UNIT 4 HARDWARE

Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Computer : An Introduction
4.3 How Computers Work?
4.3.1 The Input-Output Process
4.4 Central Processor Concepts
4.4.1 Memory Hierarchy
4.5 Data Entry : Input Devices
4.6 Computer Output : Output Devices
4.7 Secondary Storage
4.7.1 Secondary Storage for Direct Access
4.7.2 Secondary Storage for Sequential Access
4.8 Summary
4.9 Answers to Self Check Exercises
4.10 Keywords
4.11 References and Further Readings

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
• learn the various components of a computer system;
• explain the basic functional organisation of input and output devices within
a computer system;
• understand memory organisation in a computer system;
• utilise the similarity between input and output (I/O) to better understand
I/O in general;
• understand the symbiotic relationship between input and output, especially
in complex systems like Virtual Reality;
• classify input devices as either interactive or source data automation in
order to more easily remember their similarities and differences;
• classify output devices as either hardcopy, softcopy, or action in order to
more easily remember their similarities and differences;
• differentiate direct access and sequential access technologies; and
• identify the similarities and differences between the most popular storage
media, especially magnetic, optical, and magneto optical storage media.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Computers have become omnipresent in every walk of life. Libraries are no
exception. Before learning how computers are used in various activities of
libraries, you should understand certain basic components of computers. A
clear understanding of the concepts and technical terms is required so that you 113
can appreciate the remaining units of this programme. In this Unit you will be
Introduction to Computer introduced to some of the basic concepts like hardware, etc. The Unit starts by
Technology
examining the basic configuration of a computer system, and then goes on to
examine its components in detail. The basic configuration as described later is
equally applicable to all types of computer systems, whether we are considering
mainframe, minicomputer or microcomputer systems. You will also learn a
few facts relating to the history of computers. Computers can be used to store
information in a highly compressed manner. The portion of the computer where
information is stored is generally referred to as memory. In this Unit, we will
concentrate on secondary storage medium.

4.2 COMPUTER: AN INTRODUCTION

Computer is defined in the Oxford Dictionary as “An automatic electronic
apparatus for making calculations or controlling operations that are expressible
in numerical or logical terms”. A computer can also perform such complex
tasks as copying, moving, comparing and performing other non-arithmetic
operations on data composed of many alphabetic, numeric and other symbols.
A computer manipulates these symbols in the desired way by following a
detailed set of instructions called a program. Thus the basic function performed
by a computer is the execution of a program.
In modern digital computers data is represented in binary form by using two
symbols 0 and 1 which are called binary digits or bits. Computers use eight
bits to represent a character internally. A collection of eight bits is called a
byte.
In a simple sense, though, a computer is a fast and accurate electronic symbol
(or data) manipulating system that is designed to automatically accept and
store input data, process them, and produce output results under the direction
of a stored program of instructions.

4.3 HOW COMPUTERS WORK?

A computer system accepts data as input, processes that data and provides
data as output. During the processing, the data must be stored. The processing
is controlled by a sequence of instructions called the program – which is stored
in the computer. The basic components of a computer system are therefore
input devices, processor, backing storage devices and output devices. These
different parts are schematically represented together in a system as shown in
figure 4.1.

114
Fig. 4.1: Schematic Representation of a Computer System
(Source : PGDLAN, MLI – 001)
4.3.1 The Input-Output Process Hardware

Each of the components shown in Fig. 4.1 has unique contribution to make
functionally as summarised below:

• Input Devices: Input devices accept data, convert data into machine-
readable form and transmit data to the processor unit.
• Central Processing Unit (CPU): The Central Processing Unit, often called
processor or just CPU, comprises Control Unit, the Arithmetic and Logic
Unit (ALU), and the Primary Memory. The arrows within the CPU represent
the interaction within these three units (in case of a micro computer) and
mainframes. The functions of these sub-units are summarised below.
• The Control Unit: The CU is a conceptual representation of the microchip
circuits that governs the operation of the CPU. It decodes and executes
program instructions, and controls and coordinates data movements within
the processor, and between the processor and other components of the
computer system.
• The Arithmetic and Logic Unit: The ALU is a conceptual representation
of the microchip circuits that performs arithmetic operations like (+,-,*,^,/
), logical operations like (AND, OR, NOT) and relational operations like
(<,>,<=,>=).
• The Primary Memory: This unit stores programs during their execution,
stores data that are being used by the current program, and stores the
operating system which controls the operation of the computer system.
Primary memory consists of Random Access Memory, RAM, where the
users programs (and their data) must be stored in order to be run, and Read
Only Memory, ROM, where permanent programs and data are built in by
the manufacturer.
• Secondary or Backing Memory: It maintains a permanent record of data
and programs, maintains a store for the program and data being processed
if the main memory cannot accommodate the data and program, and acts
as an input/output device.
• Output Devices: Accept data from the processor, and convert data into
the required output format.
You will learn more about each one of these components subsequently in this
Unit.

4.4 CENTRAL PROCESSOR CONCEPTS

The CPU is the brain of the computer. Sometimes referred to simply as the
processor or central processor, the CPU is where most calculations take place.
It is the part that executes the programs and controls the operation of all the
hardware. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element
of a computer system. On large machines, CPUs require one or more printed
circuit boards. On personal computers and small workstations, the CPU is
housed in a single chip called a microprocessor. The CPU contains the
arithmetic and logic unit that executes the instructions, operating on the data,
and also contains several “registers” that can store data. A collection of 115
processing and storage units within an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and
Introduction to Computer Control Unit (CU) that are linked internally and externally by busses which
Technology
carry binary signals between. (Refer figure 4.1 on page 112). Higher the
bandwidth or processing speed of CPU the faster the machine is. Today’s
processors speed comes in the range of GHz (Giga Hertz).
The operations of the ALU and the control unit are performed with incredible
speed. These operations are usually synchronised by an electronic clock that
emits millions of regularly spaced electric pulses each second. This clock speed
is measured in megahertz or MHz, where mega means million and hertz means
times per second.
Both the ALU and the control section have special purpose storage locations
called registers. The number of registers varies among computers as does the
data flow pattern.
Registers can be thought of as the CPU’s tiny scratchpad, temporarily storing
instructions or data.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
The arithmetic logic unit ( ALU) is the section where the actual data processing
takes place. All calculations are made and all comparisons take place in this
section. In addition to arithmetic functions the ALU also handles logic
operations.
All mathematical operations are performed in binary numbers and all logic
operations are performed using binary operations. Mathematical operations
include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical operations
allow programs to contain repetition and selection, the two essential control
structures of programming. Logical operations performed by ALU include
comparing two quantities; keeping a counter and deciding the further route.
Messages from the Control Unit instruct the ALU what to do and then it takes
data from its close companion, the Registers, to perform the task.

116 Fig. 4.2: Control Unit

Control Unit Hardware

The Control Unit is one of the most important parts of the microprocessor
because it is in charge of the entire process. The control unit extracts instructions
from memory and decodes them. Based on these instructions it creates control
signals that tell the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and the Registers how to
operate, what to operate on, and what to do with the result. The Control Unit
makes sure everything happens in the right place at the right time. This unit
controls the internal functioning of the computer and input/output units. The
role of control unit in CPU is that of a “manager” or “a traffic cop”. In other
words, it controls and co-ordinates all hardware operations. This unit of the
processor selects and interprets program instructions and then sees that they
are executed. The ALU responds to commands coming from the control section.
Primary CU Functions (in addition to those discussed above) are listed below.
It :
a) reads and interprets machine language instructions;
b) controls the transmission of data between ALU, registers, caches,
primary memory, and auxiliary memory;
c) controls the sequence of execution of program instruction (i.e. governs
branching jumping around within a program) which allows repetition and
selection.; and
d) directs ALU as to what mathematical or logic operations to perform.
Primary Memory
Primary memory, also called main memory or internal memory, provides
temporary storage of programs in execution and the data being processed. It is
known as immediate access storage (IAS) as this is the portion of CPU which
can be accessible directly. From a hardware point of view the primary memory
is formed by a large number of basic units referred to as “memory cells” Each
memory cell is a device or an electronic circuit that has two or more stable
states, which represents the binary numbers 0 (Zero) or 1 (One). The computer
can retrieve any item of data or any instruction stored in primary memory at
lightning speed. The modern computer does this in a few nano seconds.
Primary memory can be further grouped into Random Access Memory (RAM)
and Read Only Memory (ROM). Cache memory (small, fast RAM) is designed
to hold frequently used data. Let us summarise the features of each of these
below:
• Random Access Memory (RAM): This memory allows writing as well as
reading of data unlike ROM which does not allow writing of data on to it.
It is a volatile storage because the contents of RAM are lost when the
power (computer) is turned off. If you want to store the data for later use,
you have to transfer all the contents to a secondary storage device. There
are several different types of RAM, the most popular of which include:
i) DRAM, dynamic RAM, although its name sounds sophisticated, is
the oldest and simplest (and therefore the slowest) type of RAM used
today. The word “dynamic” comes from the fact that it must be 117
Introduction to Computer electronically “refreshed” constantly in order to maintain the data it
Technology
stores.
ii) SRAM, static RAM, unlike DRAM, does not need to be refreshed;
its storage is fixed (as long as power is supplied to the computer).
This newer, more dependable type of RAM is faster, but more
expensive than DRAM. SRAM is often used for cache memory.
iii) EDO (Enhanced Data Output) RAM, is a type of RAM that improves
the memory access time on faster microprocessors such as the Intel
Pentium. EDO RAM was initially optimised for the 66 MHz Pentium.
iv) SDRAM, Synchronous DRAM, is a new form of RAM that can be
synchronised to the clock speed of the computer, a powerful feature
that optimises data access by the system buses.
v) RDRAM, Rambus DRAM, is Intel’s designated successor to
SDRAM has an effective speed of 800 MHz and a peak data transfer
rate of 1.6 GBps. However, it has yet to prove itself, and there are
several rivals, e.g. DDR SDRAM, that are slower but have 64b bus
widths thus providing comparable transfer rates.
• Read Only Memory (ROM): Another type of microcomputer memory is
read only memory. Data is ‘burnt’ into the ROM chip at the manufacturing
time. Unlike RAM, the data on the ROM is non-volatile, i.e. data is not
lost when the computer is switched off. Following are the popular ROMs.
i) PROM (Programmable ROM) can be programmed to record
information using a facility known as a PROM-programmer. Once
the chip has been programmed the recorded information cannot be
changed.
ii) EPROM (erasable PROM) is erased by shining ultraviolet light on
the exposed chip.To write to or erase and EPROM, one must use a
PROM burner.
iii) EEPROM (electronically erasable PROM) is more convenient than
EPROM because it can be erased electronically and can be written to
in bytes.
iv) Flash Memory, a special type of EEPROM, can be erased and
rewritten in multi-byte blocks rather than the single bytes
characteristic of EEPROM. Flash memory is most often used to hold
control code such as the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) in a
personal computer; these are often called “flash BIOS”.
• Cache Memory (small, fast RAM): A small block of high-speed memory
(usually SRAM) located between the CPU and main memory that is used
to store frequently requested data and instructions. Properly designed, a
cache improves system performance by reducing the need to access the
system’s slower main memory for every transaction. Memory cache or
CPU cache is a dedicated bank of high-speed RAM chips used to cache
data from primary memory. When data is read from primary memory, a
118
larger block than is immediately necessary is stored in the cache under
 the assumption that the next data needed by a program will be located Hardware
near the data being read; when that data is needed, it will then be waiting
in the high-speed cache. Memory Cache may be either built into the CPU
(level 1, or L1 cache or contained in separate chips (level 2, or L2 cache).
Self Check Exercises
1) Describe the basic components of a modern computer system and explain
their role in its working.
2) Distinguish between RAM and ROM.
Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................

4.4.1 Memory Hierarchy

The term Memory Hierarchy refers to a memory system which is partitioned
into two or more components which range from high-volume/low speed devices
for long term storage to low- volume/high speed devices for workingStoragestorage.
Speed
It always follows that as the unit of data transfer increases in size so the speed
Registers
of data access and transfer increases. Likewise, slower data storage Fastest
technologies
are cheaper in terms of the cost per unit of storage thanCache higher speed
Very Fa
technologies. This point is illustrated in the table below whichMemory
compares the
performance and cost per bit of different data storage technologies.
Primary
Very Sl
Memory
Table 4.1: Comparison of Different Data Storage Technologies
Secondary
Modera
Storage

The factor of cost is one of the main reasons for using a Memory Hierarchy in
a computer rather than simply holding all the computer system software in
Primary Memory which would obviously provide the optimum performance.
The other reason for using a Memory Hierarchy is that it provides a means of
permanent storage of data since Primary Memory is volatile.
119
Introduction to Computer
Technology CPU
Register

Cache
Memory

Main Memory

Fig. 4.3 : The Memory Hierarchy

Let us discuss briefly about each category in the memory hierarchy given in
the table 4.1.

• Registers (fastest data access): They are built into the CPU itself. There
are many kinds of registers and their number and type depend on the
manufacturer’s design. An oversimplified generic set of registers would
include the following:

a) accumulator (ALU)
b) storage registers (ALU)
c) decoder (CU)
d) instruction register (CU)
e) address register (CU)
f) program register or program counter (CU)
g) several others (depending on the CPU)

• Cache Memory (small, fast RAM): They are designed to hold frequently
used data. In general, Cache (high speed RAM that is configured to hold
the most frequently used data) is used to improve system performance.
Memory cache or CPU cache is a dedicated bank of high-speed RAM
chips used to cache data from primary memory. When data is read from
primary memory, a larger block than is immediately necessary is stored
in the cache under the assumption that the next data needed by a program
will be located near the data being read; when that data is needed, it will
then be waiting in the high-speed cache. Memory Cache may be either
built into the CPU (level 1 , or L1, cache, e.g. Pentiums and PowerPCs)
or contained in separate chips (level 2, or L2 cache).
120
• Primary Memory (moderate data acess): This is also known as primary Hardware
storage, primary memory, main storage, internal storage, main memory,
and RAM (Random Access Memory); all these terms are used
interchangeably by people in computer circles. Primary Memory is the
part of the computer that holds data and instructions for processing.
Although closely associated with the central processing unit, primary
memory is separate from it. Primary Memory stores program instructions
or data for only as long as the program they pertain to is in operation.
Keeping these items in primary memory when the program is not running
is not feasible for three reasons:

– Most types of memory only store items while the computer is turned
on; data is destroyed when the machine is turned off.
– If more than one program is running at a time (often the case on large
computers and sometimes on small computers), a single program
cannot lay exclusive claim to primary memory.
– There may not be room in memory to hold the processed data.

• Secondary Storage (slowest data access): As all of the above categories

are volatile memories, there must be some mechanism to ‘save’ the data
and program permanently. Secondary storage devices facilitate this. You
will study more about the different secondary storage devices in the
subsequent sections of this Unit.

4.5 DATA ENTRY: INPUT DEVICES

Data is stored in a computer as binary digits (Bits), i.e., in combinations of 0’s
and 1’s. Input devices perform two basic functions. Firstly, they act as a means
to enter the data and programs into a computer. Secondly, they are generally
responsible for converting data into machine-compatible format. Input and
Output devices are collectively called I/O devices. Both input and output devices
can be sub-classified as either direct (to/from I/O devices) or indirect (to/
from secondary storage, generally). For example, when recording loans
transactions in a library circulation, the membership and the borrowed document
information can be entered by the circulation assistant through a keyboard,
then we are referring to a direct input device. On the other hand, same data can
be entered through a barcode, then we call that device as an indirect input
device. You may notice here that the appropriate selection of input method
can have a significant impact on the accuracy, speed and effectiveness of data
entry. The Table 4.2 gives some of the popular Input Devices.

Let us learn more about these devices in the following sub-sections. Let us
concentrate more on those devices which are generally used by the libraries.
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common data entry device. Almost all general-purpose
computers are supplied with a keyboard. A keyboard has over 100 keys on it.
When you press a key a number (code) is sent to the computer to tell it which
key you have pressed. Keyboards are often used in conjunction with a screen
on which the data entered are displayed. 121
Introduction to Computer Table 4.2 : Various Input Devices
Technology
Human Input Devices (Dir
Q
Keyboard
C
To
Li
Pointing Devices M
Tr
Jo
D
Video Input Devices D
A
Sound Input Devices V
Automated Input Devices

The keys on a keyboard are usually arranged in the same order as those on a
typewriter. This layout of keys is called QWERTY because Q-W-E-R-T-Y is
the order in which the letters occur on the top row of the keyboard. Some
newer designs have the letters arranged in a different order. The keys on the
keyboard can be grouped into six groups. They are:
a) Function keys: There will be 12 function keys labelled from F1 to F12.
These are programmable keys used as shortcut keys to perform certain
functions. Every software that you run responds differently to the function
keys.
b) QWERTY keys: These are the alphanumeric keys, which are arranged, in
the same order that you find in a typewriter. These keys can be used to
enter lower case as well as upper case alphabets. Space bar is used to
leave space between words.

Fig. 4.4: KeyBoard

122 (Source : PGDLAN, MLI-001
c) Special Purpose Keys: TAB (Tabulation), CTRL (Control), ALT Hardware
(Altermate), ESC (Escape), Enter/Carriage Return , Backspace, Scroll
Lock, Break, etc are called special keys used for special purposes.
d) Numeric pad keys: These keys are used to enter numbers into the
computers. They form a separate section in a keyboard called numeric
pad.
e) Cursor Control keys: These keys are used to navigate the cursor on the
screen.
A Concept keyboard is a flat board which contains a grid of switches. Each
switch can be programmed to do whatever you want. An overlay image is
placed on top of the grid so that the user can tell what will be done on pressing
different areas of the keyboard (switches). Concept keyboards are particularly
useful for users such as children who would find using a QWERTY keyboard
difficult and in locations where an ordinary keyboard might be damaged, e.g.
by spillage or dust.
Keyboards are widely used because they are a flexible method of data entry
and can be used in most applications. They do have limitations, however. Entry
using keyboard is a slow form of data entry process and is prone to error.

Fig. 4.5: Dvorak Keyboard Layout

(Source : PGDLAN, MLI-001)
Pointing Devices
A device with which you can control the movement of the pointer to select
items on a display screen. These are also called Cursor Control Devices. Cursor
control devices are used to place the cursor (a highlighted screen location
indicating where the next action will occur), select menu items, etc. Examples
of pointing devices are:
Mouse: a standard device of GUI (Graphical User Interface). A mouse is a
small object you can roll along a hard, flat surface. New versions are optical
and have no moving parts.
Trackballs: like an “upside-down mouse”; it has the advantage of being
stationary so it does not require much space to use it. In addition, you can
place a trackball on any type of surface, including your lap. For both these
reasons, trackballs are popular pointing devices for portable computers.
Joysticks: a hand-held stick that pivots in all directions indicating 360 degree.
A joystick is similar to a mouse, except that with a mouse the cursor stops
moving as soon as you stop moving the mouse. With a joystick, the pointer
123
Introduction to Computer continues moving in the direction the joystick is pointing. To stop the pointer,
Technology
you must return the joystick to its upright position.
Trackpoint or Pointing stick: a miniature joystick that responds to the touch
of a single finger. A pointing device first developed by IBM for its notebook
computers that consists of a miniature joystick, usually with a rubber eraser-
head tip, positioned somewhere between the keys on the keyboard. Most
pointing sticks are pressure-sensitive, so the pointer moves faster when more
pressure is applied.
Trackpads: a touch sensitive surface that translates finger motion into cursor
motion. By moving a finger or other object along the pad, you can move the
pointer on the display screen. And you click by tapping the pad.
Pen Input Devices are based on screens that sense the location of a special
pen that is connected to the terminal. Following are some of the devices:
Light Pens: An input device that utilises a light-sensitive detector to select
objects on a display screen. With a light pen you can move the pointer and
select objects on the display screen by directly pointing to the objects with the
pen.
Styluses: A pointing and drawing device shaped like a pen which uses an
electronic head instead of ink. You use a stylus with a digitising tablet or
touch screen.
• Digitising Tablets: An input device that enables you to enter drawings
and sketches into a computer. One draws on a tablet and this sketch is
displayed on the screen. A digitising tablet consists of an electronic tablet
and a cursor or pen.
• Touchscreen: A type of display screen that has a touch-sensitive
transparent panel covering the screen. This allows selection of menu items
displayed on a monitor by touching them. You can use your finger to
point directly to objects on the screen.
Video Input Devices
• Digital Cameras: Digital cameras record the single image electronically
in digital form. These images are stored in the camera’s RAM (Random
Access Memory). The images can be displayed immediately or stored on
a secondary storage medium, e.g. a diskette, and processed, later, by image
processing software.
• Digital Video Cameras: These are digital cameras which can store
sequences of digital images on magnetic tape and play them back as
“movies”. They are similar to camcorders, but camcorders store their
images as analogue data.
Audio Input Devices
A) Digitised Audio Signals:
a) Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) devices allow the input
and output to any musical instrument capable of electrical I/O. The
music, once digitised in the computer’s memory can be processed by
124
 musical software giving an incredible opportunities for creativity and Hardware
innovation.
B) Voice Input and Speech Recognition:
a) Microphones convert spoken words (analog signals) to digital signals
that can be processed by a computer. (Words are “digitised”.)
i) Customisable devices can be “trained” to recognise an
individual’s speech.
Optical Input Methods
Optical Scanning
Image Scanners are the popular example of a graphic capture device. This is
one of the extensively used input devices in libraries where digital library
projects exist. When a page of text already exists, like the page that you are
reading now, it can be directly input into a computer using a scanner. Scanner
can be used to input not only the texts, but the photographs, drawings, etc. A
scanner works by digitising an image. They represent all images as bit maps.
This bit map, can then be stored in a file, displayed on a screen, and manipulated
by programs.

Fig. 4.6 : Scanner

(Source : PGDLAN, MLI-001)

• Optical Character Readers (OCR): Optical character recognition permits

the direct reading of any printed character. It involves reading text from
paper and translating the images into a form that the computer can
manipulate.The potential of OCR systems is enormous because they enable
users to harness the power of computers to access printed documents.
OCR equipment consists of a family of devices that encode and read OCR
data.
• Optical Mark Readers (OMR): Optical Mark Readers use optical mark
recognition, the technology of electronically extracting intended data from
marked fields, such as checkboxes and fill-in fields, on printed forms.
OMR technology scans a printed form and reads predefined positions
and records where marks are made on the form. One can notice the usage
of this in multiple-choice questions in various examinations.
• Bar Code Readers: Bar codes are widely used in retail outlets and
libraries. Each bar code represents a number. You can see the bar codes
of ISBN on books. The bar code is a pattern of thick and thin bars divided 125
Introduction to Computer by thick and thin spaces. Only the relative separations and thickness of
Technology
the bars are important. Bar codes can be printed in different sizes and
colours. The bar code is read either by passing a light-pen over it or by
passing the bar code over a flatbed scanner.

Fig. 4.7 : Bar Code Reader

(Source : PGDLAN, MLI-001)

Barcodes are helpful in libraries for acquisitions, circulation, serials control

and stock-verification works.
• Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): Magnetic Ink Character
Recognition is a character recognition system that uses special ink and
characters. When a document that contains this ink needs to be read, it
passes through a machine, which magnetises the ink and then translates
the magnetic information into characters. This technology is widely used
by banks to process the tremendous volume of cheques being received by
them. Numbers and characters found on the bottom of cheques (usually
containing the cheque number, sort number, and account number) are
printed using Magnetic Ink. MICR provides a secure, high-speed method
of scanning and processing information.
• Magnetic Stripes: It is a short length of magnetic tape which may be
stuck on the surface of a tag, card or document. On plastic cards such as
credit cards, the stripe is usually sealed in. Magnetic stripes contain much
more data per unit space than do printed characters or bar codes. Also,
since they cannot be read visually, they are excellent for storing
confidential data.
• Smart Cards: These contain a microprocessor that retains certain security
and personal data in its memory at all times. These can be used to store
data about a customer which can be updated as transactions are made
using the card.
Self Check Exercise
3) Explain why a bar code reader is a good data input device in stock-
verification work of a library.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
126
.........................................................................................................................................
 Hardware
4.6 COMPUTER OUTPUT: OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices are the means by which computer systems communicate with
people. The convenience of use of these devices and the quality of their results
has a significant impact on the effectiveness of computer systems. Output
devices accept data from the processor and convert them into the required
output format. In other words, output devices translate the data in the processor
into a format that is suitable for people to use.
Output can be sub-classified as either direct (to/from I/O devices) or indirect
(to/from secondary storage). Output can also be divided into another two kinds:
hard copy output (paper, microfilm, etc.) provides a permanent record while
soft copy output (visual, audio, tactile, or action) is transient.
Visual Output Devices (Soft copy)
• Cathode Ray Tube Display (CRT): These are the most commonly seen
output devices. The computer screens are also called monitors or visual
display terminals (VDTs). Monitor looks like a television screen and is
made of CRT. A CRT works by moving an electron beam back and forth
across the back of the screen. Each time the beam makes a pass across the
screen, it lights up phosphor dots on the inside of the glass tube, thereby
illuminating the active portions of the screen. By drawing many such
lines from the top to the bottom of the screen, it creates an entire screenful
of images.
Monochrome monitors use one colour image (usually black) on a one colour
background (usually white). These are now virtually obsolete in PCs. On the
other hand colour monitors (also called RGB monitors) use three electron
guns to stimulate a triad of Red, Green, and Blue phosphor dots in varying
degrees to produce a wide range of colours. These monitors give a higher
resolution display.
The quality of the screen display, or its resolution depends on the number of
pixels on the screen. Resolution indicates the ability to show detail; the more
pixels per inch the higher the resolution. There are several standards for IBM/
Clone monitors including:
i) CGA (Colour Graphics Adapter) 4 colours at 320 × 200 pixels
ii) VGA (Video Graphics Array) 16 colours at 640 × 480 pixels or 256 colours
at 320 × 200 pixels
iii) Super VGA 16 colours at 800 × 600 pixels
iv) XGA (Extended Graphics Array) 256 colours at 1024 × 768 pixels
v) High-end monitors: 1280 × 1024, 1600 × 1200, and 1800 × 1440.
• Flat Panel Display: First introduced in watches and clocks in 1970s, this
technology is now applied to display terminals. The most popular type is
the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) which has a thin layer of liquid crystal
molecules, divided into small squares forming pixels that are held by two
glass sheets. When power is applied to a square it turns opaque. LCD
eliminates flicker and radiation and minimises size problems of CRTs. 127
Introduction to Computer Further, they are popular for their low energy consumption. However, the
Technology
quality of the images is relatively poor. Hence, they are commonly used
in portable devices because of compactness and low energy requirements.
LCDs used to be limited in size, brightness and clarity, but current
technology has significantly improved. The main advantage of LCD
displays is that they take up less desk space and are lighter.
• Project Display: The small sized screen of the displays discussed above
is not suitable for a group presentation. Project displays provides an
enlarged image and could be projected on a large screen. These systems
can be connected directly to the processor and the output will be displayed
on the large screens.
Audio Output Devices (Soft copy)
The audio output device convert the digital signals and give the output in an
audible format. Speech synthesisers transform digital computer signals into
voice output. The voice maybe choppy and unnatural, but it is easily understood.
Audio output units have a varied application. One of the applications that all
of you might have experienced is the recorded voice response in a telephone
system or railway/airline reservation systems.
Speech synthesisers use different methods of output. In the word analysis
method entire digitised words from the computer’s vocabulary are combined,
under computer control, into digitised sentences and then converted to analogue
output. This requires a huge amount of memory. In the constructive synthesis
method the basic elements of speech, called “phonemes” (only 40 in the English
language) to construct speech output governed by timing, pitch and inflection
controls. This has minimal memory requirements.
Hard copy (print and film) Devices
Printers and Plotters
• Printers: They are used to print the output data on paper. Such output is
referred to as printout or hard copy. Printers can be classified based on
various characteristics. They are:
A) Image formation (measured in dpi (dots per inch):
a) Full character alphanumeric (no graphics) each have a separate
symbol on a ball, daisy wheels, thimble, band, belt or chain
mechanism.
b) Dot-matrix alphanumeric and graphics are formed by patterns
of dots from a single print head .
c) Raster scan images (alphanumeric/graphics), e.g. laser printers,
are like copiers.
B) Image transfer:
a) Impact printers transfer images by the print head striking a
ribbon like a typewriter.
128
 b) Non-impact printers transfer images by heat (electro-thermal Hardware
and thermal-transfer printers), electrostatic charge (laser
printers), or by “drawing” with ink jets.
C) Number of characters printed at one time, measured in ppm (pages
per minute):
a) Serial (bi-directional) printers print one alphanumeric or graphics
pixel at a time.
b) Chain printers transfer one line of alphanumeric or pixels at a
time.
c) Page printers (laser printers) utilise a combination of raster scan
and xerographic technologies to produce one whole page at a
time.
• Plotters: Though a few printers listed above are capable of producing
graphics, there are a few special plotters exclusively to print a good quality
drawing and graphs. Plotters differ from printers in that they draw lines
using a pen. As a result, they can produce continuous lines, whereas printers
can only simulate lines by printing a closely spaced series of dots. There
are two types of plotters. Flatbed plotters have a drawing instrument (pen,
ink-jet, electrostatic head, or heater element) that moves both horizontally
and vertically, under the control of input voltages, over a flat piece of
stationary paper. Drum plotters have a drawing pen that moves vertically
while the paper, or a drum, rotates under it. Multicolor plotters use
different-colored pens to draw different colors.
Computer Output Microfilms (COM)
Special computers can produce their output directly onto microfilm. In this
way, vast amounts of data in human readable form can be stored in a very
small space without the need of large quantities of paper. This form of output
has applications in libraries, book shops and in situations where large amounts
of text and pictures need to be sent through the post. The microfilm is read on
microfilm viewer, which magnifies the text and pictures so that they can be
seen by human eye.

4.7 SECONDARY STORAGE

Secondary storage is also called auxiliary storage and is used to store data and
programs when they are not being processed. It is typically slower and has
higher-capacity than primary storage. It is almost always non-volatile.
Secondary storage is more permanent than main memory, as data and programs
are retained when the power is turned off. The needs of secondary storage may
vary greatly between users. A personal computer might only require 20,000
bytes of secondary storage but large companies, such as banks, may require
secondary storage devices that can store billions of characters. Because of
such a variety of needs, a variety of storage devices are available. The two
most common types of secondary storage are magnetic tapes and magnetic
disks.
129
Introduction to Computer The benefits of secondary storage over the primary memory given below
Technology
summarises the need for secondary storage devices:
• Capacity. Organisations may store the equivalent of a roomful of data on
sets of disks that take up less space than a breadbox. A simple diskette for
a personal computer holds the equivalent of 500 printed pages, or one
book. An optical disk can hold the equivalent of approximately 400 books.
• Reliability. Data in secondary storage is basically safe, since secondary
storage is physically reliable. Also, it is more difficult for unscrupulous
people to tamper with data on disk than data stored on paper in a file
cabinet.
• Convenience. With the help of a computer, authorised people can locate
and access data quickly.
• Cost. Together with the three previous benefits indicated significant
savings in storage costs. It is less expensive to store data on tape or disk
(the principal means of secondary storage) than to buy and house filing
cabinets. Data that is reliable and safe is less expensive to maintain than
data that is subject to errors. But the greatest savings can be found in the
speed and convenience of filing and retrieving data.
• Portability. Data stored in detachable secondary storage devices can be
used across various computers without much difficulty.
Basically secondary storage devices are classified broadly into two categories.
They are: Sequential-access media (magnetic tape) requires all data to be
accessed serially until the desired data is found.
Direct-access (magnetic or optical disks) media allows the desired data to be
found by moving the read/write head straight to it without moving the read
write head sequentially.

4.7.1 Secondary Storage for Direct Access

Direct access is a characteristic of disks. Direct access storage device serves
the need for quick access to any file record which requires a quick processing
response. In selecting a direct access storage device designers usually make
compromises between performance and cost. For example, in specialised
scientific applications where processing speed is paramount and cost is
secondary, the system selected may have a large primary storage section linked
to a very fast direct access storage device. In business applications a slower
direct access storage device with larger capacity may be preferred over a faster
and more expensive device that has less capacity. Magnetic media (hard disks,
removable hard disks, and floppies) are the most commonly used Direct access
storage devices, but magneto-optical and read/write optical media (DVD,
DVD-RAM, and DVD+RW) promise to revolutionise storage technologies.
Magnetic Disks
Magnetic disks are the most popular medium for direct access secondary
storage. A magnetic disk is a metal or plastic platter that resembles a grooveless
phonograph record. Let’s use this phonograph record analogy to get an idea of
130
how a disk storage device works. Suppose you have a sound tape player and a
record player. Suppose, that 10 songs are recorded on your favourite tape, and Hardware
your favourite record has seven pieces of music. Now what must you do if you
only want to listen to (or access) the sixth song on the tape and fourth song on
the record? To get to the sixth tape song, you must put the tape on the player
and wait until the tape used to record the given songs have moved through the
player. Although your player may “fast forward” the tape quickly past the fist
five pieces, there is still a delay of several seconds. To get the fourth song on
the record, you can do the one of the two things. You can place the record on
the player, position the pickup arm to the beginning of the first song, and wait
until the arm has played the first three pieces. (Following the stored sequence
in this way is logically similar to accessing the music on the tape). Or, you can
directly move the pickup arm across the record to the groove where the fourth
song begins.

Like the songs on a sound tape, the data records organised on a magnetic tape
must be retrieved according to the storage sequence. And like the music the
data recorded on a magnetic disk can also be accessed in a sequence if they
have been organised in a way that supports such retrieval. Data, in magnetic
disks, is stored in a number of invisible concentric circles called tracks. This
data is encoded as magnetic bit patterns, which can be created or read by the
read/write head of the disk drive. Read/Write heads consist of tiny
electromagnets and are designed to ride on a microscopic cushion of air, without
touching the platter. They register bits from the magnetic coating, which races
past them. When such heads are fastened to an arm in a disk storage device,
they can be moved quickly and directly to any disk location to store or retrieve
data.

Data on single disk is organised in sectors. Data on “disk packs” is organised

in cylinders which are vertically aligned tracks.

Access Time

In order to access a record the read-write head has to first move to the track on
which the record lies and then wait for that record to pass under it. Thus, the
access time will depend on two factors, viz.,:

Seek time which is the time taken by the read-write head to move to the
specified track. Because neither the starting position of the head nor the
distance from there to the desired track is fixed, seek time varies greatly,
and it is almost always measured as an average seek time.

Rotational latency which is the time required for the specified portion of
the track to move under the head.

Access time is simply the sum of the seek time and the latency.

The external data rate is the speed with which the drive can transfer data
from its buffer to the host computer system.The time required for reading a
record will be equal to the time taken to access the record plus the time taken
to transfer data between disk storage and primary memory (data transfer time).
Thus we can say that,

access time = seek time + latency + data transfer time 131

Introduction to Computer Self Check Exercise
Technology
4) State the two advantages of direct access devices over sequential access
devices.

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.

ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................................

Types of Magnetic Disks

Fig. 4.8 : Magnetic Disk (Hard disk)

(Source : PGDLAN, MLI-001)

Hard Disks consist of one or more magnetic disks contained in a box.

They are rigid aluminium platters coated with magnetic oxide whose high
precision provides the highest storage capacities and quickest access rates
of all magnetic media. This requires a contaminant-free environment; if
contaminants do reach the disk surface a “crash” occurs where a scratch
on the disk surface results in data loss. Hard disks, currently reaching
double digit GB ranges, have the advantage of being the fastest mass
storage but are permanent (i.e. the storage disks cannot be switched).
High capacity storage units of all sizes that use sealed housings are often
called Winchester disks.

Diskettes (“floppies”) are made of flexible Mylar plastic coated with
magnetic oxide. They come in 8, 5.25, and 3.5 inch sizes, can be single
132 density(SD), double density (DD), or high density (HD), and can be either
 single- or double-sided. Older diskettes, 5.25" DD that hold 360 KB, 3.5" Hardware
DD that hold 720 KB, and 3.5" HD diskettes that hold 1.4 MB are all
virtually obsolete now because the LS-120 Super Drive (120MB) can
store about hundred times the equivalent of a HD floppy and Sony’s HiFD
(200MB) will be able to store about two hundred HD floppies! Both can
read and write standard floppy disks as well.

Hard Cards are hard disks that are mounted directly on their interface
card and fit directly into the expansion slots on a PC motherboard.

Cartridge Disk Drives are devices that accept small removable (but
hermetically sealed) disk cartridges (typically 3.5" with 10 MB to single
digit GB storage capacity.)

Fig. 4.9 : Floppy Disk

(Source : PGDLAN, MLI-001)

This blend of the advantages of hard disks and floppies will, no doubt,
revolutionise mass storage in the near future.

Magneto-optical Disks (read/write/erasable) are often confusingly
categorised as optical disks because lasers are used to read data as well
as to facilitate writing data. However, the data is stored magnetically in
microscopic “magnetic domains”. When the high-power laser heats the
magnetic storage film, the domains can be aligned in higher densities
than on regular magnetic disks, thus giving higher storage capacity than
hard disks. Data is retrieved by reflecting a low-power polarised laser
beam off of the magnetic film. The polarisation of reflected beam can be
interpreted as binary data.

Magneto-optical disks are removable and have removable gigabyte
storage capacities, which could be up to 20 GB.

The read/write capability of these disks is currently compromised by its
relatively slow access time compared to hard disks. 133
Introduction to Computer Optical Disks
Technology
Optical disks supplement the magnetic media. They have clear advantages in
the areas of data density and stability: Data can be packed much more densely
in optical media than in magnetic media. And optical disks have much longer
life span.Tiny pits, visible only under a microscope, are burned or pressed into
a thin coating of metal or other material deposited on a disk. Data is encoded
on the disk surface by a laser beam either by burning holes or heating the
surface until bubble forms. Data, text, audio signals and video images are
stored as digitised patterns in frames. Data is read with a very thin and very
precisely aimed laser beam. Digital data is represented as a series of Pits (a
little depression, forming a lower level in the track) and Lands (the flat part
between pits, or the upper levels of the track). The storage capacity is around
650 MB.
Land Pit Land Pit Land

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 00 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fig. 4.10 : Digital Data

The Table 4.3 provides a comparison of an optical device and a magnetic

device.
Table 4.3 : Comparison of an Optical Device and a Magnetic Device

Optical Device
CLV = Constant Linear Vel
Sectors are organised along

Sectors have same linear le

packed at its maximum
permitted)
Advantage: Takes advanta
storage space available
Disadvantage: Has to
rotational speed when
(slower towards the outside)

Types of Optical Disks

CD-ROM: CD-ROM is a read-only, removable medium with large data
storage capacity (630MB) which makes it a suitable storage medium for
the distribution and online use of encyclopaedias and dictionaries;
conceptually, CD-ROM data storage is similar to magnetic disk; data is
stored in the form of blocks on the disk. The blocks can be arranged into
files, with a directory structure similar to, although larger than, that of
magnetic disks.

WORM (digital data; Write Once Read Many Times) the most popular
134 of which are recordable CD called CD-R, for compact disk recordable.

Video Disk: (analog data, read only) stores text, graphics, video images, Hardware
and audio signals

Read/Write Optical Disks: Read/write capability has only recently been
made possible on Optical media. (CD-ROMs have been available for a
long time, but they are read-only. Also WORM (write once, read many
times) drives can not be used as secondary storage because data can be
stored on them only once.) True read/write technology, however, is
becoming available and will, no doubt, revolutionise secondary storage
capabilities. Technologies include:
i) CD-RW drives, which have read/write capability at CD-ROM
capacities (650MB), appeared in 1997. They can read CD-ROMs
and can write to CD-R disks, but a CD-RW disk can only be read by
a CD-RW drive.
ii) DVD (which originally stood for digital video disks but now means
digital versatile disks) is a new read/write optical storage technology
that has two competing technologies. DVD-RAM, (which is currently
shipping) backed by Hitachi, Panasonic, Toshiba, and others, can
store 2.6 GB per side and DVD+RW, backed by HP, Phillips, Sony,
and others, but can store 3.6 GB per side; both types of drives can
read DVD-ROM and all CD formats. Currently their read/write times
are less than hard disks.
iii) DVD-RAM has gained a significant advantage by being the first to
market.
4.7.2 Secondary Storage For Sequential Access
Punched cards, paper tape, cassette tapes, and magnetic tape are examples of
sequential-access storage media. When operating in a sequential environment,
a particular record can be read only by first reading all the records that come
before it in the file. When you store a file on tape, the 125th record cannot be
read until the 124 records in front of it are read. The records are read in sequence.
You cannot read just any record at random. This is also true when reading
punched cards or paper tape.
Certain characteristics of sequential access storage devices are :

No direct access, but very fast sequential access

Resistant to different environmental conditions

Easy to transport, store, cheaper than disk

Before it was widely used to store application data; nowadays, it is mostly
used for backups or archives (tertiary storage).
Magnetic Tapes
Magnetic tapes are similar to the commonly used audiotapes. It is a long roll
of flexible plastic material with a magnetic coating. The magnetic coating
consists of small particles of iron oxide mixed with a binding material. The
coated side of the tape is divided into vertical columns (or frames) and horizontal
rows (called channels or tracks). Data is recorded in the form of magnetic
spots on tracks that run the length of the tape. Each character occupies one
vertical column, called a frame. A magnetic spot represents a binary 1; no 135
Introduction to Computer magnetic spot represents a binary 0. 8 or 9 tracks running along the tape (18 in
Technology
an IBM 3480 tape cartridge) are commonly used to record data on standard
1/2 –inch-wide reels of tape.
Since any magnetic tape is a continuous – length medium, different file records
can be separated by blank spaces on the tape called interrecord gaps. These
gaps are automatically created when data are written on tape. Tape drives have
electromagnetic read/write heads (like cassette-player). In a magnetic tape unit,
the read-write heads are kept stationary and the tape is moved past over them
(See the figure 4.11). The tape unwinds from one reel, passes through the
read-write mechanism and winds on to the second reel. The actual reading or
writing takes place only when tape is in motion. In a magnetic tape there is no
direct access; all writing and reading is serial. Individual files or records are
difficult to delete or edit as the whole tape must be re-copied. Unlike a primary
memory, the data recorded on the tape do not have addresses. They have to be
retrieved sequentially in the order in which they were written. Thus, if a desired
record is at the end of a tape, then all the earlier records have to be read before
it is reached.

Fig. 4.11: Character A Recorded on the Tape

(Sources : www.dis.unimelb.edu.au)
With the earliest personal computers tape drives were the most common devices
used for storing data. Since then there have been developed a number of different
types of tape systems with different sises of tapes and different types of
cartridges. A magnetic tape for modern PC can store hundreds, sometimes
thousands, of megabytes. Transfer rate in a magnetic tape can exceed 3,000,000
characters per second. The most common use of tapes is for backups (where
direct access is not needed).

Fig. 4.12 : Magnetic Tape Drive

136 (Source : PGDLAN, MLI-001)
Cartridge Tapes Hardware

These tapes are a quarter inch wide and are sealed in a cartridge much like an
audio cassette tape. Unlike a half-inch tape discussed in section above, these
tapes record information serially in a track with one head. When the end of the
tape is reached the tape is rewound and data is recorded on the next track.
There are 9 to 30 tracks and data is recorded in a serpentine fashion. Data bits
are serially arranged on a track. Blocks of around 6000 bytes are written, on
the tape, followed by error-correction code to enable correction of data on
reading if any error occurs. The density of these tapes is around 16000 bpi in
modern tapes. A tape stores around 500 Mb. These tapes are usually interfaced
to a computer using SCSI standard.
Digital Audio Tapes (DAT)
This is the latest addition to the tape family. This uses 4 mm tape enclosed in
a cartridge. It uses a helical scan, read after write recording technique which
provides reliable data recording. Helical scan records at an angle to the tape.
The head spins at a high speed while the tape moves. Very high recording
densities are obtained with these devices. The tape length is either 60 metres
or 90 metres. It uses a recording format called Digital Data Storage (DDS),
which provides three levels of error correcting code to ensure excellent data
integrity. The capacity of this tape is upto 4 GB with a data transfer speed of
366 KB/sec. This tape also uses SCSI interface.

4.8 SUMMARY
In this Unit you have learnt some basic concepts concerning computer systems.
The concepts that you have learnt are computers, components of a computer
system, memory organisation, and different secondary storage devices. The
basic computer configuration comprises the central processing unit, input
devices, output devices and storage devices. The central processing unit
comprises an arithmetic and logic unit, a control unit and the primary memory.
Input devices are used to enter data into the computer. Output devices such as
monitors and printers allow information to be output from the system. Primary
memory helps to store data and programmes required by the computer. As it is
volatile in nature, we require a more permanent means of storing data.
Secondary storage devices help in this regard. We classified the secondary
storage devices broadly into two categories, viz., sequential-access media and
direct access media. You have studied the principles of sequential access devices
and learnt how data are stored and accessed from a magnetic tape. To understand
the principles of direct access devices, you studied magnetic media (hard disks,
removable hard disks, and floppies), and magneto-optical and read/write optical
media (CD-ROM, DVD, DVD-RAM, and DVD+RW). On the whole, the Unit
enables to understand the basic aspects relating to computer hardware.

4.9 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

1) The basic components of a computer system are: i) input devices, ii) the
central processing unit (CPU), and iii) the output devices. An input device
is a peripheral, which accepts data and sends it to the CPU. Data presented
to an input device has to be in the right form for the device, e.g. a bar- 137
Introduction to Computer code reader will only read bar-codes. The input device converts the data
Technology
into the computer’s own internal code before sending it to the CPU. The
CPU is the physical devise that controls computer operations. It consists
of three components, viz., the control unit – which co-ordinates the various
works; the ALU – which performs arithmetic and logical operations; and
the primary memory – which stores the data and programs required by
the computer for the task being carried out. Output devices usually receive
data from the CPU and change it into a form which can be understood by
humans. However, in some cases (for example when the computer is used
to control another device), the output may be in a form which is suitable
for passing instructions to another device controlled by the computer.
2) RAM (Random Access Memory) allows for Read and Write operations.
ROM (Read Only Memory) as the name indicates, allows only Read
operation. While RAM is a volatile memory (i.e., the contents get erased
once the computer is switched off), ROM is non-volatile. In other words
the contents of ROM do not get erased even when the computer is switched
off.
3) Bar code are very efficient in stock-verification work of a library because
of the following reasons:
• Large amount of data can be input/gathered in short-period.
• Barcode readers have very low error tolerance. Hence, the accuracy
of data gathered is very high.
• Collecting of stock-verification data could be carried out near the
stock itself.
• Even non-professionals could be assigned the job of collecting data
through barcode readers.
4) a) The access time of magnetic disk is much less than magnetic tape.
b) Disk storage is long lasting than tape storage.

4.10 KEYWORDS
Application Software : Application programs are written individually
to operate specific tailor-made procedures and
to solve specific problems.
Bit : Abbreviated from Binary digit. A smallest
unit of information or storage represented in
the memory as 0 or 1.
Byte : Group of 8 bits is normally called a byte.
Generally, a character is represented in one
byte.
CD-ROM : An abbreviation for Compact Disk-Read Only
Memory. An optical storage device used as a
ROM of high capacity.
138
Central Processing : The Central Processing Unit, often called Hardware
Unit (CPU) processor or just CPU, comprises Control
Unit, the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU),
and the Primary Memory.
Data : A general expression used to describe any
group of operands or factors consisting of
numbers, alphabets or symbols which denote
any condition, value or state.
Floppy Disk : It is a relatively small, flexible magnetic disk
that is enclosed in a stiff protective envelope
and is widely used as backing store device.

Hard Disk : A rigid magnetic disk. It is carefully protected

against dust and any damage and therefore,
is generally kept in a cartridge.
Hardware : Physical equipment of a computer system.
Magnetic Tape : Tapes coated with magnetic material and are
used to store large volume of data. Data can
be accessed in a sequential mode only.
Main Memory : Often referred as Primary Memory. It is
directly linked to a computer processor. This
memory holds the data and programmes,
which the computer is processing.
Optical Disk : A medium used with laser reading/writing
devices to store a large amount of data.
Random Access Memory : The main memory of the computer that stores
(RAM) the data and/or program of the currently
executing tasks.
Read Only Memory : The memory that is usually used to store
(ROM) programs and/or data that must be available
to the computer when the power is turned on.
The contents of this memory are fixed during
manufacture and cannot be changed.
Secondary Storage Devices : A permanent storage device having a large
capacity but slower access time than a main
memory. e.g., Magnetic tape, magnetic disk,
etc.
Software : Software is a general term that refers to
computer programs which are collectively
stored on secondary storage media.
System Software : It is designed to act as an interface between
users or their application programs and the
computer system itself. 139
Introduction to Computer
Technology 4.11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Anderson, R.G. (1990). Data Processing : Information Systems and
Technology. London: Pitman. 2Vols.
Bingham, J. (1989). Data Processing. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
Bissmer, R.H. (1993). Introduction to Computer Concepts. New York: John
Wiley.
IGNOU. CIC-02: The Technology. Block 1 (Hardware). New Delhi: IGNOU.
IGNOU. PGDLAN. MLI-001. Introduction to Computers. New Delhi: IGNOU.
Jain, V.K. (2000). ‘O’ Level - Information Technology. New Delhi: BPB.
Jaiswal, S. (1999). Information Technology Today. New Delhi: Galgotia.
Rajaraman, V. (1997). Fundamentals of Computers. 2nded. New Delhi: Prentice-
Hall of India.
Sanders, Donald H. (1988). Computers Today. 3rded. Singapore: McGraw-
Hill Book Company.

140