Energy Resources and Technologies

Energy exists freely in nature as the gift to mankind. Energy is the need for all kinds of work done by
human beings and nature. Energy is also defined as the ability or the capacity to do work. Human
transforms the food into energy to do work. Similarly, various machineries also transform energy into
work. Work means moving or lifting something, warming or lighting something. There are many sources
of energy that help to run different machines. Some of them exist infinitely (never run out), are called
Renewable Energy sources. The rest that are available in finite amounts and they took millions of years
to form where as possible to run out one day, are called Non-renewable Energy Sources.

Non-renewable energy is energy from fossil fuels such as coal, crude oil, natural gas and uranium. Fossil
fuels are mainly made up of Carbon. The good thing about fossil fuels is that unlike many renewable
sources of energy, fossil fuels are relatively less expensive to produce. But, fossil fuels when they are
burned (used) they produce a lot of carbon compounds (carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases) that
hurt the environment in many ways. Air, water and land pollution are all consequences of using fossil
fuels.

Energy sources are also categorized as Conventional and Alternative Sources of Energy. The
conventional sources are basically non-renewable such as coal, petroleum, natural gas etc. Alternative
sources are mainly renewables e.g. wind, solar, geothermal, biomass, tidal and hydro (small hydro).
Nuclear and large hydro powers are not considered renewable because of various environmental hazards
even though they do not pollute the air. Renewable energy sources are essentially flows of energy,
whereas the fossil fuels are in essence stocks of energy. Sun is the main source of all types of energy.

HOMEWORK: Describe How Sun is Considered Ultimate Source of All Kinds of Energy Sources.

World Energy Scenario

The world energy scenario is a major concern in the present time. The adverse effects on environment
caused by the production and consumption of energy have resulted in severe environmental impacts
across the globe. Energy consumption is high in most developed countries. On the other hand, developing
countries need to consume more energy to ensure economic growth.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

Major energy sources in the world are coal, natural gas, oil, hydro and nuclear energy. Contribution of
renewable sources has been significantly increasing because of improved technological growth and
reduced cost of generation. In 2011, renewable contributed 2.4% in total power generation scenario of the
world whereas it was only 0.52% in 2002. Germany has become so far the top renewable power producer
in the world.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

Nepal relies heavily on traditional biomass. Commercial energy need is mainly contributed from
petroleum product apparently in urban areas. Electricity supply accounts below 3% of total energy
consumption. By march 2021, 93% of the people has electricity supply. Per capita is 260 kWh.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

 Hydropower
The basic principle of hydropower is that if water can be piped from a certain level to a lower level, the
resulting water pressure can be used to move a mechanical component that converts potential energy of
the water into mechanical energy. In concrete form, hydro turbines convert water pressure into
mechanical shaft power, which can be used to drive an electricity generator. Below 20% of today’s
electricity need of the world is from hydropower. Nepal’s electricity is almost all from hydropower except
diesel generator occasionally used during peak time of the day.

The theoretical power (P) available in hydroelectric project is

𝑃 ∝ 𝑄. 𝐻

Q = water discharge (m3/s) H = head of water (m)

That means, electric power output is proportional to flow of water and the available head from where the
water can be dropped down. More the discharge and higher the head, more power is obtained. However, a
project with high head but smaller discharge is economical than the same with lower head and higher
discharge.

As we know, potential energy of water per unit volume = ρgH = 10 HQ (kW)

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

 ρ = density of water (kg/m3) which is ~ 1000 kg/m3

g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) i.e. 9.8 m/s2

If η be the conversion efficiency

P = ηgHQ ≈ 10 η HQ (in kW)

Hydroelectric power generation is by far the most efficient method of large scale electric power
generation. The conversion efficiency (η) depends mainly on the type of water turbine employed and can
be as high as 95% for large installations. Smaller plants with output power less than 5 MW may have
efficiencies between 80 and 85 %.

Hydroelectric power plant requires various components for generating electrical power. Some of the
major components in hydroelectric power plants are: Reservoirs, Dam, Trash Rack, Forebay, Surge Tank,
Penstock, Spillway, Prime Mover, Generator, Draft Tube and so on.

The reservoir is built by constructing a dam across the river. The water from the reservoir is drawn by the
forebay through an open canal or tunnel. Forebay acts as regulating reservoir to temporarily store water
during change of electric load. The water intake from the dam or from the forebay are provided with trash
rack that prevents the entry of any debris. The water from the forebay is supplied to the water prime
mover through the penstock which is located at the much lower level than the height of the water in the
reservoir. Thus potential energy of water stored in reservoir is converted into kinetic energy and made to
rotate the turbine. Turbine shaft is connected to synchronous generator or alternator for generating
electricity. This generated power is stepped up using step-up transformer and delivered to load centers or
grid. The regulation of water flow to the turbine depending on the electrical load demand is carried out by
the governor system.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

Besides, surge tank reduces the water hammering effect during water surges caused in the penstock due to
sudden loading and unloading of the generator. The function of spillway is to provide safety of the dam
by discharging major floods without damage to the dam. The draft tube is a part of the reaction turbine.
The tube is a diverging discharge passage connecting the running with tailrace. It is shaped to decelerate
the flow with a minimum loss so that the remaining kinetic energy of the water coming out of the runner
is efficiently regained by converting into suction head thereby increasing the total pressure difference on
the runner.

Advantages of hydropower

 Operating cost is negligible since no fuel is required.

 If electricity is not needed, the sluice gates can be shut in no time, stopping electricity generation.
Similarly, it can be started in no time once there is need of electricity.
 The water can be saved for use another time when electricity demand is high.
 Dams are designed to last many decades and so can contribute to the generation of electricity for
many years / decades.
 The lake that forms behind the dam can be used for water sports and leisure / pleasure activities.
Often large dams become tourist attraction.
 The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes. The build up of water in the lake means that
energy can be stored until needed then the water is released to produce electricity.
 They do not pollute the atmosphere.

Disadvantages

 They are very capital intensive.

 The flooding of large areas of land means that the natural environment is destroyed.
 People living in villages and towns that are in the valley to be flooded, must move out. This
means that they lose their farms, businesses and cultural importance of the place.
 The building of large dams can cause serious geological and ecological damage.

Thermal Power
Thermal power station utilizes the calorific values of fuels as the source of energy. The conversion of
such energy is carried out by turbo-generator. Turbo generator is run by steam turbines. The steam is
obtained from high pressure boiler. The fuel burnt in the boiler can be either solid (e.g. coal), liquid (e.g
petroleum) and gaseous (natural gas) as well. Conventionally, the thermal generation means steam power
plant using coal as fuel. The diagram of a Thermal Plant is shown below.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

 Fig. Schematic Diagram of Thermal Power Plant

In the boiler, the fuel (coal) is burnt and the water is converted into high pressure steam which is further
superheated in a super heater. Inside the boiler there are various heat exchangers: Economiser,
‘Evaporator, Super Heater’ and so on. In Economiser, the feed water has been heated to considerable
amount by the remaining heat of flue gas. The superheated steam is passed in the turbine to rotate the
turbine blades, thus it converts the heat energy to mechanical energy. The pressure of steam decreases and
its volume increases, after imparting energy to the turbine rotor. The low pressure steam passes into
condenser. This condensed water is then further supplied to low pressure water heater where the low
pressure steam increases the temperature of feed water. Thermal power technology also requires
tremendous amount of water for steam generation as well as for cooling purpose.

The turbine actually is the prime mover of an alternator that generates electricity. The alternator is
connected to bus bar then to grid via transformers and protection devices. The overall efficiency of the
thermal power plant using coal as fuel is in the range 20% to 26% depending upon the capacity of the
plant. Higher the capacity, relatively higher will be the efficiency.(why such low efficiency??)

Thermal generation covers a massive and greatest portion of total energy consumption of the world. As a
result, environmental problems are being the challenges. Over 90% of greenhouse gas production is due
to fossil fuels basically to meet the energy need of the today’s industrialized and commercialized world.

Advantages:

 Economical for low initial cost than any other generating plant.
 Land required is less than hydro power plant.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

  Since coal is main fuel & its cost is quite cheap than petrol/diesel so generation cost is relatively
economical.
 Maintenance is easier.
 Thermal power plant can be installed in any location suitable according to load center (only fuel
transportation facility & bulk of water need to be available).

Disadvantages:

 The running cost for a thermal power station is comparatively high due to fuel cost, maintenance
cost etc.
 Large amount of smoke causes air pollution. The thermal power station is responsible for Global
warming.
 The heated water that comes from thermal power plant has an adverse effect on the lives in the
water and disturbs the ecology.
 Overall efficiency of thermal power plant is low i.e. less 30%.

Difference between Thermal Power and Hydroelectric Power

Thermal Power

 It is generated from petroleum (oil) or coal.

 Its sources (coal and oil) are exhaustible.
 On burning coal and oil they cause a lot of pollution.
 It is expensive in the long run.
 Installation takes shorter duration compared to hydro.
 Relatively lower capital cost but higher running cost.
 It requires less land.

Hydroelectric Power

 It is generated from water falling on turbines.

 Its source is perennial, i.e. inexhaustible.
 It causes no pollution.
 It is cheaper in the long run.
 Installation time is relatively longer.
 Higher capital cost but negligible running cost.
 Occupies more land.

Diesel Power
A diesel engine acts as prime mover that obtains its energy from a liquid fuel (diesel oil) and converts that
into mechanical work. An alternator or DC generator mechanically coupled to it converts the mechanical
energy into electrical energy. The major difference between a steam turbine and diesel engine is that in
diesel engine the chemical energy of combustion of fuel is released inside a cylinder but in steam turbine
the energy developed during combustion of fuel is first transformed into steam and this in turn develops
mechanical power.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

The diesel engines are most popular with small generating stations and with consumers who would like to
have their own power supply for emergency reasons. They are also used in medium sized installations for
peaking loads for a utility. The efficiency of diesel generator ranges from 30% to 40%. Electricity cost is
quite costlier and it pollutes the atmosphere massively.

Advantages of Diesel Power Station

 This is simple in design point of view.

 Required very small space.
 It can also be designed for portable use.
 It has quick starting facility, the small diesel generator set can be started within few seconds.
 It can also be stopped as required, even easier than it’s starting
 As these machines can easily be started and stopped, there may not be any standby loss in the
system.
 Cooling is easy and requires smaller quantity of water.
 Initial cost is less than other types of power station.
 Thermal efficiency of diesel is quite higher than of coal.
 Space involvement is less than steam power station.

Disadvantages of Diesel Power Station

As mentioned already, the cost of diesel is very high compared to coal. This is the main reason for which
a diesel power plant is not getting popularity over other means of generating power. The plant is generally
used to produce small power requirement. Cost of lubricants is high. Maintenance is quite complex and
costs high. They emit significant pollutants such as greenhouse gases.

Nuclear Power Plant

The basic principle of nuclear power station is same as steam power station. Only difference is that,
instead of using coal, heat is generated due to nuclear fission for producing steam from water in the
boiler. This steam is used to drive a steam turbine, actually the prime mover of the alternator. Although,
the availability of nuclear fuel is not plenty but very less amount of nuclear fuel can generate huge
amount of heat energy. This is the unique feature of a nuclear power plant. One kg of uranium is

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

equivalent to 4500 metric tons of high grade coal. This is why, although nuclear fuel is much costlier, but
nuclear fuel cost per unit electrical energy is still lower than that of coal.

In fission process, the nuclei of heavy radioactive atoms such as Uranium (U235) or Thorium (Th232) are
broken into parts. During this breaking of nuclei, huge quantity of energy is released. This release of
energy is due to mass defect. That means, the total mass of initial product would be reduced during
fission. This loss of mass during fission is converted into heat energy as per famous equation E = mc 2,
established by Albert Einstein. Efficiency of conventional nuclear plant is around 33%.

Fig. Nuclear Power Plant

Advantages of Nuclear Power Station

 No GHG is emitted.
 Quite low amount of fuel requirement in comparison to other fuel based power generation
method.
 Occupies much smaller space compared to other conventional power station of same capacity.
Relatively less water amount is required.
 Fuel transportation is not a problem since the amount of fuel is quite small.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plant

 The fuel is not easily available and it is very costly.

 Initial cost for constructing nuclear power station is quite high.
 Erection and commissioning of the plant is much complicated and sophisticated than other
conventional power station.
 The fission by products is radioactive in nature, and it may cause high radioactive pollution.
 The maintenance cost is higher and the man power required to run a nuclear power plant is quite
specially trained people.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

  Sudden fluctuation of load cannot be met up efficiently by nuclear plant.
 As the byproducts of nuclear reaction is high radioactive, it is very big problem for disposal of
such byproducts. It can only be disposed deep inside ground.

Gas Turbine Power Plant

Efficiency 30%-40%.

The thermodynamic process used by the gas turbine is known as the Brayton cycle. Efficiency can be
improved upto 60% by combined cycle technique as below.

Combined Cycle Power Plant

It is also called combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT). A gas turbine generates electricity and waste heat is
used to make steam to generate additional electricity via a steam turbine. The gas turbine is one of the
most efficient one for the conversion of gas fuels to mechanical power or electricity. The basic principle
of the Combined Cycle is simple: burning gas in a gas turbine (GT) produces not only power – which
can be converted to electric power by a coupled generator – but also fairly hot exhaust gases. Routing
these gases through a water-cooled heat exchanger produces steam, which can be turned into electric
power with a coupled steam turbine and generator.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

This type of power plant is being installed in increasing numbers round the world where there is access
to substantial quantities of natural gas. A Combined Cycle Power Plant produces high power outputs at
high efficiencies (up to 55%) and with low emissions. In a Conventional power plant we are getting 33%
electricity only and remaining 67% as waste. The heat recovered in this process is sufficient to drive a
steam turbine with an electrical output of approximately 50 per cent of the gas turbine generator.

It is also possible to use the steam from the boiler for heating purposes so such power plants can operate
to deliver electricity alone or in combined heat and power (CHP) mode.

Fig. Combined Cycle Power Plant Scheme

Wind Technology

Wind is air in motion. It is produced due to uneven heating of the earth’s surface by the sun. Since earth’s
surface is made of various land and water formations, it absorbs the sun’s radiation unevenly. During day
time, the air above the land heats up more quickly than the air above water. The warm air above the land
expands and rises and the heavier cooler air over the water moves into take its place, creating local winds.
At night, the process is reverse.

The kinetic energy of the wind is used for electricity generation by wind machines. The wind flows over
airfoil-shaped blades causing them to turn. The blades are connected to a shaft that drives the generator to
produce electricity. For wind mill to be economical there must be winds that blow consistently above 10-
14 miles/hour.

History of Wind Machines

Wind machines were used in Persia as early as 200 BC. First practical windmills were built is Sistan, a
region between Afghanistan and Iran from the 7th century, which were vertical axle windmills, basically
used to grind corn and draw up water. The first electricity generating windmill operated was a battery

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

charging machine installed in Scotland by James Blyth (1887). The first electricity generating windmill in
United States was built in Cleveland in 1888. A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis wind generators
was in service at Yalta, USSR in 1931, which was of 100kW and connected to 6.3kV distribution system.
The first utility grid-connected wind turbine operated in UK was built in Orkney Island in 1954. It has an
18m diameter, three-bladed rotor and a rated output of 100kW.

Electrical Output of Wind Turbine

Wind turbines work by converting the kinetic energy in the wind first into rotational kinetic energy in the
turbine and then electrical energy that can be supplied for any purpose. The energy available for
conversion mainly depends on the wind speed and the swept area of the turbine. When planning a wind
farm it is important to know the expected power and energy output of each wind turbine to be able to
calculate its economic viability.

With the knowledge that it is of critical economic importance to know the power and therefore energy
produced by different types of wind turbine in different conditions, rotational kinetic power produced in a
wind turbine at its rated wind speed is calculated. This is the minimum wind speed at which a wind
turbine produces its rated power.

Let

E = Kinetic Energy (J) ρ = Density (kg/m3)

m = Mass (kg) A = Swept Area (m2)

v = Wind Speed (m/s) Cp = Power Coefficient

P = Power (W) r = Radius (m)

dm/dt = Mass flow rate (kg/s) dE/dt = Energy Flow Rate (J/s)

The kinetic energy of an object having mass ‘m’ and velocity ‘v’

E = ½ mv2

The power in the wind is given by the rate of change of energy:

dE/dt = P = ½ v2 dm/dt = ½ v2 ρAv

So, P = ½ ρAv3

A German physicist Albert Betz concluded in 1919 that no wind turbine can convert more than 16/27
(59.3%) of the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy turning a rotor. To this day, this is
known as the Betz Limit or Betz' Law. The theoretical maximum power efficiency of any design of wind
turbine is 0.59 (i.e. no more than 59% of the energy carried by the wind can be extracted by a wind
turbine). This is called the “power coefficient”. Also, wind turbines cannot operate at this maximum
limit. The coefficient is unique to each turbine type and is a function of wind speed that the turbine is
operating in. Once we incorporate various engineering requirements of a wind turbine - strength and
durability in particular - the real world limit is well below the Betz Limit with values of 0.35-0.45

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

common even in the best designed wind turbines. By the time we take into account the other factors in a
complete wind turbine system - e.g. the gearbox, bearings, generator and so on - only 10-30% of the
power of the wind is ever actually converted into usable electricity. Hence, the extractable power from the
wind is given by:

Pavailabe = ½ ρ Av3 Cp

The swept area of the turbine can be calculated from the length of the
turbine blades using the equation for the area of a circle:

A = πr2

Where, the radius is equal to the blade length as shown in the figure.

Example: Given that: Blade length, l = 52 m Wind speed, v = 12 m/sec

Air density, ρ = 1.23 kg/m3 Power Coefficient, Cp = 0.4

A = π * 522 = 8495 m2

P = ½ *1.23*8495*123*0.4 = 3.6 MW

Advantages of Wind Technology

 The wind is free and with modern technology it can be captured efficiently.
 It does not produce green house gases or other pollutants.
 Although wind turbines can be very tall each takes up only a small plot of land. This means that
the land below can still be used. This is especially the case in agricultural areas as farming can
still continue.
 Remote areas that are not connected to the electricity power grid can use wind turbines to produce
their own supply.
 Wind turbines are available in a range of sizes which means a vast range of people and businesses
can use them. Single households to small towns and villages can make good use of range of wind
turbines available today.

Disadvantages
 Power output depends on wind speed which is very unpredictable.
 Wind turbines are very noisy.
 There occurs pollution during manufacture of wind turbines.
 A large wind farm is needed even to feed power to a small community.
 Can affect life of birds or insects.

Main Parts of Wind Turbine

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

It’s a horizontal axis machine with 2-3 rotor blades that spins in a vertical plane, these blades are
mounted on a hub and this hub is connected to a box called nacelle.

1. Nacelle– It is named after the furring of an aircraft engine. It is a fiberglass tube that contains
the gearbox, brakes and a generator. However for turbines generating upto 2MW/unit high
voltage transformer is also placed in nacelle itself. Also it has got direction and speed sensors
mounted as back as possible on nacelle to prevent them from the dirt coming from blades.

2. Gearbox– Shaft connected to hub directly goes into gearbox and it increase its rpm to
required level .it is the most heavy part in the nacelle.

3. Brakes– Brakes are used when wind is blowing above critical level to same turbine from
damage .Brakes is mounted just behind the gearbox.

4. Generator- It converts the energy of fast rotating shaft into electrical energy, and finally the
high voltage transformer converts it to high voltage to be ready to go in transmission lines.

5. Tower- It‘s the cylindrical structure on which nacelle is mounted. For a sub megawatt
turbine generating upto 400-600 watts of power its height may vary from 25m to 45 meter.
However the diameter of this cylinder reduces as we go up the tower. The transmission cable
from generator comes down inside this tower to the high voltage transformer. Tower also has
a ladder inside it with wooden platforms at different heights. The platform connected to the
nacelle is called the yaw platform.

6. Yaw Platform- It is a steel platform at the top of the tower and helps the nacelle to yaw in
the direction of the wind. It has also got brakes in some high end wind turbines to maintain
the direction of the nacelle.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

 7. Blades: The blade acts as barriers to the wind. When the wind forces the blade to move, some
of the wind energy is transferred to the rotor.

8. Shaft: When the rotor spins, the shaft also spins, and transfers the mechanical energy into
rotational energy.

Solar Energy Technology

Sun radiates continuously an enormous amount of energy. Only a tiny portion of radiant energy comes to
strike the earth. Yet this amount is enough to meet the world’s needs, if it could be harnessed. The radiant
light and heat from the sun has been harnessed by human since ancient times using a range of over-
evolving technologies. Solar radiation along with secondary solar-powered resources such as wind and
wave-power, hydroelectricity and biomass accounts for most of the available energy on earth. Only a
minuscule fraction of the available solar energy is used so far.

Solar radiant energy application include day lighting, solar hot water system, solar cooking, space heating
and cooling through solar architecture, high temperature process heat for industrial purposes and
electricity generation. Solar powered electricity generation relies either on heat engines (solar thermal
technology) or photovoltaic technology.

1. Solar Thermal Power Plant

A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. A collector is a device for capturing solar
radiation. Solar radiation is energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation from the infrared (long) to the
ultraviolet (short) wavelengths. The quantity of solar energy striking the Earth's surface averages about
1,000 watts per square meter under clear skies, depending upon weather conditions, location and
orientation.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

The term "solar collector" commonly refers to solar hot water panels, but may refer to installations such
as solar parabolic troughs and solar towers; or basic installations such as solar air heaters. Solar power
plants usually use the more complex collectors to generate electricity by heating a fluid to drive a turbine
connected to an electrical generator. Simple collectors are typically used in residential and commercial
buildings for space heating.

Parabolic Trough

This type of collector is generally used in solar power plants. A trough-shaped parabolic
reflector is used to concentrate sunlight on an insulated tube (Dewar tube) or heat pipe,
placed at the focal point, containing coolant which transfers heat from the collectors to the
boilers in the power station.

Parabolic dish

With a parabolic dish collector, one or more parabolic dishes concentrate solar energy at a single focal
point, similar to a dish antenna focuses radio waves. This geometry may be used in solar furnaces and
solar power plants. Dish/engine system captures large amount of heat from sun and heats up the working
gases (helium or hydrogen) that drives the piston of external combustion engine which ultimately runs the
generator. Several prototype dish/engine systems, ranging in size from 7 to 25 kW, have been deployed in
various locations in the U.S. and elsewhere.

High optical efficiency and low startup losses make dish/engine systems the most efficient of all solar
technologies, with electrical conversion efficiencies of up to 29.4 percent.

The modular design of dish/engine systems make them a good match for both remote power needs, in the
kilowatt range, as well as grid-connected utility applications in the megawatt range.

Power Tower

A power tower is a large tower surrounded by tracking mirrors called heliostats. These mirrors align
themselves and focus sunlight on the receiver at the top of tower, collected heat is transferred to a power
station below. This design reaches very high temperatures. High temperatures are suitable for electricity
generation using conventional methods like steam turbine or a direct high temperature chemical reaction
such as liquid salt. By concentrating sunlight current systems can get better efficiency than simple solar
cells. A larger area can be covered by using relatively inexpensive mirrors rather than using expensive
solar cells. Heat storage for power production during cloudy and overnight conditions can be
accomplished, often by underground tank storage of heated fluids.

Future cost projections for trough technology are higher than those for power towers and dish/engine
systems due to their lower solar concentration and hence lower operating temperature and efficiency. By
2030, the U.S. Department of Energy forecasts costs of $2.70 per watt, $2.50 per watt, and $1.30 per watt,
respectively, for parabolic trough, power tower, and dish engine systems.

2. Photovoltaic Technology

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

Photovoltaic comes from the words photo (light) and volt, a measurement of electricity. Photovoltaic cells
are also called PV cells or solar cells. PV cell is made of two thin pieces of silicon, the substance that
gives it a tendency to attract electrons. The other piece of silicon has a small amount of phosphorous to it,
giving it an excess of free electrons. When two pieces of silicon are placed together, an electric field
forms between the layers. When PV cell is placed in the sun, the radiant energy energizes the free
electrons. If a circuit is made, electron flows from n-layer to p-layer, producing electricity.

To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is modeled by a current source in parallel with a
diode. In practice no solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance and a series resistance component are
added to the model. The resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown in Figure. Also shown, on the
right, is the schematic representation of a solar cell for use in circuit diagrams.

Current from cell is

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

I0 = reverse saturation current

K = Boltzman constant

T = absolute temperature

n = diode ideality factor (basically its value is taken 1)

A current–voltage characteristic or I–V curve (current–voltage curve) is a relationship, typically

represented as a chart or graph, between the electric current through a circuit, device, or material, and the
corresponding voltage, or potential difference across it.

Typical power output form a cell is in a range a watt. Individual cells are connected together to form a
solar panel or module. Panel can be connected in series or parallel to form solar arrays according to its
purpose. Photovoltaic systems are designed for many applications varying in size and complexity. Some
are isolated from ac power lines. Remote systems include navigational aids along coastlines, remote
homes, isolated villages in developing countries and so on. Some photovoltaic systems have ac power
designed for water pumping stations, for supplying power to TV and communication equipment, village
power, auxiliary power for heating and cooling private homes and industrial applications.

PV tracking system is an alternative to fixed, stationary PV panels. The tracking mechanism orients PV
panel to follow the sun as it moves through the sky. The tracking mechanism runs entirely on its own
power and can increase output by 40%. Battery backup provides power of sunny day on night or in
cloudy days.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

 Fig. Components of Solar System

Efficiency of the PV system is less than 10% as estimated below in diagram.

Solar Panel Calculation:

1. Estimation of total load

E.g Lighting 6 lamps x 11W used for 4 hrs per day = 264Wh per day

Television 1 x 80W used 6 hrs per day = 480Wh per day

Total Load = 744Wh per day

To account for energy losses, add 20% to the load

Total Load + 20% Energy Losses = 892.8Wh per day.

2. Sizing the Solar Panel

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

Let us use 5 hrs of Peak Sunshine. The weather conditions of the area affect the size of the panel or array.

Required solar panel input = (892.8 Wh / 5h) = 178.5W. We need solar panels that will generate 178.5
watts..

3. Selecting the Solar Panel and Regulator

Select the solar panels to provide a minimum of 178.5 or 200W. Always round to the nearest 10.

Any combination of solar panels can be used to provide the required 200W

1 x 200W or 2x100W solar panels that provide an output of 200W [Pmax].

Inverter efficiency 80%

Inverter input = 892.5/0.8 = 1115 Wh

Battery efficiency = 80%

Battery input = 1115/0.8 = 1395 Wh

System voltage = 12V

Battery size = 1395/12 = 120 Ah

Geothermal Power Plant

Geothermal energy is the earth’s natural heat available inside the earth. Deep below the Earth’s crust lies
a layer of molten rock called magma where heat is continually produced. This heat can be used as an
energy source in a large complex power station or a smaller pumping station. Geothermal power has been
used for thousands of years in both heating baths and cooking food, and is still used today.

By 2010, United States, the world leader for geothermal electricity generation had installed capacity 3086
MW. The Philippines was the second highest producer, with 1904MW of capacity.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

 Fig. Geothermal Power Plant

The schematic of a single-flash geothermal power plant is shown in Figure. The geothermal liquid is
withdrawn from the production well and is flashed (steam released). The resulting vapor is separated from
the liquid in a separator and directed to the turbine. The low pressure steam or hot water from the turbine
is condensed and routed to a reinjection well along with liquid coming off separator.

It is usually used as base load power plant. It is possible in peaking as well with arrangements of storage
of high pressure steam, but efficiency goes down due to heat loss.

Advantages

• Geothermal energy does not produce any pollution, and does not contribute to the greenhouse
effect.

• The power stations do not take up much room, so there is not much impact on the environment.

• Geothermal power is a renewable source that requires no fuel (except for pumps). Once it is built,
the energy is almost free. It may need a little energy to run a pump, but this can be taken from the
energy being generated.

Disadvantages

• The big problem is that there are not many places where geothermal power station can be built. It
requires hot rocks of a suitable type, at a depth up to that level, it can be drilled down. The type of
rock above is also important, it must be of a type that we can easily drill through.

• Capital costs are highly significant. Exploration and drilling remains expensive and risky.

• Sometimes a geothermal site may "run out of steam", perhaps for decades.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

 • Hazardous gases and minerals may come up from underground, and can be difficult to safely
dispose of.

• The plant must be situated near by the reservoir or any other source of water. It is not practical to
transport steam or hot water.

• Harmful gases can escape from deep within the earth and can be difficult to safely dispose of.

• Possible gases e.g. CO2, H2S, CH4 and NH3 are prone to global warming or acid rain.
• The hot water from geothermal supply may hold in some toxic chemicals e.g. Hg, B etc. and they
may precipitate as the water cools and can cause environmental damage if released.

Environmental Concerns

• Geothermal fluids contain variable concentrations of gases, largely nitrogen and carbon dioxide
with some hydrogen sulfide and smaller proportions of ammonia, mercury, radon and boron.

• Most of these chemicals are concentrated in the disposal water which is usually re-injected back
into the drill holes so that there is minimal release into the environment.

• The concentrations of the gases are usually low enough not to be harmful. The abatement of toxic
gases can be managed with current technology.

• Carbon dioxide is the major component of the incondensable gases in the steam, but its emission
into the atmosphere per kWh is very low in comparison to natural gas, oil, or coal-fired power
plants.

• Hydrogen sulfide is the pollutant of most major concern in geothermal plants. However, the
sulfur emitted (with no any control) is only about half of that emitted from a coal-fired plant.

In overall, existing present technology is able to control the environmental impact of geothermal
energy development. Hence it can be considered to be a relatively benign source of energy.

Uses

The various types of direct use of geothermal energy include

• space heating, the dominant type (33 %)

• bathing/swimming/ (19 %), greenhouses (14 %),

• heat pumps (12 %) for air cooling and heating,

• fish farming (11 %),

• various industries (10 %).

In Nepal, being in the high tectonic movement zone, there are many geothermal active areas. The crack
between earth-plates has let out hot material of the earth very near to the surface. Water table comes into
contact and the Hot Water oozes out. Many of these areas ‘Tatopani’ are in the north Mahabharat ranges

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

in the areas of MCT (Main Central Thrust) and MBT (Main Boundary Thrust). E.g. Tatopani on the way
to Khasa, Tatopani at Magdi, Tatopani at Bahundanda Lamjung on the way to Manang and so on. These
areas could be exploited for much more uses than medicinal baths such as space heating, green house, fish
farming and cottage industries.

Tidal Energy
Tides rise and fall in eternal cycles. Tides are changes in the level of the oceans caused by the
gravitational pull of the moon and sun and the rotation of the earth. Tidal power is a form of hydropower
i.e. the generation of electricity from tides is similar to hydroelectric generation, except that tidal water
flows in two directions. The simplest generating system for tidal plant involves a dam, known as barrage,
across an inlet. Sluice gates on the barrage allow the tidal basin to fill on the incoming high tides and to
empty through the turbine system on the outgoing tide, known as the ebb tide. Flood generating system
that generate power from the incoming tide are possible but are less favored than ebb generating systems.
Two way generation systems which generate electricity on both the incoming and ebb tides are also
possible.

In ebb generation, the basin is filled through the sluices until tide. Then the sluice gates are closed (at this
stage there may be pumping to raise the level further). The turbine gates are kept closed until the sea level
falls to create sufficient head across the barrage, and then are opened so that the turbines generate until
the head is again low. Now the sluices are opened, turbines disconnected and the basin is filled again. The
cycle repeats itself.

In flood generation, the basin is filled through the turbines, which generates at tide flood. This is less
efficient than ebb generation.

Another configuration is Two Basin Schemes. One is filled at high tide and the other is emptied at low
tide. Turbines are placed between the basins. Such scheme may generate power more continuously but
expensive to construct dual basins due to extra length of barrage.

Tidal fences can also harness the energy in the tides. A tidal fence has a vertical axis turbine mounted
within a fence structure called a caisson that completely blocks a channel, forcing all of the water through
it.

Power Generation from Ebb Tide

The turbines continue to generate this renewable tidal electricity until the head height between the
external sea level and the internal basin is too low to drive the turbines.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

From the graph above we can see that the tidal basin fills up between points E and B via A on the
incoming flood tide. Once high tide is reached, the sluice gates are then closed between points B – C to
stop the tidal basin from emptying. Therefore no power is generated between points E – C while the basin
is filling up. When there is sufficient head height between either side of the barrage, the sluice gates are
opened at point C releasing the trapped water back to the sea and power generation starts. The tidal basin
continues to empty driving the tidal generators until the level of water in the basin reaches point D. At
point D the head height of the sea water across the barrage is no longer adequate to drive the turbines so
the sluice gates are closed and generation stops until the level of the sea water reaches point E again and
the whole process starts over.

Power Output

Energy available from a barrage is dependent on the volume of water. The potential energy contained in a
1
volume of water is 𝐸 = 2 𝐴𝜌𝑔ℎ2

Where, h = vertical tidal range (m)

A = horizontal basin area (m2)

ρ = density of sea water (~ 1025 Kg/m3)

g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

Because the available power varies with square of the tidal range, a barrage is best placed in a location
with very high amplitude tides.

Mean power generation potential (P) is determined as

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

 𝑛𝐸
𝑃=𝜂
86400
Where , n = number of tides in a day.

η = conversion efficiency.

Example: Estimate the power output from a tidal project that has tidal range of approximately 10m. The
surface area of tidal harnessing plant is 3 km x 3 km. Consider that there are two high tides every day.
Assume power conversion efficiency as 30%.
1
Potential energy contained /tide = 𝐸 = 2 (3000 ∗ 3000) ∗ 1025 ∗ 9.8 ∗ 102 = 4.5 ∗ 1012 𝐽

2∗𝐸
Mean power potential = 𝐽/ s = 104 𝑀𝑊
24∗60∗60

Considering 30% conversion efficiency, daily average power generated,

P = 0.3 * 104 MW = 31 MW (approx.)

France is the country that has significantly harnessed tidal energy. Due to environmental impact, there is
reluctant on such technology. The placement of barrage into an estuary has a considerable effect on water
and on ecosystem. Economically, tidal power schemes have a huge capital cost and very low running
cost. It is obviously an excellent renewable energy resource.

Factors affecting suitability of the site for tidal power plant:

 Range and height of tide. For economical power generation height should be more than 4.6 m.
 Site should be such that cost of barrage is minimum for maximum possible storage volume.
 Well protected from wave action and storms.
 Should not create interruption to ship running through the estuary.
 Low silt index of the water of the estuary.

Biomass
Biomass was the first energy source harnessed by humans. Biomass is the term used for all organic
material originating from plants (including algae), trees and crops and is essentially the collection and
storage of the sun’s energy through photosynthesis. It exists in one form as plants and may be transferred
through the food chain to animal bodies and their wastes, all of which can be converted for everyday
human use through processes such as combustion, that release carbon dioxide stored in the plant material.

Biomass energy, or bioenergy, is the conversion of biomass into useful forms of energy such as heat,
electricity and liquid fuels.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

Many of the biomass comes in the form of wood products, dried vegetation, crop residues, and aquatic
plants. Wood is extensively used for energy in both household and in industry, practically in the timber,
pulp & paper as well as other forestry-related industries. All in all finally materializes in the form of bio
energy, an excellent most commonly used energy source that of low cost and indigenous nature.

Biomass for bio energy is

 directly from the land, as dedicated energy crops

 from residues generated in the processing of crops for food or other products such as pulp and
paper from the wood industry
 from post consumer residue streams such as construction and demolition
 wood pallets used in transportation
 the cleaner fraction of municipal solid waste (MSW).

Over 10% of total energy consumption of the world is from biomass. For developing countries, around
35% of energy supply is from biomass, but can be upto 90% in some underdeveloped nations e.g. Nepal.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

From the perspective of climate change, biomass is carbon neutral i.e. carbon dioxide released to the
atmosphere during conversion to energy is actually the carbon extracted from the atmosphere during its
growth.

Biomass based Energy Conversion Technologies

There are a number of technological options available to make use of a wide variety of biomass types as a
renewable energy source. Conversion technologies may release the energy directly, in the form of heat or
electricity, or may convert it to another form, such as liquid biofuel or combustible biogas. While for
some classes of biomass resource there may be a number of usage options but some of them may have
only one appropriate technology.

1. Combustion

Direct combustion is the simplest method by which biomass can be used for energy, and has been used
for millennia to provide heat. Biomass is completely oxidized into carbon dioxide getting heat. This heat
can itself be used in a number of ways such as

 Space heating
 Water (or other fluid) heating for central or district heating or process heat
 Steam for electricity generation or motive force. E.g. sugar and/or ethanol from sugarcane, the
fiber residue that remains after juice extraction from sugarcane, black liquor of pulp mill are used
for power generation (heat as well from CHP). Efficiency of power generation is 20% or less.

2. Co-combustion

Here, dried feedstock or liquified biomass is burned with fossil fuels in existing boilers for electric power
generation or/and heating purposes. There is no basic change in technology. Only the biomass is made
compatible with the fossil fuels e.g. such as bio-diesel. Ultimate result is increased energy conversion
efficiency of the fuels. Fuel efficiency for power generation goes about 32%.

3. Gasification

Gasification is a partial oxidation process whereby a carbon source such as coal, natural gas or biomass, is
broken down into carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2), plus carbon dioxide (CO2) and possibly
hydrocarbon molecules such as methane (CH4) via pyrolysis process.

Gasification technology can be used for

 Steam for electricity generation or motive force. Integrated Gas Combined Cycle (IGCC)
technology is possible.
 Heating water in central heating, district heating or process heating applications
 Transport using an internal combustion engine.
 Efficiency of power generation cab be increased upto 60%.

4. Anaerobic Digestion - Biogas

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

Combustible gas is produced from biomass through the low temperature biological processes, called
anaerobic (without air) digestion.

Government of Nepal has recognized the potential uses of biogas and has implemented low interest loan
schemes to promote the installation of biogas plants. It has been identified as a project reducing GHG
emission and registered as CDM project under UNFCC.

In world, there is biomass based electric power generation of 76GW by 2012. In Europe mainly wood
waste, pellet and residues from the pulp and paper industry are used. Sugar producing countries like
Brazil and some other American and African countries are primarily using bagasse in power for combined
heat and power (CHP) plants. During the last decade electricity generation using municipal solid waste
(MSW) incineration grew worldwide by an average annual rate of about 6%. The highest share of the
global electricity generation from thermal waste treatment is provided within the EU (18.7TWh)
followed by the US (9.5TWh) and Japan (3TWh). A power station using palm oil, with a capacity of about
100MW, is operated in Italy.

Cogeneration
Cogeneration or combined heat and power (CHP) is the use of a thermal power station to simultaneously
generate electricity and useful heat. This is the technique for thermodynamically efficient use of fuel. In
separate production of electricity, some energy must be discarded as waste heat such as condensation loss

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari

of cooling tower, heat associated with flue gas or by other means. But in cogeneration this thermal energy
is put to use usually for heating purposes e.g. in process industries or in district heating system.

Fig. CHP Plant

Process industries such as Pulp and Paper industry or other forest based industries, sugar mills etc. those
using raw material as bio-products e.g. wood, straw or sugarcanes, usually use their byproduct, which is a
form of biomass, as a source of energy. Pulp and paper industry uses black-liquor for heat and power
burning the liquor in recovery boiler. Bagasse is good energy biomass in sugar industry. Further bagasse
is a good fuel of pulp as well.

In case of combined cycle usually when the fuel used is natural gas, the first will be the gas turbine.
Rather than wasting the flue gases from the gas turbine, the flue gases are directed into boiler again
generating steam to run steam turbine, hence increases the thermal efficiency.

Captive Generation

Captive Generating plant means a power plant set up by any person to generate electricity primarily for
his/her own use. It also means a group of industries can set up a big generating station for their groups use
and sell excess power. Quantum of such plants, also called “Merchant plants”, is likely to grow in the
coming decade.

PPD_BE IV/B_Yuba Raj Adhikari