0) (3, 0)
y x
10 5 5 10

10
(0, 9)
(1, 8) 5(1, 8)
(4,
(2,7)
5) (2, 5) (4, 7)
5
10

(3, 0) y 0)9  x2
(3,
x
10 5 5 10
Figure 1 y = 9 − x 2
MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 16 / 52
(B) Again we Graphs
makeof Equations
a table of solutions—here it may be easier to choose integer
values for y and calculate values for x. Note, for example, that if y = 2, then
x = { 4; that is, the ordered pairs 14, 22 and 1 - 4, 22 are both in the solu-
tion
• x2set.
= y4

x {9 {4 {1 0 {1 {4 {9
2
y -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 Figure31 y = 9 − x
y
(B) Again we make a
We plot these points and join them10with a smooth curve (Fig. 2).
values for y and c
Matched Problem 1 Sketch the graph of each equation. x = { 4; that is,
tion set.
2
5
2 x100
2  y4
(A) y = x - 4 (B) y = 2
x + 1 x
x
10 5 5 10 y

5 We plot these poi

Matched Problem 1
10

(A) y = x2 - 4
Figure 2 x 2 = y 4

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 17 / 52

 Some Ways to Represent a Function

Functions and Models

Some Ways to Represent a Function

Functions arise whenever one quantity depends on another. Consider the

following situations:
1 The area A of a circle depends on the radius r of the circle. The rule
that connects r and A is given by the equation A = πr2 . With each
positive number r there is associated one value of A, and we say that
A is a function of r.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 18 / 52

 Some Ways to Represent a Function

2 The human population of the world P depends on the time t. The

table gives estimates of the world population P (t) at time t for
certain years.
Year Population(billion)
1900 1650
1910 1750
For instance, 1920 1860
1930 2070
P (1950) ≈ 2.560.000.000
1940 2300
1950 2560
But for each value of the time t there
1960 3040
is a corresponding value of P and we
1970 3710
say that P is a function of t.
1980 4450
1990 5280
2000 6070

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 19 / 52

 Some Ways to Represent a Function
C. The cost C of mailing a first-class letter depends on the weight w of the letter.
3 The Although
vertical there is no simplea formula
acceleration of the that connects
ground and C, the by
as wmeasured postaoffice has a
rule for determining C when w is known.
seismograph during an earthquake is a function of the elapsed time t.
D. The vertical acceleration a of the ground as measured by a seismograph during
Figure shows a graph
an earthquake generated
is a function by seismic
of the elapsed activity
time t. Figure during
1 shows the gener-
a graph
Northridge earthquake that shook Los Angeles in 1994. For
ated by seismic activity during the Northridge earthquake that shook Los a given
Angeles
in 1994. For a given value of t, the graph provides
value of t the graph provides a corresponding value of a. a corresponding value of a.
a
{cm/s@}

100

50

5 10 15 20 25 30 t (seconds)

FIGURE 1 _50
ion during
arthquake Calif. Dept. of Mines and Geology

Each of these examples describes a rule whereby, given a number (r, t, w, or t),
another
Figure 1: number
Vertical( Aground
, P, C, oracceleration
a) is assigned.during
In eachthe
case we say thatearthquake
Northridge the second num-
ber is a function of the first number.
MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 20 / 52
 Function

Function

Definition 6
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element in a set A exactly one
element, called f (x), in a set B.

We usually consider functions for which the sets A and B are sets of real
numbers.
The set A is called the domain of the function.

The number f (x) is called the value of f at x.

The range of f is the set of all possible values of f as x varies throughout

the domain.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 21 / 52

 Function

A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain of a function

f is called an independent variable.

A symbol that represents a number in the range of is called a dependent

variable.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 22 / 52

 Function
兵共x, f 共x兲兲 ⱍ x

(Notice that these are input-output pairs.) In o

points 共x, y兲 in the coordinate plane such that
The graph of a function f gives us a usefu
The most common method for visualizing a function is its graph. If f is a
of a function. Since the y-coordinate of any p
function with domain A, then its graph is thethe
can read setvalue
of ordered
of f 共x兲 pairs
from the graph as
point
2
x (see Figure 4). The graph of f also all
{(x, f (x)) ∈ R ∈ A}.
x-axisxand its range on the y-axis as in Figure

y { x, ƒ}

In other words, the graph of f con-

sists of all points (x, y) in the co- ran
ƒ
ordinate plane such that y = f (x)
f (2)
and x is in the domain of f . f (1)

0 1 2 x x

FIGURE 4 FIG

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 23 / 52

 any point 共x, y兲 on the graph is y 苷 f 共x兲, we
y-coordinate of Function
x兲 from the graph as being the height of the graph above the
he graph of f also allows us to picture the domain of f on the
he The
y-axis as of
graph in fFigure 5. us to picture the domain of f on the x−axis
also allows
and its range on the y−axis as in Figure.
y

ƒ
range y ⫽ ƒ(x)

x x 0 x
domain
FIGURE 5

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 24 / 52

 Function

EXAMPLE 1 The graph of a function f is shown in Figure 6.

(a) Find the values of f 共1兲 and f 共5兲.
Example 7 the domain and range of f ?
(b) What are
y

0 1 x

SOLUTION
The graph of a function f is shown in Figure.
(a) We see from Figure 6 that the point 共1, 3兲 lies on the graph of f , so the value of
f a)
at 1Find the苷values
is f 共1兲 of f (1)
3. (In other andthe
words, f (5).
point on the graph that lies above x 苷 1 is
three units above the x-axis.)
b) What are the domain and range of f ?
When x 苷 5, the graph lies about 0.7 unit below the x-axis, so we estimate that
f 共5兲 ⬇ ⫺0.7.
(b) We see that f 共x兲 is defined when 0 艋 x 艋 7, so the domain of f is the closed
MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 25 / 52
 Function

Solution.
a) We see from Figure that the point (1, 3) lies on the graph of f , so the
value of f at 1 is f (1) = 3. (In other words, the point on the graph
that lies above x = 1 is 3 units above the x-axis.)
When x = 5, the graph lies about 0.7 unit below the x−axis, so we
estimate that f (5) ≈ −0.7.

b) We see that f (x) is defined when 0 ≤ x ≤ 7, so the domain of f is

the closed interval [0, 7]. Notice that f takes on all values from −2 to
4, so the range of f is

{y| − 2 ≤ y ≤ 4} = [−2, 4].

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 26 / 52

 Function Representations of Functions

Representations of Functions

Representations of Functions
• verbally (by a description in words)
• numerically (by a table of values)
• visually (by a graph)
• algebraically (by an explicit formula)

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 27 / 52

 Function Representations of Functions

Example 8
A rectangular storage container with an open top has a volume of 10 m3 .
The length of its base is twice its width. Material for the base costs 10 TL
per square meter; material for the sides costs 6 TL per square meter.
Express the cost of materials as a function of the width of the base.

Solution.

We draw a diagram as in Figure and introduce

notation by letting w and 2w be the width and
length of the base, respectively, and h be the h

height. w
2w

FIGURE 16

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 28 / 52

 Function Representations of Functions

Solution (cont.)
The area of the base is (2w)w = 2w2 ⇒ the cost, in TL, of the material
for the base is 10(2w2 ).
Two of the sides have area wh and the other two have area 2wh, so the
cost of the material for the sides is 6[2(wh) + 2(2wh)].
The total cost is therefore

C = 10(2w2 ) + 6[2(wh) + 2(2wh)] = 20w2 + 36wh.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 29 / 52

 Function Representations of Functions

Solution (cont.)
To express C as a function of w alone, we need to eliminate h and we do
so by using the fact that the volume is 10 m3 . Thus
10 5
w(2w)h = 10 which gives h = = 2.
2w2 w
Substituting this into the expression for C, we have
 
2 5 180
C = 20w + 36w 2
= 20w2 + .
w w

Therefore, the equation

180
C(w) = 20w2 + , w>0
w
expresses C as a function of w.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 30 / 52

 Function Specified by Equations

Function Specified by Equations

Definition 9
• If in an equation in two variables, we get exactly one output (value
for the dependent variable) for each input (value for the independent
variable), then the equation specifies a function.
• The graph of such a function is just the graph of the specifying
equation.
• If we get more than one output for a given input, the equation does
not specify a function.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 31 / 52

 Function Specified by Equations

Example 10
Let us determine the equation 4y − 3x = 8 specify a function with
independent variable x, where x is a real number.
Solving for dependent variable y, we have
3
y =2+ x
4
Since each input value x corresponds by exactly one output value we set
the equation 4y − 3x = 8 specifies a function.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 32 / 52

 Function Specified by Equations

Example 11
Let us determine the equation y 2 − x2 = 9 specify a function with
independent variable x, where x is a real number.
Solving for dependent variable y, we have
p
y = ± 9 + x2

Since 9 + x2 is always a positive number for any real number x and since
each positive real number has two square roots, then to each input value x
there corresponds two output values. For example, if x = 4 then the
equation is satisfied for y = 5 and for y = −5.
So this equation does not specify a function.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 33 / 52

 Function Specified by Equations

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 34 / 52

 Function Specified by Equations Vertical Line Test

Vertical Line Test

• The graph of a function is a curve in the xy−plane.

• But the question arises: Which curves in the xy−plane are graphs of
functions?

Theorem 12
An equation specifies a function if each vertical line in the coordinate
system passes through, at most, one point on the graph of the equation.
If any vertical line passes through two or more points on the graph of an
equation, then the equation does not specify a function.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 35 / 52

 The graph
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MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 36 / 52

 Function Evaluation

Function Evaluation

• It is very important to understand and remember the definition of

f (x).
• For any element x in the domain of the function f, the symbol f (x)
represents the element in the range of f corresponding to x in the
domain of f.
• If x is an input value, then f (x) is the corresponding output value.
• If x is an element that is not in the domain of f, then f is not defined
at x and f (x) does not exist.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 37 / 52

 Function Evaluation

Example 13
12 √
For f (x) = , g(x) = 1 − x2 , h(x) = x − 1, let us evaluate some
x−2
outputs.
12 12
f (6) = = =3
6−2 4
g(−2) = 1 − (−2)2 = 1 − 4 = −3
√ √
h(−2) = −2 − 1 = −3

√
• But −3 is not a real number. Since we have agreed to restrict the
domain of a function to values of x that produce real values for the
function, −2 is not in the domain of h, and h(−2) does not exist.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 38 / 52

 Function Evaluation

Example 14
12
Let us find the domains of the functions f (x) = , g(x) = 1 − x2 ,
√ x−2
h(x) = x − 1.
• Domain of f : x−2 12
represents a real number for all replacements of x
by real numbers except for x = 2 (division by 0 is not defined). Thus,
f (2) does not exist, and the domain of f is the set of all real numbers
except 2.
• Domain of g : The domain is R, the set of all real numbers, since
1 − x2 represents a real number for all replacements of x by real
numbers.
• Domain of h : The domain is the set of all real numbers x such that
√
x − 1 is a real number, so

x − 1 ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≥ 1 or in interval notation [1, ∞).

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 39 / 52

 Function Evaluation

Example 15
For f (x) = x2 − 2x + 7, let us do the following computations, where
h ̸= 0.
• f (k) = k 2 − 2k + 7

• f (k + h) = (k + h)2 − 2(k + h) + 7 = k 2 + 2kh + h2 − 2k − 2h + 7

• f (k+h)−f (k) = k 2 +2kh+h2 −2k−2h+7−k 2 +2k−7 = 2kh+h2 −2h

f (k + h) − f (k) 2kh + h2 − 2h h(2k + h − 2)

• = = = 2k + h − 2
h h h

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 40 / 52

 Applications

Applications

• We now turn to the important concepts of break-even and profit–loss

analysis, which we will return to a number of times in this book.
• Any manufacturing company has costs, C, and revenues, R. The
company will have a loss if R < C, will break even if R = C, and will
have a profit if R > C.
• Costs include fixed costs such as plant overhead, product design,
setup, and promotion; and variable costs, which are dependent on the
number of items produced at a certain cost per item.
• In addition, price – demand functions, usually established by financial
departments using historical data or sampling techniques, play an
important part in profit – loss analysis.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 41 / 52

 Applications

• We will let x, the number of units manufactured and sold, represent

the independent variable.
• Cost functions, revenue functions, profit functions, and price –
demand functions are often stated in the following forms, where
a, b, m, and n are constants determined from the context of a
particular problem:

Cost Function: C(x) = (fixed cost) + (variable cost) + a + bx

Price-Demand Function: p(x) = m − nx, where x is the number of

items that can be sold at p per item.

Revenue Function:
R(x) = (number of items sold) · (price per item) = x · p = x(m − nx)

Profit: P (x) = R(x) − C(x) = x(m − nx) − (a + bx)

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 42 / 52

 Applications

Example 16
A company manufactures memory chips for microcomputers. Its marketing
research department, using statistical techniques, collected the data shown
in Table below, where p is the wholesale price per chip at which x million
chips can be sold. Using special analytical techniques (regression analysis),
an analyst produced the following price – demand function to model the
data:
p(x) = 2000 − 60x, 1 ≤ x ≤ 25

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 43 / 52

 Applications

• Let us plot the data points in Table and sketch a grap of the price -
demand function in the same coordinate system.

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 44 / 52

 Applications

• Let us compute the estimated price per computer for a demand of

11000 and 18000 computers.

p(11) = 2000 − 60(11) = 1340 dollars per computer

p(18) = 2000 − 60(18) = 920 dollars per computer

• Using the price - demand function, the company’s revenue functions

is obtained as

R(x) = xp(x) = x(2000 − 60x), where 1 ≤ x ≤ 25

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 45 / 52

 Applications

• The financial department for the company established the following

cost function for producing and selling x thousand notebook
computers:
C(x) = 4000 + 500x thousand dollars
• Hence, the profit function is oontained as follows:

P (x) = R(x) − C(x) = x(2000 − 60x) − (4000 + 500x)

P (x) = 1500x − 60x2 − 4000

where the domain is the closed interval [1, 25].

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 46 / 52

 Applications

Some class exercises

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 47 / 52

 Applications

Some class exercises

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 48 / 52

 Applications

Some class exercises

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 49 / 52

 Applications

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 50 / 52

 Applications

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 51 / 52

 Applications

MATH 1103 MATHEMATICS I 52 / 52