IIPM- SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (IIPM-SET),

KANSBAHAL, ROURKELA

Mechatronics
(Th- 04)
(As per the 2020-21 syllabus of the SCTE&VT,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha)

Fifth Semester
Mechanical Engg.
 MECHATRONICS
CONTENT
Sl.No Chapter Topics Periods as Required Expected
No. per Syllabus period Marks

Introduction to
01 01 05 05 10
Mechatronics
02 02 Sensors and Transduces 10 10 15
Actuators-Mechanical,
03 03 10 11 20
Electrical
Programmable logic
04 04 15 11 20
controllers
Elements of CNC
05 05 15 15 20
Machines
06 06 Robotics 05 05 15
TOTAL 60 57 100
 CHAPTER -2
SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
Learning objective
2.1-Definition of Transducers

2.2- Classification of Transducers

2.3- Electromechanical Transducers

2.4-Transducers Actuating Mechanisms

2.1-DefinitionofTransducers

2.5-Displacement &Positions Sensors

2.6-Velocity, motion, force and pressure sensors

2.7- Temperature and light sensors

2.1-Definition of Transducers:
Transducers: -
 A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another form.

 The process of energy conversion in the transducer is known as the

transduction. The transduction is completed into two steps. First by sensing
the signal and then strengthening it for further processing.

 For Example: microphones, loudspeakers, thermometers, and antenna.

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2.2- Classification of Transducers:
Basically, there are two different types of Transducers

1) Mechanical Transducers: -

 Mechanical Transducers is a device that converts physical quantity into

mechanical output such as pressure, displacement etc.
 For example, Diaphragms: pressure to displacement.
Bourdon tubes: pressure to displacement.
Capsule: pressure to displacement.

Physical quantity TRANSDUCER Mechanical O/P

2)Electrical Transducers: -
 Electrical Transducers is a device that converts physical quantity into an
electrical signal such as voltage,current,frequency etc..

 For example, L.V.D.T, Photovoltaic cell etc.

Physical quantity TRANSDUCER

TRANSDUCER Electrical O/P

2.3- Electromechanical Transducers:

 Electromechanical Transducer is a device for converting mechanical motion
into electric current or voltage (electric signals) and vice versa.
 Electromechanical transducers are used primarily as actuating mechanisms in
automatic control systems and as sensors of mechanical motion in automation
and measurement technology.
 They may be classified according to the conversion principle used as resistive,
electromagnetic, and electrostatic types.
 Electromechanical transducers are evaluated with respect to their static and
dynamic characteristics,

The sensitivity (or transfer ratio) E = Δy/Δx

 Where, Δy is the change in the output quantity y.
Δx is the change in the input quantity x.

 It has no dimention.

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 Applications: -

 Electromechanical transducers are used in

1. A loudspeaker.
2. A microphone.
3. Galvanometer etc..
Example:

2.4-Transducers Actuating Mechanisms:

 An actuating mechanism usually consists of a motor, a transmission, and
control units. It is to control the flow of fluids or gases consist of a valve, or
gate, which is moved by hydraulic or electrical drive.

 An actuator is a device that is responsible for moving or controlling a

mechanism or system.
 It is controlled by a signal from a control system or manual control.
 It is operated by a source of energy, which can be mechanical force, electrical
current, hydraulic fluid pressure, and converts that energy into motion.
 An actuator is the mechanism by which a control system acts upon an
environment.
 The control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic system),
software-based (e.g., a printer driver, robot control system), a human, or any
other input.

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2.5-Displacement &Positions Sensors:
Sensor: -
 The sensor is a device that measures the physical quantity (i.e. Heat, light, sound, etc.)
into an easily readable signal (voltage, current etc.).
 It gives accurate readings after calibration.

 Examples – The mercury used in the thermometer converts the measured temperature
into an expansion and contraction of the liquid which is easily measured with the help
of a calibrated glass tube.

 The photo sensor senses the infrared or ultraviolet light.

 The accelerometer sensor uses in the mobile for detecting the screen rotations.
1. Displacement Sensor: -
 A displacement sensor is used to measure travel range between where an
object is and a reference position.
 Displacement sensors can be used for dimension measurement to determine an
object's height, thickness, and width in addition to travel range.
 Measurements with linear displacement sensors can be classified into two
large categories:
1) Non-contact measurement: Here there is no direct contact with the target .Only through
light or magnetic fields / sound waves.

2) Contact measurement: It is performed in direct contact with the target.

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 Operating Principles:

 Light from the light source is condensed by the lens and directed onto the object.
 Light reflected from the object is condensed onto a one-dimensional position sensing
device (PSD)* by the receiving lens.
 If the position of the object (the distance to the measuring device) changes, the image
formation positions on the PSD will differ and the balance of the two PSD outputs
will change.

Applications:
 Measuring whether the thickness of rolled steel sheets is uniform, whether the
thickness of laminated glass is within the standards, etc.

2)Position sensor: -
 Position sensors are devices that can detect the movement of an object or
determine its relative position measured from an established reference point.
These types of sensors can also be used to detect the presence of an object or
its absence.

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  A position sensor is a sensor that facilitates measurement of mechanical
position.

Operating Principles:

 Optical position sensors operate using one of two principles. In the first type, light is
transmitted from an emitter and sent to a receiver at the other end of the sensor. In the
second type, the emitted light signal is reflected from the object being monitored returned
towards the light source.

 These sensors allow for the detection of metallic objects in front of the sensor head
without any physical contact of the object itself being detected.

 This makes them ideal for use in dirty or wet environments.

Applications:
 Position sensors are used across industries such as; automotive, medical, agriculture,
robotics, industrial processing etc.

2.6-Velocity, motion, force and pressure sensors:

Velocity sensors: -
 A velocity sensor is a sensor that responds to velocity rather than absolute
position.
 For example: Dynamic microphones are velocity receivers. Movement causes
the coil to move relative to the magnet, which in turn generates a voltage that
is proportional to the velocity of that movement.
 Likewise, many electronic keyboards used for music are velocity sensitive.

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 (Velocity sensors in robotics)
 There are two types of velocity sensor,
1) Moving coil.

2) Piezoelectric.

1) Moving coil:

 The moving coil contains a coil supported by springs and a permanently fixed
magnet and require no output signal amplifiers. Movement causes the coil to
move relative to the magnet, which in turn generates a voltage that is
proportional to the velocity of that movement.
2) Piezoelectric:
 Piezoelectric sensor are similar to a piezoelectric accelerometer, except that
the output of the device is proportional to the velocity of the transducer.

(Piezoelectric Velocity sensor)

USES: -
 Used in gas turbines, axial compressors, small and mid-size pumps.
 These sensors detect high frequency vibration signals related to bearing supports,
vibration in turbine/compressor vanes, ball bearings, noise in gears, etc.
Motion sensors: -
 A motion sensor is an electrical device that utilizes a sensor to detect nearby
motion.

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  Motion sensors are an important component of any security system. When a
sensor detects motion, it will send an alert to your security system.
 There are three types of motion sensors that are used frequently:

I. Passive Infrared (PIR),

II. Microwave
III. Dual Tech/Hybrid.

(A motion detector attached to an outdoor)

USES: -
 Motion sensor have found wide use in commercial applications.
 One common application is activating automatic door openers in businesses and
public buildings.
 They form a vital component of security, automated lighting control, home control,
and other useful systems.

Force sensors: -

• A Force Sensor is a sensor that helps in measuring the amount of force applied to an
object.

• By observing the amount of change in the resistance values of force-sensing resistors,

the applied force can be calculated.

 They are used to measure compression, force, strain and load.

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 (Force-Sensor)

 When a force is applied to a material, an electric charge is generated across the faces of
the crystal. This can be measured as a voltage proportional to the pressure . Given static
force results in a corresponding charge across the sensor.

USES: -
 Some of the applications of Force sensor that uses in musical instruments, as car-
occupancy sensors, in foot-pronation systems, augmented reality, etc.
Pressure sensors: -
 A pressure sensor is a device that senses pressure and converts it into an
electric signal.

(Pressure sensor for water pressure measurement)

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  A pressure sensor is a device equipped with a pressure-sensitive element that
measures the pressure of a gas or a liquid against a diaphragm made of stainless steel,
silicon, etc., and converts the measured value into an electrical signal as an output.
USES: -
 A pressure sensor is a device for pressure measurement of gases or liquids.

2.7- Temperature and light sensors:

Temperature sensors: -
 A temperature sensor is a device used to measure temperature. This can be air
temperature, liquid temperature or the temperature of solid matter.
 There are 2 different types of temperature sensors. Such as: -
1) Contact temperature sensors.

2) Non-contact temperature sensors.

1) Contact temperature sensors:

 In contact type temperature sensor, sensor is placed in contact with the measured
object .The measures the temperature when the heat of the contact surface/object is
balance .
 This kind of sensors includes thermocouples, resistance temperature detector (RTD)
and thermistors etc..

2) Non-contact temperature sensors:

 In a non-contact temperature sensor the infrared radiation emitted from the measured
objectThis radiation falls on sensor & equipvalent temperature is shown/displayed in
the sensor.So without any contact we can measure temperature of an object.
 A radiation temperature sensor belongs to this category.

(Room-temperature sensor)

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USES: -
 They can be used to detect temperatures of solids, liquids or gases.
 Motors– there are many different aspects of motors and most of these require
temperature measurement to ensure the motor itself does not overheat.
 Surface plates – ring terminal temperature sensors are often used on surface
plates as they can be mounted onto a flat surface and measure temperature
effectively.
Light sensors: -
 The light sensor is a passive device that converts the light energy into an
electrical signal output.
 Light sensors are more commonly known as Photoelectric Devices or Photo
Sensors because they convert light energy into an electronic signal.

Types of light sensor: -

 There are different types of light sensors available; mainly
1) Photoresistor.

2) Photodiodes.

3) Phototransistors.

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1. Photoresistors (LDR): -
 The most common light sensor type that’s used in a light sensor circuit are
photoresistors, also known as a light-dependent resistor (LDR).
 Photoresistors are used to simply detect whether a light is on or off and
compare relative light levels/intencity throughout a day.
 Photoresistors made of a high resistive Semiconductor material called
cadmium sulphide cells,which is highly sensitive to visible near-infrared light.

2. Photodiodes: -
 Photodiodes are another type of light sensor. But instead of using the change
in resistance like LDR, it’s more complex to light, easily changing light into a
flow of electric currents. It is also known as a photodetector, photo sensor.
 Photodiodes are mainly made from silicon and germanium materials.
 It is used in Solar energy systems such as solar panels.

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3. Phototransistors: -
 The phototransistor light sensor can be described as a photodiode + amplifier.
With the added amplification, light sensitivity is far better on the
phototransistors.
 However, it doesn’t far better in low light level detection as compared to
photodiodes. Since both light sensor types share a similar working principle.

USES: -
 The different types of light sensors can still be used in a variety of applications
as mentioned below:
1) Consumer electronics: -Behind your smartphone and tablets that allow for
auto screen brightness adjustments. it’s a light sensor that measures the light
level of your surroundings and determines the suitable brightness of your
screen.

2) Automobiles: -It is used in automobiles to support the driver’s field of vision.

The present light sensor detects surrounding ambient light, and if it’s getting
too dark then it’ll automatically turn on light systems.

3) Security applications: -Commonly used in circuits for shipment purpose,

light sensors are connected to circuits and placed inside as it can detect
whenever a container is open due to the change in light exposure.

 Medical applications such as equipment/instruments used for measuring and

analysis purposes.

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 SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
1)Define transducers? Write the types of transducers?

Ans: A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another.

 Basically, the two different types of Transducers are: -

1) Mechanical Transducers.

2)Electrical Transducers.

2) Define Sensor? (2020, W)

Ans: A sensor is a device, or subsystem whose purpose is to detect events or

changes in its environment and send the information to another electronics
device or a computer processor.

3) Define Temperature sensors & its types?

Ans: A temperature sensor is a device used to measure temperature. This can be

air temperature, liquid temperature or the temperature of solid matter.
 There are 2 different types of temperature sensors. Such as: -
1) Contact temperature sensors.

2) Non-contact temperature sensors.

4) Define Pressure sensors?

Ans: A pressure sensor is a device that senses pressure and converts it into an
electric signal where the amount depends upon the pressure applied.

5) Define Velocity sensors with examples?

Ans: A velocity sensor is a sensor that responds to velocity rather than absolute
position.

 For example, dynamic microphones are velocity sensor. Likewise, many

electronic keyboards used for music are velocity sensitive.

6) Define Motion sensors?

Ans: A motion sensor is an electrical device that utilizes a sensor to detect

nearby motion.

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  They form a vital component of security, automated lighting control,
home control, energy efficiency, and other useful systems.
7) Define Force sensors?

Ans: A Force Sensor is a sensor that helps in measuring the amount of force
applied to an object.

 By observing the amount of change in the resistance values of force-

sensing resistors, the applied force can be calculated.
8) Define Light sensors? Give two examples of it.

Ans: The light sensor is a passive device that converts the light energy into an
electrical signal output. Light sensors are more commonly known as
Photoelectric Devices or Photo Sensors because they convert light energy into
electronic signal.

 There are different types of light sensors available; mainly

1) Photoresistor.

2) Photodiodes.

9) Define Displacement Sensor?

Ans: A displacement sensor is used to measure travel range between where an

object is and a reference position.

 Displacement sensors can be used for dimension measurement to

determine an object's height, thickness, and width in addition to travel
range.
10)Define Electromechanical Transducer?

Ans: Electromechanical Transducer is a device for converting mechanical

motion into variations of an electric current or voltage (electric signals) and vice
versa.

POSSIBLE LONG TYPE QUESTIONS

1) Explain Electromechanical Transducer. (2020,W)

2) Define light sensor? Explain types of light sensor. (2020,W)
3) Explain Temperature sensors with its application. (2020,W)
4) Explain Velocity sensors with its application.
5) Explain Motion sensors with its application.

6) Explain Transducers Actuating Mechanisms. 15 | P a g e

 Chapter no.3 (A)
ACTUATORS - Mechanical
Learning Objective
3.1Mechanical Actuators

3.1.1 Machine, Kinematic Link, Kinematic Pair

3.1.2 Mechanism, Slider crank Mechanism

3.1.3 Gear Drive, Spur gear, Bevel gear, Helical gear, worm gear

3.1.4 Belt & Belt drive

3.1.5 Bearings

3.1 Mechanical Actuators

3.1.1 Machine, Kinematic Link, Kinematic Pair

Mechanical actuators or mechanisms :

Mechanical actuators or mechanisms are devices which can be considered to be motion
converters in that they transform motion from one form to some other required form .For
example they might transform linear motion into rotational motion, or motion in one direction
,or a motion in a direction at right angles ,or perhaps a linear reciprocating motion into rotary
motion ,as in the IC engine where the reciprocating motion of the pistons is converted into
rotation of work and hence the drive shaft .

Machine:- A machine is a mechanism or a combination of mechanisms which , apart from

imparting definite motions to the parts ,also transmits and modifies the available mechanical
energy into some kind of desired work .It is neither a source of energy nor a producer of work
but helps in proper utilization of the same .The motive power has to be derived from external
sources .

Or, It is a device by means of which available energy can be converted into desired form of
useful work .

Example - A slider-crank mechanism converts the reciprocating motion of a slider into rotary
motion of the crank or vice-versa .However ,when it is used as an automobile engine by adding
valve mechanism ,etc. ,it becomes a machine which converts available energy (force on the
piston)into the desired energy (torque of crank shaft) .

Mechanical elements can include the use of linkages, cams ,gears ,rack and pinion , chains
,belt drives ,etc .For example ,the rack and pinion can be used to convert rotational motion to
linear motion . Parallel shaft gears might be used to reduce a shaft speed .Bevel gears might be
used for the transmission of rotary motion through 90 degree .

Many of the action which previously were obtained by the use of mechanisms are ,however ,
often now -a -days being obtained , as a result of a mechatronics approach ,by the use of
microprocessor systems .

Kinematics
The term kinematics is used for the study of motion without regard to forces . When we consider
just the motions without any consideration of the forces or energy involved then we are carrying
out a kinematic analysis of the mechanism .

Kinematic link :-
 A mechanism is made of number of resistant bodies out which some may have motions
relative to the other .A resistant body or a group of resistant bodies with rigid connections
preventing their relative movement is known as a link .
 A link may also be defined as a member or a combination of members of a mechanism
,connecting other members and having motion relative to them .Thus , a link may consist
of one or more resistant bodies .
 A link is also known as kinematic link or element .
 Links can be classified into binary ,ternary and quaternary depending upon their ends on
which revolute or turning pairs can be placed .
Kinematic Pair
A kinematic pair or simply a pair is a joint of two links having relative motion between them .In
a slider crank mechanism as shown in figure bellow the link 2 rotates relative to the link 1 and
constitutes a revolute or turning pair .Similarly , link 2 ,3 and 3,4 constitute turning pairs .Link 4
(slider) reciprocates relative to the link 1 and is a sliding pair .

Types of Kinematic Pairs:-

Kinematic pairs can be classified according to

 Nature of contact
 Nature of mechanical constraint
 Nature of relative motion

Kinematic pairs according to nature of contact:-

 Lower pair
A pair of links having surface or area contact between the members is known as a
lower pair. Ex-Nut turning on a screw ,shaft rotating in a bearing etc.
 Higher pair
A pair of links having point or line contact between the links ,it is known as a
higher pair .Ex-cam and follower pair ,tooth gears etc.

Kinematic pairs according to nature of mechanical constraint :-

 Closed pair
When the elements of pair are held together mechanically .
 Unclosed pair
 When two links of pair are in contact either due to force of gravity or some spring
action ,they constitute an enclosed pair .

Kinematic pairs according to nature of relative motion:-

 Sliding pair :-If two links have a sliding motion relative to each other ,they form
a sliding pair .
 Turning pair :-When one link has a turning or revolving motion relative to other
they form turning pair.
 Rolling pair :-When the links of pair have rolling motion relative to each other ,
they form rolling pair .
 Screw pair :-If two mating links have a turning as well as sliding motion
between them ,they form a screw pair
 Spherical pair :-When one link in the form of sphere turns inside a fixed link , it
is a spherical pair .

3.1.2 Mechanism Slider-crank mechanism:-

This form of mechanism consists of a crank , a connecting rod and a slider and the type of
mechanism described in above figure which showed the simple engine mechanism .With that
configuration ,link 1 is fixed ,i.e. there is no relative movement between the center of rotation
of the crank and the housing in which the piston slides . Link 2 is the crank that rotates ,link 3 the
connecting rod and link 4 the slider which moves relative to the fixed link .

3.1.3 Gears
Gear trains are mechanisms which are very widely used to transfer and transform rotational
motion .They are used when a change in speed or torque of a rotating device is needed .For
example , the car gearbox enables the driver to match the speed and torque requirements of the
terrain with the engine power available .

Gears:-
 Parallel shaft axes gears (example :- 1. Spur gears 2. Helical gears 3. Rack and pinion
4.Internal gears
 Intersecting shaft axes gears (example :- Bevel gears )
 Non-intersecting and perpendicular shaft axes gears (example:-Worm gears)
 Non-intersecting and Non perpendicular shaft axes gears (example :-spiral gears )
 Gears can be used for the transmission of rotary motion between parallel shafts in above
figure and for shafts which have axes inclined to another above figure .
 The term bevel gears is used when the lines of the shafts intersect as in above figure
.When two gears are in mesh ,the larger gear wheel is often called the spur or crown
wheel and the smaller on the pinion .
 Gears for use with parallel shafts may have axial teeth with the teeth cut along axial lines
parallel to the axis of the shaft (as shown in figure).Such gears are then termed spur
gears .
 Alternatively they may have helical teeth with the teeth being cut on a helix as shown in
figure and are then termed helical gear gears .Helical gears have the advantage that there
is a gradual engagement of any individual tooth and consequently there is a smoother
drive and general prolonged life of the gears . However ,the inclination of the teeth to the
axis of the shaft result in an axial force component on the shaft bearing . This can be
overcome by using double helical teeth .
Gear trains:-
The term gear train is used to describe a series of intermeshed gear wheels .The term simple gear
train is used for system where each shaft carries only one gear wheel as shown in figure bellow
.For such a gear train ,the overall gear ratio is the ratio of the angular velocities at the input and
output shafts .
3.1.4 Belt and Belt drives:-

 Belt drives are essentially just a pair of rolling cylinders with the motion of one cylinder
being transferred to the other by a belt as above figure . Belt drives use the friction that
develops between the pulleys attached to the shafts and the belt around the arc of contact
in order to transmit a torque .Since the transfer relies on frictional forces then slip can
occur .
 The transmitted torque is due to the differences in tension that occur in the belt during
operation .This differences results in a tight side and a slack side of the belt .
 As a method of transmitting power between two shafts ,belt drives have the advantage
that the length of the belt can easily be adjusted to suit a wide range of shaft-to-shaft
distances and the system is automatically protected against overload because slipping
occurs if the loading exceeds the maximum tension that can be sustained by frictional
forces .
 If the distances between shafts is large , a belt drive is more suitable than gears ,but over
small distances gear are to be preferred .Different size pulleys can be used to give a
gearing effect .However ,the gear ratio is limited to about 3 because of the need to
maintain an adequate arc of contact between the belt and pulleys .
  The power from one pulley to another may be transmitted either by open belt drive or
crossed belt drive .The open belt drive is used with shafts arranged parallel and rotating
in the same direction .The crossed belt drive is used with shafts arranged parallel and
rotating in opposite directions .
 The velocity ratio of a belt drive is the ratio between the velocities of the driver and the
follower or driven . Due to slip of belt of belt , the velocity ratio of the belt drive
decreases .

Types of belts :-
 Flat
The belt has a rectangular cross-section .Such a drive has an efficiency of about
98% and produces little noise .They can transmit power over long distances
between pulley centres . Crowned pulleys are used to keep the belt from running
off the pulleys .
 Round
The belt has a circular cross-section and is used with grooved pulleys .
 V
V-belts are used with grooved pulleys and are less efficient than flat belts but a
number of them can be used on a single wheel and so give a multiple drive .
 Timing
Timing belts require toothed wheels , having teeth which fit into the grooves on
the wheels . The timing belt , unlike the other belts , does not stretch or slip and
consequently transmits power at a constant angular velocity ratio . The teeth
make it possible for the belt to be run at slow or fast speed .
3.1.5 Bearings :-
 Whenever there is relative motion of one surface in contact with another ,either by
rotating or sliding ,the resulting frictional forces generate heat which wastes energy and
results in wear .The function of a bearing is to guide with minimum friction and
maximum accuracy the movement of one part relative to another .
 The term thrust bearing is used for bearing that are designed to withstand forces along the
axis of a shaft when the relative motion is primarily rotation .The following sections
outline the characteristics of commonly used forms of bearings .

Plain journal bearings:-

Journal bearings are used to support rotating shafts which are loaded in a radial direction ; the
term journal is used for a shaft .The bearing basically consists of an insert of some suitable
material which is fitted between the shaft and the support as shown in figure bellow
Rotation of the shaft results in its surface sliding over that of the bearing surface .The insert
provides lower friction and less wear than if the shaft just rotated in a hole in the support .The
bearing may be a dry rubbing bearing or lubricated .

1. Hydrodynamic
The hydrodynamic journal bearing consists of the shaft rotating continuously in oil in
such a way that it rides on oil and is not supported by metal .The load is carried by the
pressure generated in the oil as result of the shaft rotating .
2. Hydrostatic
A problem with hydrodynamic lubrication is that the shaft only rides on oil when it is
rotating and when at rest there is metal-to-metal contact .To avoid excessive wear at
start-up and when there is only a low load , oil is pumped into the load-bearing area at a
high-enough pressure to lift the shaft off the metal when at rest .
3. Solid-film
This is a coating of a solid material such as graphite or molybdenum disulphide .
4. Boundary layer
This is a thin layer of lubricant which adheres to the surface of the bearing.

Ball and roller bearings:-

With this type of bearing ,the main load is transferred from the rotating shaft to its support by
rolling contact rather than sliding contact .A rolling element bearing consists of four main
elements : an inner race ,an outer race ,the rolling element of either balls or rollers and a cage to
keep the rolling element apart as shown in figure bellow .Inner and outer races contain hardened
tracks in which the rolling elements roll .
 Basic elements of a ball bearing

There are a number of forms of ball bearings .

1. Deep-groove:-
This is good at withstanding radial loads but is only moderately good for axial loads .It is
versatile bearing which can be used with a wide range of load and speed .
2. Filling-slot:-
This is able to withstand higher radial loads than the deep-groove equivalent but cannot
be used when there are axial loads .
3. Angular contact:-
This is good for both radial and axial loads and is better for axial loads than the deep-
groove equivalent .
4. Double –row :-
Double-row ball bearing are made in a number of types and are able to withstand higher
radial loads than their single-row equivalents .The figure shows a double-row deep-
groove ball bearing ,their being double-row versions of each of the above single-row
types .
5. Self- aligning:-
Single-row bearings can be withstand a small amount of shaft misalignment but where
there can be sever misalignment a self-aligning bearing is used . This is able to withstand
only moderate radial loads and is fairly poor for axial loads .
6. Thrust ,grooved race:-
These are designed to withstand axial loads but are not suitable for radial loads .

There are also a number of forms of roller bearing ,the following being common examples .
 1. Straight roller:-
This is better for radial loads than equivalent ball bearing but is not generally suitable for
axial load . They will carry a greater load than ball bearings of the same size because of
their greater contact area .However ,they are not tolerant of misalignment .
2. Taper roller:-
This is good for radial loads and good in one direction for axial loads .
3. Needle roller:-
This has a roller with a high length /diameter ratio and tends to be used in situations
where there is insufficient space for the equivalent ball or roller bearing

SHORT QUESTION AND ANSWER

Q.1 What is Mechanical actuators ?

Ans :- Mechanical actuators or mechanisms are devices which can be considered to be motion
converters in that they transform motion from one form to some other required form .For
example they might transform linear motion into rotational motion, or motion in one direction
,or a motion in a direction at right angles ,or perhaps a linear reciprocating motion into rotary
motion ,as in the IC engine where the reciprocating motion of the pistons is converted into
rotation of work and hence the drive shaft .

Q.2 What is the function of a bearing ?

Ans :- Whenever there is relative motion of one surface in contact with another ,either by
rotating or sliding ,the resulting frictional forces generate heat which wastes energy and results in
wear .The function of a bearing is to guide with minimum friction and maximum accuracy the
movement of one part relative to another .

Q. 3 What is Gear trains ?

Ans :-Gear trains are mechanisms which are very widely used to transfer and transform
rotational motion .They are used when a change in speed or torque of a rotating device is needed
.For example , the car gearbox enables the driver to match the speed and torque requirements of
the terrain with the engine power available .

Q.4 State the function of an actuator ? [2020 (w) New ]

Ans :- Actuators produce physical changes such as linear and angular displacement . They also
modulate the rate and power associated with these changes .

Q.5 Define Kinematic link ? [2020 (w) New ]

Ans :- Kinematic link is a resistant body or an assembly of resistant bodies which go to make a
part or parts of a machine connecting other parts which have motion relative to it .

Q. Define spur gear ? [2020 (w) New ]

Ans :- A Spur gear is a gear wheel or Pinion for transmitting motion between two parallel shafts
.The teeth are cast or machined parallel with the axis of rotation of the gear .

LONG QUESTIONS
Q.1 What are is a bearing ? How are bearings classified ?

Q.2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of toothed gearing ?

Q.3 What is Mechanical actuators ? List various types of Mechanical actuators

Q.4 Give a brief description about Bolt and Belt drive mechanism ? [2020 (w) New ]

Q.5 Classify the different types of Kinematic Pair . Explain working principle of Slider crank
mechanism with neat Sketch ? [2020 (w) New ]

Q. Calculate the velocity ratio and the output speed of the driver pulley on a Lawn mower belt
and pulley , where the input speed is 300 rpm and diameter of driver pulley is 150 mm and
diameter of driven pulley is 15 mm ? [2020 (w) New ]
 CHAPTER -3 (B)
ACTUATORS – ELECTRICAL
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

3.2.1-Switch & relay

3.2.2- Solenoid
3.2.3- D.C Motors
3.2.4- A.C Motors
3.2.5- Stepper Motors
3.2.6- Specification and control of stepper motors
3.2.7- Servo Motors D.C & A.C
Introduction: -
Actuator: -
 The moving part that applies the operating force to the contacts is called the actuator.

3.2.1- Switches and relay:

Switches: -
 In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can disconnect or
connect the conducting path in an electrical circuit.
 The most common type of switch is an electromechanical device consisting of one or
more sets of movable electrical contacts connected to external circuits.
 When a pair of contacts is touching current can pass between them, while when the
contacts are separated no current can flow.
 Pn junction diode can act as a switch.

 There are many types of switches, such as:

1. Biased switches: -
  A switch normally maintains its set position once operated. A biased switch contains a
mechanism that springs it into another position when released by an operator.

2. Rotary switch: -
 A rotary switch operates with a twisting motion of the operating handle with at least
two positions.

3. Toggle switch: -
 A toggle switch or tumbler switch is a class of electrical switches that are manually
actuated by a mechanical lever, handle, or rocking mechanism.

A toggle switch in the "on" position

Relay: -
 A relay is an electrically operated switch. It consists of a set of input terminals for a
single or multiple control signals, and a set of operating contact terminals.
 The switch may have any number of contacts in multiple contact forms, such as make
contacts, break contacts, or combinations thereof.
 (Simple electromechanical relay )
Applications:-
 Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by an independent low-power
signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.
 Relays were first used in long-distance telegraph circuits as signal repeaters.
 Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and computers to perform
logical operations.
 Relays are used wherever it is necessary to control a high power or high voltage
circuit with a low power circuit.
3.2.2- Solenoid:
Solenoid: -
 Solenoid a coil of wire wrapped tightly around a cylinder.
 Within the coils,a strong magnetic field arises whenever current is run through the
wire.
 The direction of the magnetic field depends on the direction of the current.
 Working principle of Solenoid: -
 A solenoid is a coil of wire in a corkscrew shape wrapped around a piston, often
made of iron. A magnetic field is created when an electric current pass through the
wire.

 Electromagnets have an advantage over permanent magnets, they can be switched

on and off by the application or removal of the electric current, which allows them
to be entirely automated.
 Like all magnets, the magnetic field of an activated solenoid has positive and
negative poles that will attract or repel material sensitive to magnets.
 In a solenoid, the electromagnetic field causes the piston to either move backward
or forward, in this way a motion is created by a solenoid coil.
Electric Solenoids: -
 In an automobile ignition system, the starter solenoid acts as a relay, bringing
metal contacts into place to close a circuit.
 The starter solenoid receives a small electric current when the car's ignition is
activated, usually by the turn of the key.
 The magnetic field of the solenoid then pulls on the contacts, closing the
circuit between the car's battery and the starter motor.
 The starter solenoid requires a constant flow of electricity in order to maintain
the circuit, but because the engine is self-powering once started, the solenoid
is inactive for most of the time.
Uses of solenoid: -
1. It is used in hotel door locks.
2. Water-pressure valves in air- conditioning system.

3. Power plants, car, microphones etc.

3.2.3-D.C Motors:
D.C Motors: -
 The DC motor is the device which converts the direct current into the
mechanical work.
DC Motor Principle: -
 DC motor working is based on the principle that when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a
mechanical force.
 The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule and magnitude
is given by;
{F = BIL Newtons}
 The F (Thumb) represents the direction of Force of the conductor
 The B (Forefinger) represents the direction of the Magnetic field
 The I (Centre finger) represent the direction of the Current.

Fleming Left Hand Rule: -

 According to Fleming’s left-hand rule when an electric current pass through a
coil in a magnetic field, the magnetic force produces a torque that turns the
 DC motor. The direction of this force is perpendicular to both the wire and the
magnetic field.
 If the thumb, middle finger and the index finger of the left hand are displaced
from each other by an angle of 90°, the middle finger represents the direction
of the magnetic field. The index finger represents the direction of the current,
and the thumb shows the direction of forces acting on the conductor.

Construction of DC Motor: -

 Before understanding the working of DC motor first, we have to know

about their construction.
 The armature and stator are the two main parts of the DC motor. The
armature is the rotating part, and the stator is their stationary part. The
armature coil is connected to the DC supply.
  The armature coil consists of the commutators and brushes. The
commutators convert the AC induces in the armature into DC and brushes
transfer the current from rotating part of the motor to the stationary
external load.
 The armature is placed between the north and south pole of the permanent
or electromagnet.

Working-principle-of-DC-motor: -
 Consider a part of a multipolar DC motor as shown in the figure below.
When the terminals of the motor are connected to an external source of
DC supply,the field magnets are excited developing alternate North and
South poles the armature conductors carry currents.

 All conductors under North-pole carry currents in one direction while all
the conductors under South-pole carry currents in the opposite direction.
 The armature conductors under N-pole carry currents (denoted as ⊗ in
the figure). And the conductors under S-pole carry currents (denoted as ⨀
in the figure).
 Since each armature conductor is carrying current and is placed in the
magnetic field, a mechanical force act on it.
 On applying Fleming’s left-hand rule, it is clear that force on each
conductor is tending to rotate the armature in the anticlockwise direction.
All these forces add together to produce a driving torque which sets the
armature rotates.
 When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to the other, the
current in that conductor is reversed. At the same time, it comes under the
influence of the next pole which is of opposite polarity. Consequently, the
direction of the force on the conductor remains the same.
  It should be noted that the function of a commutator in the motor is the
same as in a generator. By reversing current in each conductor as it passes
from one pole to another, it helps to develop a continuous and
unidirectional torque.

Types of DC Motors: -
 There are 4 main types of DC motors:
a. Permanent Magnet DC Motors: -
 The permanent magnet motor uses a permanent magnet to create field
flux. This type of DC motor provides great starting torque and has good
speed regulation, but torque is limited so they are typically found on low
horsepower applications.

b. Series DC Motors: -
 In a series DC motor, the field is wound with a few turns of a large wire
carrying the full armature current. Typically, series DC motors create a
large amount of starting torque, but cannot regulate speed and can even be
damaged by running with no load. These limitations mean that they are
not a good option for variable speed drive applications.

c. Shunt DC Motors: -
 In shunt DC motors the field is connected in parallel (shunt) with the
armature windings. These motors offer great speed regulation due to the
fact that the shunt field can be excited separately from the armature
windings, which also offers simplified reversing controls.

d. Compound DC Motors: -
 Compound DC motors, like shunt DC motors, have a separately excited
shunt field. Compound DC motors have good starting torque but may
experience control problems in variable speed drive applications.
Uses of DC Motor: -
 Computer.
 Refrigerator, Microwave oven.
 Washing machine, Vacuum cleaner.
 Electric fan etc.
3.2.4-A.C Motors
A.C Motors: -
 The motor that converts the alternating current into mechanical power by
using an electromagnetic induction phenomenon is called an AC motor.
 This motor is driven by an alternating current. The stator and the rotor are
the two most important parts of the AC motors.

Construction of AC Motor: -
 It consists of a Frame or Yoke, stator, rotor, bearings, fan, shaft, and slip
rings. The parts of an AC machine are explained below.

(Parts of Motor)
 The frame is used as an outer protecting cover that is used to protect
against environmental conditions. The frame also acts as an outer
periphery such that the inner parts can be easily housed.
 The stable state section of the equipment is stator on which the stator
winding is enclosed. The cross-sectional view of the AC machine is
depicted below.
 (Cross-Sectional View)
 The rotor is the moving part that either move in clockwise or anti-
clockwise depending upon thrust impelled on it. The bearings provide
proper friction for the rotor to run smoothly.
 A fan is employed to remove the unwanted heat that gained during the
running of the rotor. It is expelled out through the ventilation that is
provided behind the machine.
 A shaft is provided to deliver the mechanical output as the rotor rotates.
The slips rings are employed for a normal Ac machine where rotating
armature stationary field winding is employed. In this situation, the slip
rings allow the input alternating current to change continuously in the
coils.
Working Principle of AC Motor: -
 It works on the principle of Lorentz force equation I,e whenever a
current-carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field it exhibits some
force in it. The working of a normal AC machine with the rotating
armature and stationary field winding is shown in the figure below.

(AC Machine Working Diagram)

  When alternating current supply is fed to the coil of the rotor, it
experiences some force due to the law of the Lorentz force equation. Due
to this force, torque will be developed in the clockwise direction that
enables the rotor to rotate.
 A normal AC machine has its field winding on the stator and armature
winding rotor. But due to this the size of the motor increases and also due
to commutator and brushes, the efficiency of the machine decreases.
 So, to avoid these problems, the proper arrangement is made for the
housing of stator and rotor windings on the armature.
 This placement has great advantages compared to the rotating armature
type. Almost all the industrial machines used are of stationary armature
type.

Types of AC motor: -
 There are several types of AC motor based on the speed they are
classified as:
1)Synchronous motor.

2) Asynchronous motor.

 The Asynchronous motor is also known as an induction motor.

 The synchronous motor runs at a constant speed I.e., synchronous speed.
But an asynchronous motor run at a speed less than that of synchronous
speed.
 The induction motor is further classified into single-phase, and three-
phase induction motors.
 The classification of AC motors is illustrated below.
Uses of AC motor: -
 It is used in mixer grinders, pumps, and household appliances.
 Used in industries.
3.2.5-Stepper Motors:
Stepper Motors: -
 A stepper motor is an electromechanical device it converts electrical power
into mechanical power.

(Stepper Motor)
Types of Stepper Motor: -
 There are three main types of stepper motors, they are:
1)Permanent magnet stepper.

2)Hybrid synchronous stepper.

3)Variable reluctance stepper.

1)Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor:

 Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in the rotor and
operate on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor PM and the stator
electromagnets.
2)Hybrid Synchronous Stepper Motor:
 Hybrid stepper motors are named because they use a combination of
permanent magnet (PM) and variable reluctance (VR) techniques to achieve
maximum power in small package size.
3)Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor:
 Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a plain iron rotor and operate based on
the principle that minimum reluctance occurs with minimum gap, hence the
rotor points are attracted toward the stator magnet poles.
Working Principle of Stepper Motor: -
 As all with electric motors, stepper motors have a stationary part (the stator)
and a moving part (the rotor). On the stator, there are teeth on which coils are
wired, while the rotor is either a permanent magnet or a variable reluctance
iron core.
 Figure 1 shows a drawing representing the section of the motor is shown,
where the rotor is a variable-reluctance iron core.

(Figure 1: Cross-Section of a Stepper Motor)

 The basic working principle of the stepper motor is the following: By energizing one
or more of the stator phases, a magnetic field is generated by the current flowing in
the coil and the rotor aligns with this field.
 By supplying different phases in sequence, the rotor can be rotated by a specific
amount to reach the desired final position. Figure 2 shows a representation of the
working principle.
 At the beginning, coil A is energized and the rotor is aligned with the magnetic field it
produces. When coil B is energized, the rotor rotates clockwise by 60° to align with
the new magnetic field.
  The same happens when coil C is energized. In the pictures, the errow of the stator
teeth indicate the direction of the magnetic field generated by the stator winding.

(Figure 2: Stepper Motor Steps)

3.2.6-Specification and control of stepper motors:
a) Name of stepper motor: Permanent magnet
b) Drive system: unipolar
c) Phase/winding:4 phase/2 phase winding
d) Voltage rating:12vdc
e) Current rating:400ma
f) Holding torque:2000g-cm
g) Weight:0.24kg
h) Power rating:5W
i) Step angle:1.80 full step

Applications:
 It is used in:

1. CNC machines
2. Pick&place machines
3. Printing machines
4. Laser cutters
5. 3-D printing machines
6. Roborts etc.
3.2.7-Servo Motors D.C & A.C:
Servo Motor: -
 Servo Motor are also called Control motors. They are used in feedback control
systems as output actuators and does not use for continuous energy conversion.
 The principle of the Servomotor is similar to that of the other electromagnetic motor,
but the construction and the operation are different.
 The rotor inertia of the motors is low and have a high speed of response. The rotor of
the Motor has the long length and smaller diameter. They operate at very low speed
and sometimes even at the zero speed.
Applications of the Servo Motor: -
 They are used in Radar system and process controller.
 Servomotors are used in computers and robotics.
 They are also used in machine tools.
 Tracking and guidance systems.
Classification of Servo Motor: -
 They are classified as
I. AC Servo Motor.

II. DC Servo Motor.

I. AC Servo Motor: -
 The AC servomotor is further divided into two types:
A. Two Phase AC Servo Motor.

B. Three Phase AC Servo Motor.

  The AC Servo Motors are divided into two types 2 and 3 Phase AC servomotor. Most
of the AC servomotor are of the two-phase squirrel cage induction motor type. They
are used for low power applications.
 The three-phase squirrel cage induction motor is now utilised for the applications
where high-power system is required.
II.DC Servo Motor: -
 DC Servo Motors are separately excited DC motor or permanent magnet DC motors.
The figure (a) shows the connection of Separately Excited DC Servo motor and the
figure (b) shows the armature MMF and the excitation field MMF in quadrature in a
DC machine.

 This provides a fast torque response because torque and flux are decoupled.
Therefore, a small change in the armature voltage or current brings a significant shift
in the position or speed of the rotor. Most of the high-power servo motors are mainly
DC.
 SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
1) Define Actuator?
Ans: The moving part that applies the operating force to the contacts is called
the actuator.

2) Define Switches?
Ans: In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can
disconnect or connect the conducting path in an electrical circuit.

3) Define Relay? 2020(W)

Ans: A relay is an electrically operated switch. It consists of a set of input
terminals for a single or multiple control signals, and a set of operating contact
terminals.

4) Define Solenoid? 2020(W)

 Ans: Solenoid is a coil of wire wrapped tightly around a cylinder.
Within the coils,a strong magnetic field arises whenever current is run
through the wire.
5) Define Stepper Motors? How many types of stepper motors are
there?
Ans: A stepper motor is an electromechanical device it converts electrical
power into mechanical power.

 There are three main types of stepper motors, they are:

1)Permanent magnet stepper.
2)Hybrid synchronous stepper.
3)Variable reluctance stepper
6) Define Servo Motor?
Ans: Servo Motor are also called Control motors. They are used in feedback
control systems as output actuators and does not use for continuous energy
conversion.

POSSIBLE LONG TYPE QUESTIONS

1) Explain the basic principle of DC motor. 2020(W)
2) Explain the basic principle of AC motor.
3) Explain working Principle of Stepper Motor.
4) Explain working principle of Solenoid.
5) Explain Electrical Actuator & the working of electrical solenoid with
its applications. 2020(W)
 CHAPTER -4.0
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS(PLC)
Learning objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Advantages of PLC
4.3: Selection and uses of PLC
4.4-Architecture basic internal structures:
4.5-Input/output Processing and Programming
4.6-Mnemonics
4.7-Master and Jump Controllers
4.1 Introduction
What Is a PLC?
 PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controllers. They are basically used to
control automated systems in industries.
 They are one of the most advanced and simplest forms of control systems
which are now replacing hard-wired logic relays at a large scale.

4.2 Advantages of PLC

Advantages of PLC: -
 They are user friendly and easy to operate.
 They eliminate the need for hard-wired relay logic.
 They are fast.
  It is suitable for automation in industries.
 Its input and output modules can be extended depending upon the
requirements.

4.3: Selection and uses of PLC

PLC Selection Criteria

 System (task) requirements.

 Application requirements.
 What input/output capacity is required?
 What type of inputs/outputs are required?
 What size of memory is required?
 What speed is required of the CPU?
 Electrical requirements.
 Speed of operation.
 Communication requirements.
 Software.
 Operator interface.
 Physical environments.

System requirements

 The starting point in determining any solution must be to understand what is to be

achieved.
 The program design starts with breaking down the task into a number of simple
understandable elements, each of which can be easily
described.

Application requirements

 Input and output device requirements. After determining the operation of the system,
the next step is to determine what input and
output devices the system requires.
 List the function required and identify a specific type of device.
 The need for special operations in addition to discrete (On/Off) logic.
 List the advanced functions required beside simple discrete logic.

Electrical Requirements

 The electrical requirements for inputs, outputs, and system power; When determining
the electrical requirements of a system, consider three items:

– Incoming power (power for the control system);

– Input device voltage; and

– Output voltage and current.

Speed of Operation
  How fast the control system must operate (speed of operation).
 When determining speed of operation, consider these points:

– How fast does the process occur or machine operate?

– Are there “time critical” operations or events that must be detected?
– In what time frame must the fastest action occur (input device detection to output device
activation)?
– Does the control system need to count pulses from an encoder or flow-meter and respond
quickly?

Communication

 If the application requires sharing data outside the process, i.e. communication.
Communication involves sharing application data or status with another electronic
device, such as a computer or a monitor in an operator’s station.
 Communication can take place locally through a twisted-pair wire, or remotely via
telephone or radio modem.

Operator Interface

 If the system needs operator control or interaction. In order to convey information about
machine or process status, or to allow an operator to input data, many applications
require operator interfaces.
 Traditional operator interfaces include pushbuttons, pilot lights and LED numeric
display. Electronic operator interface devices display messages about machine status in
descriptive text, display part count and track alarms. Also, they can be used for data
input.

Physical Environment

 The physical environment in which the control system will be located. Consider the
environment where the control system will be located. In harsh environments, house
the control system in an appropriate IP-rated enclosure.

Uses of PLC
 PLCs communicate, monitor and control automated processes like assembly lines,
machine functions, or robotic devices. A PLC's functions are divided into three main
categories: inputs, outputs and the CPU. PLCs capture data from the plant floor by
monitoring inputs that machines and devices are connected to.

4.4-Architecture basic internal structures

PLC Architecture: -
 (PLC Internal Architecture)
A basic PLC system consists of the following sections:

 Input/ Output Section:

•The input section consists of devices like sensors, switches, and many other input
sources. The input from the sources is connected to the PLC through the input connector
rails. The output section can be a motor or a solenoid, whose functioning is controlled by
varying the input signals.

 CPU or Central Processing Unit:

•It is the brain of the PLC. It can be a hexagonal or an octal microprocessor. It carries
out all the processing related to the input signals in order to control the output signals based
on the control program.

 Programming Device:
•It is the platform where the program or the control logic is written. It can be a laptop
or a computer itself.

 Power Supply:
•It generally works on a power supply of about 24 V, used to power input and output
devices.

 Memory:
•The memory is divided into two parts- The data memory and the program memory.
The program information or the control logic is stored in the program memory from where
the CPU fetches the program instructions. The input and output signals and the timer and
counter signals are stored in the data memory.
 (Working of a PLC)

4.5-Input/output Processing and Programming

Programming in PLC: -
•The basic functioning of the PLC relies on the control logic or the programming
technique used.
•Programming can be done using flowcharts or using mnemonics.
•let us see how we can actually write a program in PLC.
•A flowchart is the symbolic representation of the instructions. It is the most basic and
simplest form of control logic which involves only logic decisions.
Different symbols are as given below:

 Write the Boolean expression for the different logic:

Boolean algebra usually involves logic operations like AND, OR, NOT, NAND and
NOR. The different symbols are:
 + OR operator
 . AND operator
 ! NOT operator.

 Write the instructions in simple statement forms like below:

IF Input1 AND Input2 Then SET Output1 ELSE SET Output

4.6-Mnemonics
 Writing Mnemonics:
• Mnemonics are instructions written in symbolic form. They are also known as
Opcode and are used in handheld programming devices. Different Symbols are as given
below:
 Ldi – Load Inverse
 Ld- Load
 AND- And the logic
 OR- Or logic
 ANI – NAND logic
  ORI- NOR logic
 Out – Output

4.7-Master and Jump Controllers

 Master Control/ Master Control Reset (MC/MCR):
•When large numbers of outputs have to be controlled, it is sometimes
necessary for whole sections of program to be turned on or off when certain criteria
are realized. This could be achieved by including an MCR instruction. An MCR
instruction is an output instruction.
•The master control instruction typically is used in pairs with a master control
reset. Different formats are used by different manufacturers:
 MC/MCR (master control/master control reset),
 MCS/MCR (master control set/master control reset) or
 MCR (master control reset).

 Jump Instructions:

•The JUMP instructions allow to break the rung sequence and move the
program execution from one rung to another or to a subroutine. The Jump is a
controlled output instruction.
 You can jump forward or backward.
 You can use multiple jump to the same label.
 Jumps within jumps are possible
There are:
1. Jump to Label. 2.Jump to subroutine.

Problem:
 Design a simple line follower robotic system to start a motor when a switch is on and
simultaneously switch on the LED. The sensor on the motor detects any obstacle and
another switch is on to indicate the presence of the obstacle and the motor is
simultaneously switched off and the buzzer is switched on and LED is off.
Solution:
 Let us first assign our symbols or tags to the inputs and outputs
 M – Motor,
 A – Input Switch 1,
 B- Input Switch 2,
 L – LED,
 Bu –Buzzer
 Now let us design the Flow Chart
 Next Step is writing the Boolean expressions
 M = A. (! B)
 L = C. (! B)
 Bu = B. (! A.! C)
 The final step involves writing the mnemonics to be fed to the handheld device
 Ld A ANI Ldi B
 Ld C ANI Ldi B
 Ld B ANI Ldi A AND Ldi C

POSSIBLE SHORT QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER

1. What Is a PLC?
Ans: PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controllers. They are basically
used to control automated systems in industries.
2. What are the advantages of PLC?
Ans: Advantages of PLC: -
 They are user friendly and easy to operate
 They eliminate the need for hard-wired relay logic
 They are fast
 It is suitable for automation in industries
3. Write the Boolean expression for the different logic?
Ans: Boolean algebra usually involves logic operations like AND, OR,
NOT, NAND and NOR. The different symbols are:
 + OR operator
 . AND operator
 ! NOT operator.?
4. Define Jump Instructions?
Ans: The JUMP instructions allow to break the rung sequence and move
the program execution from one rung to another or to a subroutine. The Jump is
a controlled output instruction.

5. Define writing Mnemonics?

Ans: • Mnemonics are instructions written in symbolic form. They are
also known as Opcode and are used in handheld programming devices.
Different Symbols are as given below:
 Ldi – Load Inverse
  Ld- Load
 AND- And the logic
 OR- Or logic
 ANI – NAND logic
 ORI- NOR logic
 Out – Outpute ?

POSSIBLE LONG QUESTIONS

1)Explain PLC Architecture?

2) Design a simple line follower robotic system to start a motor when a
switch is on and simultaneously switch on the LED. The sensor on the
motor detects any obstacle and another switch is on to indicate the presence
of the obstacle and the motor is simultaneously switched off and the buzzer
is switched on and LED is off.