Unipolar Encoding

1. It uses a single voltage level to represent data.

2. 1 = high voltage transmission and 0 = no voltage transmission
3. DC component: Unipolar encoding has a DC component, which means that the signal has
a non-zero average voltage. This can be a problem in some transmission systems, as it can
cause the signal to drift over time, leading to errors.
4. No synchronization: Unipolar encoding does not have built-in synchronization, which
means that the receiver needs an external clock signal to accurately detect the transmitted
data.
5. Error detection: Unipolar encoding does not have built-in error detection, which means that
errors may go undetected.
6. Simple implementation: Unipolar encoding is relatively simple to implement, as it only
requires a single voltage level.
7. Power consumption: Unipolar encoding can be power-hungry, as it requires a constant
voltage level to represent the data.
8. Limited bandwidth: Unipolar encoding is not suitable for high-speed data transmission, as
it can cause spectral broadening and limit the available bandwidth.
9. Not suitable for long-distance transmission: Unipolar encoding is not suitable for long-
distance transmission, as the signal can become distorted and attenuated over long
distances.

NRZ
NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) encoding is a type of line coding scheme that uses two different
voltage levels to represent binary values. Here are some additional points about NRZ encoding:

1. No DC component: NRZ encoding does not have a DC component, which means that the
signal has a zero average voltage. This is an advantage over unipolar encoding, as it reduces
the risk of signal drift and errors.
 2. Two voltage levels: NRZ encoding uses two voltage levels, typically +V and -V, to
represent the binary values 1 and 0. The exact voltage levels used can vary depending on
the system.

3. No transitions for consecutive identical bits: In NRZ encoding, there are no transitions
between consecutive identical bits. For example, if the data stream is "1111", the signal
remains at the same voltage level (+V or -V) for the entire sequence.

4. Transitions only occur for bit changes: Transitions in the NRZ signal only occur when
the data bits change, i.e., from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0. This means that the signal remains
constant for long sequences of identical bits.

5. No built-in synchronization: Like unipolar encoding, NRZ encoding does not have built-
in synchronization, which means that the receiver needs an external clock signal to
accurately detect the transmitted data.

6. Error detection: NRZ encoding does not have built-in error detection, which means that
errors may go undetected.

7. Simple implementation: NRZ encoding is relatively simple to implement, as it only

requires two voltage levels.

8. Wide bandwidth: NRZ encoding requires a wider bandwidth than unipolar encoding, as
the signal has more frequent transitions.

9. Sensitive to noise: NRZ encoding is sensitive to noise, as the signal can be easily corrupted
by random voltage fluctuations.

10. Used in low-speed applications: NRZ encoding is often used in low-speed applications,
such as in older serial communication protocols, due to its simplicity and low
implementation cost.

Overall, NRZ encoding is a simple and widely used line coding scheme, but it has some limitations
that make it less suitable for high-speed or noisy transmission environments.
RZ (Return-to-Zero) encoding is a type of line coding scheme that uses two different voltage levels
to represent binary values. Here are some additional points about RZ encoding:

1. Return-to-zero transition: In RZ encoding, the signal returns to a zero voltage level (or a
neutral state) between each bit, regardless of whether the bit is a 1 or a 0. This is in contrast
to NRZ encoding, where the signal only transitions when the bit changes.

2. Transitions for every bit: RZ encoding has transitions for every bit, whether it's a 1 or a
0. This means that the signal has a higher frequency component than NRZ encoding.

3. Built-in synchronization: RZ encoding has built-in synchronization, as the return-to-zero

transition provides a natural clocking signal for the receiver. This makes it easier to
synchronize the receiver with the transmitter.

4. Error detection: RZ encoding has built-in error detection, as the return-to-zero transition
can be used to detect errors. If the signal doesn't return to zero between bits, it can indicate
an error.

5. Immunity to noise: RZ encoding is more immune to noise than NRZ encoding, as the
return-to-zero transition helps to reject noise and interference.

6. Wider bandwidth: RZ encoding requires a wider bandwidth than NRZ encoding, as the
signal has more frequent transitions.

7. More complex implementation: RZ encoding is more complex to implement than NRZ

encoding, as it requires more sophisticated circuitry to generate the return-to-zero
transitions.

8. Used in high-speed applications: RZ encoding is often used in high-speed applications,

such as in fiber optic communications, due to its ability to provide reliable synchronization
and error detection.

9. DC balance: RZ encoding has a DC balance, meaning that the average voltage of the signal
is zero. This is an advantage over unipolar encoding, which can have a non-zero average
voltage.
 10. Variants: There are variants of RZ encoding, such as RZ-AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)
and RZ-DSB (Double-Sideband), which offer additional advantages and trade-offs.

Overall, RZ encoding is a more complex and sophisticated line coding scheme than NRZ encoding,
but it offers advantages in terms of synchronization, error detection, and noise immunity, making
it suitable for high-speed and high-reliability applications.

Here's a simple and concise way to explain the difference between signal elements and data
elements:

Signal Element: A single transition or voltage level in a signal that represents one or more bits of
data.

Data Element: A single bit of data (0 or 1) that is represented by one or more signal elements.

In other words, signal elements are the physical representations of data elements in a signal.

Three key factors determine how successful a receiver will be in decoding

a received signal:
1. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): How strong the signal is compared to the noise
(interference) present. A higher SNR means a stronger signal and better decoding.

2. Clock Synchronization: How well the receiver's clock is aligned with the transmitter's
clock. If they're not in sync, the receiver might misinterpret the signal.

3. Signal Integrity: How well the signal has been preserved during transmission. If the signal
has been distorted or degraded, the receiver might struggle to decode it correctly.

If these three factors are optimal, the receiver is more likely to successfully decode the received
signal!

Line Coding
The process of converting digital data into a signal that can be transmitted over a communication
channel. It involves assigning a specific signal element (voltage level or transition) to each data
element (0 or 1) to ensure reliable transmission and reception of data.
Data Rate vs. Signal Rate:
 Data Rate: The rate at which data is transmitted (measured in bits per second, bps).

 Signal Rate: The rate at which signal elements (e.g., voltage levels or transitions) are
transmitted (measured in baud).

Relationship: The signal rate is typically higher than the data rate, as multiple signal elements are
used to represent each data bit. In other words, the signal rate is the "speed" of the transmission,
while the data rate is the "payload" being transmitted.

Baud Rate:
 Baud Rate: The rate at which signal elements (e.g., voltage levels or transitions) are
transmitted per second (measured in baud).

Why Reduce Baud Rate?

 A lower baud rate reduces the bandwidth required for transmission, making it more
efficient and cost-effective.

 Lower baud rates also reduce the impact of noise and interference on the signal, resulting
in fewer errors and more reliable transmission.

In short, a lower baud rate helps achieve more reliable and efficient data transmission!

Lack of Synchronization:
 When the transmitter and receiver are not synchronized, the receiver may misinterpret the
signal, leading to:

 Bit Errors: Incorrect detection of 0s and 1s.

 Data Loss: Missing or corrupted data.

 Jitter: Unstable or varying signal timing.

 Clock Drift: Receiver's clock frequency deviates from the transmitter's clock
frequency.
Polar - RZ
- The Return to Zero (RZ) scheme uses three voltage values. +, 0, -.
- Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either from high to zero or from low to zero.
- This scheme has more signal transitions (two per symbol) and therefore requires a wider
bandwidth.
- No DC components or baseline wandering.
- Self-synchronization - transition indicates symbol value.
- More complex as it uses three voltage level.
- It has no error detection capability.

Polar - Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester

Manchester coding
- Every symbol has a level
- transition in the middle: from
- high to low or low to high.
- Uses only two voltage levels.

Differential Manchester
- Every symbol has a level transition in the middle.
- But the level at the beginning of the symbol is determined by the symbol value.
- One symbol causes a level change the other does not.
- No error detection

Data and Voice Communications

Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary
- Code uses 3 voltage levels: +, 0, -, to represent the symbols (note not transitions to zero as
in RZ).
- Voltage level for one symbol is at “0” and the other alternates between + & -.
- Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) - the “0” symbol is
- represented by zero voltage and the “1” symbol alternates between +Vand -V.
 - Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI.
• No self synchronization
• No error detection.

Data and Voice Communications

Multilevel Schemes
- In these schemes we increase the number of data bits per symbol thereby increasing the bit
rate.
- Since we are dealing with binary data we only have 2 types of data element a 1 or a 0.
- We can combine the 2 data elements into a pattern of “m” elements to create “2 m”
symbols.
- If we have L signal levels, we can use “n” signal elements to create L n
- signal elements.
- We use the notation mBnL, where m is the length of the binary pattern, B represents binary
data, n represents the length of the signal pattern and L the number of levels.
- L = B binary, L = T for 3 ternary, L = Q for 4 quaternary