Chapter 6: attitudes

Definition of Attitudes
• An attitude is how we feel about something (positive, negative, or mixed).

• Evaluative Reactions: Likes and dislikes towards people, objects, or ideas. not
always toward material
/religion , sports )
...

• Functions of Attitudes:
attitudes
• Help express and distinguish ourselves. (define ourselves)
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• Influence information processing (can aid efficiency but also lead to closed-mindedness).

• Indicate behavioral intentions. Iracist attitudesStereotyping en)

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intention info

The Study of Attitudes

Topic of attitudes is very persuasive is social psychology, topics include:

• Self-esteem

• Racism

• Attraction

How Attitudes Are Measured

1. Self-Report Measures:

• Simple surveys or multi-item scales (e.g., Likert scales). agree 12345 disagree

2
• Challenges: Social desirability bias. + too simplistic + way of asking
• Solution: Bogus pipeline technique to encourage honesty. (lie detector)
2. Covert Measures:

• Behavioral Indicators: Body language, eye contact, distance.

• Physiological Measures:

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• Heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), galvanic skin response (GSR).

• Brain scans: CAT, MRI.

• Facial electromyography (EMG).

• Cognitive Measures:
implicit association test : black white /blackwhite howquica
• Reaction times (e.g., Implicit Association Test - IAT). ~
How Attitudes Are Formed

1. Direct Experience:

• Results in stronger, more stable attitudes.

• Resistant to change and predictive of behavior. + are more predictive of our lanaviour .

(religion ; praying)
2. Social Environment:

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• Parents, friends, and cultural context.

• Attitudes shaped by rewards and punishments.

(associative learning(
3. Evaluative Conditioning:

• Attitudes formed through associations (e.g., pairing positive stimuli). (model on car)
4. Genetic Basis:

• Some attitudes may have a biological component, inherited from ancestors.

occur in the brain which have inherited.
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Changing Attitudes: Persuasion

• Definition: Process by which attitudes are changed, often through interpersonal communication.

• Dual-Process Model: Two routes to persuasion. (descriptive(

1. Central Route: Willing ? Able ?

• Requires willingness and ability to think critically.

• Persuasion depends on the strength of arguments.

• Characteristics:

• Elaborative, rational process.

• Resistant, enduring, and predictive attitude change.

• Risks: Biased thinking (e.g., confirmation bias).

2. Peripheral Route:

• Used when motivation or ability to process is low.

• Influenced by superficial cues such as:

• Attractiveness of the communicator.

• Reputation or celebrity endorsement.

• Length of the argument (quantity over quality).

• Attitude change tends to be temporary and less predictive of behavior.

Comparison of Central and Peripheral Routes

I
Central Route Peripheral Route
Rational and deliberate Superficial and heuristic
Strong, long-lasting changes Temporary, weaker changes
Requires motivation and ability Requires minimal effort
Chapter 7:
Conformity j
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Conformity authority

1. De nition: rendency
-
• Conformity involves changing thoughts, feelings, or behaviors to align with group norms (societal rules for thinking/
behaving). hands when you meet looking people fart in public talking do not
- shaking
someone , in the eyes when to them,

• Norms can be spoken or unspoken and help maintain social order but may also suppress individuality.
2. Americans and Conformity:
• Despite valuing independence, conformity is pervasive in American society.
3. Functions of Norms:
• Maintain predictability and perpetuate the status quo.& maintain order
• Sti e free expression if strictly adhered to.
4. Breaking Norms:
• Challenges societal expectations and invites consequences, making most people avoid norm violations.

How Norms Develop

1. Sherif’s Study (1963):
• Used the autokinetic effect (optical illusion) to study group norms.
• Findings:
• In ambiguous situations, participants relied on peers for guidance.
• Others provide a valuable source of information in uncertain contexts.

Group Pressure and Conformity

1. Asch’s Study (1951):
• Investigated conformity in non-ambiguous situations.
(very clearl
• Findings:
• Subjects conformed to the incorrect group judgment 37% of the time.
• Only 25% of participants refused to conform at all.
• Even in clear scenarios, the desire to t in motivates conformity.
2. Motivation for Conformity:
• Driven by a need to belong and avoid being seen as outsiders or mis ts.

Compliance
1. De nition:
• Refers to behavior changes elicited by direct requests (e.g., “Can you do me a favor?”).
2. Strategies for Exerting In uence:
① ② ③ &
• Depend on the relationship, personality, cultural norms, and the nature of the request.
• Approaches include politeness, reasoning, favors, threats, or even seduction.
3. Mindlessness and Compliance:
what ask for
you
• The phrasing of a request often matters more than its substance.> -

• Example:
• A Xerox machine study found compliance rates soared when a seemingly valid reason was provided (e.g., “because I
need to make some copies”).
• People often comply without processing requests fully, especially when given a super cial justi cation.
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 4. Disrupting Mindlessness:
• Breaking automatic thought patterns can increase compliance.
can mindlessness would
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can you give me 174 ? - - disrupted mindlessness says yes

Obedience
1. De nition:
• Behavior changes due to the commands of authority gures.
• Encouraged through cultural reinforcement (e.g., parents, teachers, military leaders).
2. Milgram’s Experiment on Obedience:
• Purpose: To study if people obey authority gures to harm others.
• Procedure:
• Participants were instructed to administer increasing electric shocks to a “learner” for incorrect answers.
• Experimenters used scripted prompts to urge participants to continue.
• Predictions:
• Psychiatrists estimated only 1% would administer the maximum 450 volts.
• Most believed others, not themselves, would be fully obedient.
3. Results:
• 65% of participants administered the maximum 450 volts.
• Women showed similar levels of obedience as men.
• The study has been replicated across cultures and age groups.
4. Aftermath and Ethics:
• Raised concerns about informed consent, right to withdraw, and psychological harm.
• Highlighted the ease with which ordinary people could engage in destructive behavior under authority.
5. Key Takeaway:
• Within everyone lies the potential for harmful obedience, especially under authoritative pressure.
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Chapter 11: Aggression

What is Aggression?
1. De nition:
• Behavior intended to harm another individual.
2. Types of Aggression:
• Proactive Aggression: Harm is in icted to achieve a goal (e.g., bullying for academic advantage).
• Reactive Aggression: Harm is in icted as an emotional response (e.g., road rage).
jealousy

Cultural In uences on Aggression

1. Cross-Societal Comparisons: virtual
• Violence varies widely across cultures, but bullying is universal.
• Some societies are largely nonviolent.
people
2. Subcultural Variations: younger violent
- are
more

• Aggression levels in uenced by age, class, race, and region.

& Lower SES
3. Culture of Honor:
• Emphasizes honor and social status, particularly in males.
• Aggression is used to protect reputation.

Gender and Aggression

1. Differences:
• Men are generally more physically violent.
• Women display more relational or indirect aggression.
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Biological and Individual Factors

1. Personality Traits: Big Five
• Traits like low agreeableness, high neuroticism, and low self-control correlate with aggression.
• The “Dark Triad” (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy) is linked to aggression.
2. Biological Bases:
• Testosterone: High levels, especially when paired with low cortisol, predict aggression.
• Serotonin: Low levels increase impulsive aggression. >
-

happiness
3. Evolutionary Psychology:
• Male aggression is linked to status and mating competition.
• Female aggression often focuses on protecting offspring.

Learning and Aggression

1. Reinforcement:
• Positive outcomes encourage repeated aggression. Ibully get what
they want) decreasession
• Punishment can back re unless applied immediately, consistently, and perceived as fair.
2. Corporal Punishment:
• Physical punishment correlates with antisocial behavior in children.
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Situational In uences
1. Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis:
• Frustration leads to aggression, but not always directly.
2
• Displacement: Aggression is directed at alternative targets.because of fear or lack of access .
3• Catharsis Myth: Acting on aggression often increases aggressive tendencies rather than reducing them.
2.
# Heat and Aggression:
• Higher temperatures correlate with increased aggression and violent crimes.

Media and Aggression

1. Media Violence:
• Consistently linked to increased aggression, both short- and long-term.
• Desensitization: Reduced emotional sensitivity to violence.
• Cultivation Theory: Media shapes public perceptions of reality.
2. Dehumanization:
• Common in media, war, and con ict situations.
• Solutions include fostering empathy and restoring human connections.

Reducing Aggression
1. Interventions:
• Enhancing self-control, promoting empathy, and addressing societal norms.
• Altering media portrayals and reducing exposure to violent content.
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