Cairo University

Faculty of Graduate Studies for Statistical Research

Department of Computer and Information Sciences

Computer Sys. And Programming

Lec. 9 outline: You’ll find all the information you need here on Why
Design?, Design Strategies, Drivers and Stubs, Skeletal Design,
Recursive Design, Higher-order functions, Why Use
Parameters?,Default and Optional Parameters, Keyword Parameters,
The map function, Mappers, Using lambda , ….and ….
Tarek Aly
01126182476
http://41.32.221.109:8080/DrTarekAly.htm
E-mail: tarekmmmmt@{pg.cu.edu.eg; egyptpost.org; gmail.com; yahoo.com}
Contents
 Why Design?
 Design Strategies
 Drivers and Stubs
 Skeletal Design
 Recursive Design
 Higher-order functions
 Why Use Parameters?
 Default and Optional Parameters
 Keyword Parameters
 The map function
 Mappers
 Using lambda for

10/2/2023 Computer Sys. And Programming

Why Design?
 As problems become more complex, so do their
solutions

 There is more to programming than just

hacking out code

 We can decompose a complex problem into

simpler subproblems and solve each of these

 Divide up the work and assign responsibilities

to individual actors (functions)

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Top-Down Design
In top-down design, we decompose a complex problem into
simpler subproblems, and solve these with different functions.

Function-1

Function-2 Function-3

Function-4 Function-5 Function-6 Function-7

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Example: The doctor Program
Each function has its own responsibilities; in a well-designed
program, no function does too much

main

input reply

random.choice changePerson

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Example: The doctor Program

Functions communicate via arguments and returned values

main

string
reply
string
string
changePerson
string

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Example: The doctor Program
Functions also go to shared data pools for information
Data Pool
hedges
qualifiers
replacements
string string
main

string string
reply
string
string
changePerson
string

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 Example: The
main Sentence Program
string

sentence
string string

nounPhrase verbPhrase
string string

nounPhrase prepositionalPhrase
string

nounPhrase

articles nouns verbs prepositions

Data Pool

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Design Strategies: Top Down
 Start with the main function and pretend that
the functions that it calls are already defined

 Work your way down by defining those

functions, etc.

 Cannot test anything until they’re all finished

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Drivers and Stubs
 Start with the main function and pretend that
the functions that it calls are already defined

 Define these functions using simple headers

and almost no code
 If a function returns a value, return a reasonable
default (0 or empty string)
 If a function does not return a value, return None

 The main function is known as a driver, and the

other functions are called stubs

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Skeletal Design
 Drivers/stubs allow you to sketch out the
structure of a program in terms of cooperating
functions without finishing everything at once

 Set up their communication links, which are

the arguments and return values

 Run the program to check these before filling

in the details

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Design Strategies: Bottom Up
 Start with simple functions at the bottom of
the chart and work your way up

 Each new function can be tested as soon as it’s

defined

 Easier to get the little pieces of a program up

and running, then integrate them into a more
complete solution

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Good Design?
 Do you divide up the work so that each function does one
coherent thing?

 Do the functions communicate via arguments and return

values rather than a common pool of data?

 When a common pool of data seems necessary, do you confine

access to just a few functions?

 Do you name the functions and arguments to reflect their

purpose in the program?

 Do you document your design?????

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Recursive Design
As a special case of top-down design, we decompose a
problem into smaller subproblems that have the same form,
and solve these with the same function.

Function-1

Function-1 Function-1

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Recursive Design Cont
As a special case, we decompose a problem into smaller
subproblems that have the same form, and solve these
with the same function.

sentence = nounPhrase verbPhrase [ “and” sentence ]

sentence

nounPhrase verbPhrase sentence

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Example: Get a Valid Integer
 The function getValidInteger prompts
the user for an integer and inputs it

 The integer is returned if it is within the

specified range

 Otherwise, the function displays an error

message and calls getValidInteger to
try again

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Define a Recursive Function
def getValidInteger(prompt, low, high):
number = int(input(prompt))
if number >= low and number <= high:
return number
else:
print('ERROR: Input number is out of range')
return getValidInteger(prompt, low, high)

A recursive function calls itself

There will be 0 or more recursive calls of this function

A recursive process is similar to an iterative process (the

same thing is done repeatedly, 0 or more times)
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The Base Case
def getValidInteger(prompt, low, high):
number = int(input(prompt))
if number >= low and number <= high:
return number
else:
print('ERROR: Input number is out of range')
return getValidInteger(prompt, low, high)

A recursive process stops when a base case is reached

In this function, a valid input number is simply returned

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The Recursive Step
def getValidInteger(prompt, low, high):
number = int(input(prompt))
if number >= low and number <= high:
return number
else:
print('ERROR: Input number is out of range')
return getValidInteger(prompt, low, high)

Otherwise, a recursive step drives the recursion forward,

until a base case is reached

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Computing Factorial (!)
 4! = 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 24

 N! = N * (N - 1) * (N - 2) * … * 1

 Recursive definition of factorial:

 N! = 1, when N = 1
 N! = N * (N - 1)!, otherwise

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Define factorial Recursively
# N! = 1, when N = 1
# N! = N * (N - 1)!, otherwise

def factorial(n):
if n == 1:
return 1
else:
return n * factorial(n - 1)

What is the base case?

What is the recursive step?

Does the recursive step advance the process toward the

base case?
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Tracing factorial
# N! = 1, when N = 1
# N! = N * (N - 1)!, otherwise

def factorial(n):
if n == 1:
return 1
else:
return n * factorial(n - 1)
>>> factorial(4) # With a trace of the process
n = 4
n = 3
n = 2
n = 1
factorial(1) = 1
factorial(2) = 2
factorial(3) = 6
factorial(4) = 24
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Gathering File System Stats
 Count the files
 Get the size of a directory (number of
bytes) D

D F F F D F

F F F D F

F F
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Modules os and os.path
os.getcwd()

os.listdir(dirname)

os.chdir(dirname)

os.path.isfile(name)

os.path.isdir(name)

os.path.getsize(filename)

Define functions:

countFiles(dirname)

getSize(dirname)
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Counting the Files
 Use a recursive strategy

 Sum all of the items in the current

directory

 If the item is a file, add 1

 Otherwise, the item is a directory, so

add the count obtained from a recursive
call of the function
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 Define and Use countFiles
import os
import os.path

def countFiles(dirname):
"""Counts the files in a directory and its subdirectories."""
count = 0
listOfItems = os.listdir(dirname)
for item in listOfItems:
if os.path.isfile(item):
count += 1 # It’s a file
else:
os.chdir(item) # It’s a directory
count += countFiles(os.getcwd())
os.chdir("..")
return count

countFiles(os.getcwd())
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 Higher-order functions

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Arguments and Return Values
 A function can receive data
(arguments) from its caller

 A function can return a single value to

its caller

y = math.sqrt(x)

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Why Use Parameters?
 Parameters allow a function to be used with different
data in different parts of a program

 The general method or algorithm is the same, but the

arguments vary with the situation

>>> math.sqrt(2)
1.4142135623730951

>>> math.sqrt(16)
4.0

>>>

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 Default and Optional
Parameters
One or more parameters can have default values, so
the caller can omit some arguments
>>> round(3.1416) # Default precision is 0
3

>>> round(3.1416, 3) # Override the default

3.142

>>> list(range(5)) # Default lower bound is 0, and

[0,1,2,3,4] # default step value is 1

>>> list(range(1, 5)) # Override the default lower bound

[1,2,3,4]

>>> list(range(1, 5, 2)) # Override lower bound and step

[1,3]
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Keyword Parameters
Optional parameters can also be filled using keywords

>>> lyst = [4, 2, 6, 3] # Items in random order

>>> lyst.sort() # Default sort of list

>>> lyst # Ascending order

[2,3,4,6]

>>> lyst = [4, 2, 6, 3] # Reset to original order

>>> lyst.sort(reverse = True) # Override default sort order

>>> lyst # Descending order

[6,4,3,2]
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Convert Based Numbers to ints
 Write a general function that expects a string
representation of a number and its base (an
int) as arguments

 The function returns the integer represented

>>> convert('10', 2) # 102 = 2

2
>>> convert('10', 10) # 1010 = 10
10
>>> convert('10', 16) # 1016 = 16
16
>>> convert('100', 2) # 1002 = 4
4
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 Implementation
def convert(digits, base):
"""Returns the integer represented by the digits
in the given base."""
intValue = 0
expo = len(digits - 1)
for ch in digits:
ch = string.upper(ch)
intvalue += hexdigits[ch] * base ** expo
expo -= 1
return intValue

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 Default and Optional
Parameters
One or more parameters can have default values, so
the caller can omit some arguments

>>> convert('111', 2)
7
>>> convert('111', 10)
111
>>> convert('111', 16)
273
>>> convert('111') # Same result as the previous line
273

The caller can treat base16 as the standard base in

this system or use other bases by mentioning them
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 Implementation
def convert(digits, base = 16):
"""Returns the integer represented by the digits
in the given base, with 16 as the default base."""
intValue = 0
expo = len(digits – 1)
for ch in digits:
ch = string.upper(ch)
intvalue += hexdigits[ch] * base ** expo
expo -= 1
return intValue

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Some Syntax Rules
 The required arguments used in a
function call must match the required
parameters named in the definition, by
position
<function name>(<required args>, <optional args>):

 The programmer should list the required

parameters first (to the left) in the
function’s definition
def <function name>(<required params>, <default params>):

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Some Syntax Rules Cont.
 A required parameter is just a name

 A default parameter looks like an

assignment statement

def <function name>(<name>,…, <name> = <expression>,…):

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 Ways to Call a Function
def convert(digits, base = 16):

>>> convert('111')
273
>>> convert('111', 16)
273

>>> convert('111', base = 16)

273
>>> convert(digits = '111', base = 16)
273
>>> convert(base = 16, digits = '111')
273

Order is important, unless you use all the keywords

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Processing Lists
listOfStrings = []
for number in listOfNumbers:
listOfStrings.append(str(number))

listOfAbsolutes = []
for number in listOfNumbers:
listOfAbsolutes.append(abs(number))

listOfRoots = []
for number in listOfNumbers:
listOfRoots.append(math.sqrt(number))

Each pattern applies a function to each value in a list

to produce a list of results
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Generalize to a Map

def map(aFunction, listOfArgs):

listOfResults = []
for item in listOfArgs:
listOfResults.append(aFunction(item))
return listOfResults

Each pattern applies a function to each value in a list

to produce a list of results

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The map function
listOfStrings = list(map(str, listOfNumbers))

listOfAbsolutes = list(map(abs, listOfNumbers))

listOfRoots = list(map(math.sqrt, listOfNumbers))

map takes a function and a list as arguments, and returns

an iterable object on the results

Then run list to build a list from this object

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Functions and Data
 In Python, functions are also first-class
data objects

 Functions can be stored in data

structures (lists, dictionaries, etc.)

 Functions can be passed as arguments

to other functions and returned as the
values of other functions

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Higher-Order Functions
 A higher-order function can receive
another function as an argument

 The higher-order function then

applies the argument function in
some manner

 HOFs are a powerful way of

simplifying code
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Mappers
 Sometimes we want to transform a
list of data into a list of results

 Such a transformation is called a

mapping

 Build and return a list that contains

the results of applying a function to
each of the elements in another list
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Example: A List of Square
Roots
oldlist = [2, 3, 4]

newlist = []

for n in oldlist:
newlist.append(math.sqrt(n))

# Do something with newlist

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Example: A List of Square
Roots Cont.
oldlist = [2, 3, 4]

newlist = []

for n in oldlist:
newlist.append(math.sqrt(n))

This type of operation is so common that Python

includes a special function called map to simplify it:
oldlist = [2, 3, 4]

newlist = list(map(math.sqrt, oldlist))

Note that map does not return a list, but we can run
list to get one from it
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Syntax of map

oldlist = [2, 3, 4]

newlist = list(map(math.sqrt, oldlist))

map(<a function>, <a list of arguments>)

A function

A list Another list

map list

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Using map to Simplify Code
fileName = input("Enter the file name: ")
inputFile = open(fileName, "r")

numberList = []
for word in inputFile:
numberList.append(int(word))

if len(numberList) > 0:
print("The number of numbers is", len(numberList))
print("The sum total is", sum(numberList))
print("The average is",
sum(numberList) / len(numberList)
print("The maximum is", max(numberList))
print("The minimum is", min(numberList))
else:
print("The file is empty.")
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Using map to Simplify Code
fileName = input("Enter the file name: ")
inputFile = open(fileName, "r")

numberList = list(map(int, inputFile.read().split()))

if len(numberList) > 0:
print("The number of numbers is", len(numberList))
print("The sum total is", sum(numberList))
print("The average is",
sum(numberList) / len(numberList)
print("The maximum is", max(numberList))
print("The minimum is", min(numberList))
else:
print("The file is empty.")

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Using map
def cube(n):
return n ** 3

oldlist = [2, 3, 4]

newlist = list(map(cube, oldlist))

print(newlist) # Displays [8, 27, 64]

Define the function to use in the mapping, and then map

it onto a list

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Using map Cont.
oldlist = [2.17, 3.46, 4.54]

newlist = list(map(round, oldlist))

print(newlist) # Displays [2, 3, 5]

How could we round to 1 place of precision?

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Using map Cont.
oldlist = [2.17, 3.46, 4.54]

newlist = list(map(round, oldlist, [1, 1, 1]))

print(newlist) # Displays [2.2, 3.5, 4.5]

The figures of precision for round are taken from the

second list argument to map

map(<a function of 2 args>, <list1>, <list2>)

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Using map Cont.
def roundto1place(n): return round(n, 1)

oldlist = [2.17, 3.46, 4.54]

newlist = list(map(roundto1place, oldlist))

print(newlist) # Displays [2.2, 3.5, 4.5]

Alternatively, we could define a new function that

expects one argument and rounds it to 1 place of
precision

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Using lambda for
an Anonymous Function

oldlist = [2.17, 3.46, 4.54]

newlist = list(map(lambda n: round(n, 1), oldlist))

print(newlist) # Displays [2.2, 3.5, 4.5]

lambda creates a function “on the fly,” just for

temporary use

map(lambda <params>: <expression>, <a list of arguments>)

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 Simplifying changePerson
def changePerson(sentence):
oldlist = sentence.split()
newlist = []
for word in oldlist:
newlist.append(replacements.get(word, word))
return " ".join(newlist)

Builds a list of the results of applying the method get

to the words in a list

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 Simplifying changePerson Cont.
def changePerson(sentence):
oldlist = sentence.split()
newlist = map(lambda word: replacements.get(word, word),
oldlist)
return " ".join(newlist)

Builds a list of the results of applying the method get

to the words in a list

Note that join can work directly with the result of

map, which need not be converted to a list

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 Simplifying changePerson Cont.
def changePerson(sentence):
newlist = map(lambda word: replacements.get(word, word),
sentence.split())
return " ".join(newlist)

Much of data processing is simply transforming data

structures into other data structures

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 Simplifying changePerson Cont.
def changePerson(sentence):
return " ".join(map(lambda word: replacements.get(word,
word),
sentence.split()))

Much of data processing is simply transforming

collections of data values

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Example: Obtain a List of
Inputs
names = inputList("Enter a name")
ints = inputList("Enter an integer", int)
floats = inputList("Enter a float", float)

def inputList(prompt, convert = str):

"""Returns a list of input values, using the
string prompt and the convert function."""
results = []
while True:
data = input(prompt + " or return to quit: ")
if data == "":
return results
results.append(convert(data))
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Filters
 Sometimes we want to transform a
list by removing elements that do not
pass a test

 Such a transformation is called a filter

 A filter builds the list of elements that

cause a Boolean function to return
True
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Example: A List of Even Numbers
oldlist = <get a list of numbers from somewhere>
newlist = []
for n in oldlist:
if n % 2 == 0:
newlist.append(n)

This type of operation is so common that Python

includes a special function named filter to
simplify it:
oldlist = <get a list of numbers from somewhere>
newlist = list(filter(lambda n: n % 2 == 0, oldlist))

A Boolean function

A list Another list

filter list

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Example: A List of File Names
import os, os.path

lyst = os.listdir(os.getcwd())
filelist = []
for name in lyst:
if os.path.isfile(name):
filelist.append(name)

import os, os.path

filelist = list(filter(os.path.isfile,
os.listdir(os.getcwd())))

A Boolean function

A list Another list

filter list

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Generalize in a New Function
import os, os.path

def getNames(test, path):

return list(filter(test, os.listdir(path)))

filelist = getNames(os.path.isfile, os.getcwd())

dirlist = getNames(os.path.isdir, os.getcwd())

A Boolean function

A list Another list

filter list

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Reducers
 Sometimes we want to use the contents of a
list to compute a single value

 Such a transformation is called a reducer

 A reducer applies a function to pairs of

elements to produce a value

 After each application, the value becomes an

argument for the next application

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Example: Products
oldlist = <get a list of numbers from somewhere>
total = 1
for n in oldlist:
total *= n

This type of operation is so common that Python A list

includes a special function called reduce to
simplify it: A function
reduce
oldlist = <get a list of numbers from somewhere>

from functools import reduce

A value
product = reduce(lambda x, y: x * y, oldlist)

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Thank You

Let's get started!

2023-12-21 Computer Sys. And Programming