High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a group of communication protocols of

the data link layer for transmitting data between network points or nodes. Since
it is a data link protocol, data is organized into frames. A frame is transmitted
via the network to the destination that verifies its successful arrival. It is a bit -
oriented protocol that is applicable for both point - to - point and multipoint
communications.

Transfer Modes

HDLC supports two types of transfer modes, normal response mode and
asynchronous balanced mode.

Normal Response Mode (NRM) − Here, two types of stations are there, a
primary station that send commands and secondary station that can respond to
received commands. It is used for both point - to - point and multipoint
communications.
Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) − Here, the configuration is balanced, i.e.
each station can both send commands and respond to commands. It is used for
only point - to - point communications.

HDLC Frame

HDLC is a bit - oriented protocol where each frame contains up to six fields. The
structure varies according to the type of frame. The fields of a HDLC frame are

Flag − It is an 8-bit sequence that marks the beginning and the end of the
frame. The bit pattern of the flag is 01111110.

Address − It contains the address of the receiver. If the frame is sent by the
primary station, it contains the address(es) of the secondary station(s). If it is
sent by the secondary station, it contains the address of the primary station.
The address field may be from 1 byte to several bytes.

Control − It is 1 or 2 bytes containing flow and error control information.

Payload − This carries the data from the network layer. Its length may vary
from one network to another.

FCS − It is a 2 byte or 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection. The
standard code used is CRC (cyclic redundancy code)
Types of HDLC Frames

I-frame − I-frames or Information frames carry user data from the network
layer. They also include flow and error control information that is piggybacked
on user data. The first bit of control field of I-frame is 0.

S-frame − S-frames or Supervisory frames do not contain information field.

They are used for flow and error control when piggybacking is not required. The
first two bit of control field of S-frame is 10.

U-frame − U-frames or Un-numbered frames are used for myriad

miscellaneous functions, like link management. It may contain an information
field, if required. The first two bit of control field of U-frame is 11.
Point - to - Point Protocol (PPP) is a communication protocol of the data link
layer that is used to transmit multiprotocol data between two directly connected
(point-to-point) computers. It is a byte - oriented protocol that is widely used in
broadband communications having heavy loads and high speeds.

Components of PPP

Encapsulation Component − It encapsulates the datagram so that it can be

transmitted over the specified physical layer.

Link Control Protocol (LCP) − It is responsible for establishing, configuring,

testing, maintaining and terminating links for transmission. It also imparts
negotiation for set up of options and use of features by the two endpoints of the
links.

Authentication Protocols (AP) − These protocols authenticate endpoints for

use of services. The two authentication protocols of PPP are −

● Password Authentication Protocol (PAP)

● Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP)

Network Control Protocols (NCPs) − these protocols are used for

negotiating the parameters and facilities for the network layer. For every
higher-layer protocol supported by PPP, one NCP is there. Some of the NCPs of
PPP are −

● Internet Protocol Control Protocol (IPCP)

● OSI Network Layer Control Protocol (OSINLCP)
● IPv6 Control Protocol (IPV6CP)

PPP Frame

PPP is a byte - oriented protocol where each field of the frame is composed of
one or more bytes. The fields of a PPP frame are −

Flag − 1 byte that marks the beginning and the end of the frame. The bit
pattern of the flag is 01111110.

Address − 1 byte which is set to 11111111 in case of broadcast.

Control − 1 byte set to a constant value of 11000000.

Protocol − 1 or 2 bytes that define the type of data contained in the payload
field.

Payload − This carries the data from the network layer. The maximum length of
the payload field is 1500 bytes. However, this may be negotiated between the
endpoints of communication.

FCS − It is a 2 byte or 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection. The
standard code used is CRC (cyclic redundancy code)

Byte Stuffing in PPP Frame − Byte stuffing is used is PPP payload field
whenever the flag sequence appears in the message, so that the receiver does
not consider it as the end of the frame. The escape byte, 01111101, is stuffed
before every byte that contains the same byte as the flag byte or the escape
byte. The receiver on receiving the message removes the escape byte before
passing it onto the network layer.

Physical layer

The physical layer in the OSI model controls how the data is transferred over
the physical medium in a network channel.

It is also responsible for converting the data frames received from the Data-link
layer into data bits of 1’s and 0’s for transmission over the network.
● It is also responsible for maintaining the data quality by applying the necessary
protocols and maintaining the data bit rate.

Characteristics of the Physical Layer

Multiple network attributes are associated with the functioning of the physical
layer in the OSI model, some of which are:

1. Signals:

The physical layer converts data frames from the upper layers to network
signals for efficient data transmission over the network channel.

Type of signals in the physical layer:

Digital Signals: This network signal represents the network pulses and digital
data from the upper layers.

Analog Signals: The physical data bits converted for transmission over the
network channel.

2. Transmission Medium:

The network function is damaged without proper data conversion at the physical
layer.

Form of the transmission medium in the physical layer:

Wired Medium: The connection is made through cables for data transfer.

E.g., Fiber optic cable, Coaxial cable, etc.

Wireless Medium: The connection established is performed using the wireless

communication network models.
 E.g., Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, etc.

3. Data Flow:

This attribute is responsible for maintaining the information flow rate and the
network model's transmission time frame.

Factors affecting data flow rate for the physical layer:

Error-Rate: Receiving incorrect data due to noise in the transmission channel.

Encoding: Responsible for encoding data for transmission over the channel.

Bandwidth: Issue with the transmission rate of the data in the channel.

4. Noise in Transmission:

During data transmission from the physical layer, the transmitted data may get
damaged or corrupted for multiple reasons.

Types of noise in the physical layer transmission:

Dispersion: In this case, the data is spread and overlapped during

transmission, which causes damage to the original data.

Attenuation: Gradual weakening of the network signal over the transmission

channel.

Data Delay: The transmitted data reaches the destination system outside the
specified time frame.