Topic One Summary

Data communication deals with the transmission of signals in a reliable and efficient manner to
exchange information or messages.

Networking deals with the technology and architecture of the communications framework used to
interconnect communicating devices. This includes the design, construction, and use of networks,
as well as the protocols and standards that govern their operation.

Evolution of Technology
Here's a brief overview of the evolution of communications networks:

1. Early Networks (1960s): ARPANET, slow and limited

2. Packet Switching (1970s): More efficient, larger networks

3. LANs and WANs (1980s): Connecting devices locally and remotely

4. Internet and WWW (1990s): Global connectivity and information sharing

5. Broadband and Wireless (2000s): Faster, wireless access

6. Mobile Networks and 3G/4G (2000s-2010s): High-speed mobile internet

7. Cloud, IoT, and 5G (2010s-present): Increased connectivity, speed, and capacity

Delay
In the context of communication networks, delay refers to the time it takes for a signal or data
packet to travel from the sender to the receiver. It is a measure of how long it takes for data to be
transmitted, processed, and received.

Jitter
Jitter is a measure of the variation in the delay of a signal or data packet as it travels through a
communication network. It refers to the difference in time between when a packet is expected to
arrive and when it actually arrives.
Throughput
The amount of data that is successfully transmitted from one point to another in a given amount of
time. Think of it like the number of boxes you can move from one place to another in an hour.

Goodput
The amount of useful data that is successfully transmitted from one point to another in a given
amount of time. This is different from throughput because it only counts the data that is actually
useful, not the extra overhead data that's sent with it.

Loss
When data is sent over a network, some of it might get lost or corrupted along the way. This is
called packet loss. It's like when you're moving boxes and some of them get lost or damaged during
transit.

Network Cores
The central, high-speed networks that connect different regions or countries together. They're like
the highways that connect different cities.

Network Edges
The networks that connect to the core networks, but are closer to the users. They're like the local
roads that connect to the highways.

Hosts
Devices that are connected to a network, like computers, smartphones, or servers. They're like the
houses along the roads.

Intermediary Devices
Devices that help forward data packets between hosts, but aren't the source or destination of the
data. Examples include routers, switches, and gateways. They're like the traffic cops that direct
traffic along the roads.
Regulatory Organizations

1. International Telecommunication Union (ITU): A United Nations agency that

coordinates the global use of the radio spectrum, facilitates international cooperation in
assigning satellite orbits, and works to improve telecommunication infrastructure in the
developing world.
2. Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN): Oversees the
global management of domain names and IP address allocations, ensuring the stable and
secure operation of the internet's unique identifier systems.
3. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF): Develops and promotes voluntary internet
standards, particularly those that comprise the TCP/IP suite, through a collaborative and
open process involving a broad community of participants.
4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): Develops standards for a
wide range of technologies, including networking standards like Ethernet and Wi-Fi,
ensuring device compatibility and interoperability.
5. Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA): Manages global IP address allocation,
domain name system root zone management, and other critical internet infrastructure
assignments.
6. Electronic Industries Alliance/Telecommunications Industry Association (EIA/TIA) :
Develops standards for telecommunications and electronics, including standards for
cabling and communications protocols.

The Communications Model

The Communications Model is a framework that describes how information is transmitted from a
sender to a receiver. It consists of five main components:

1. Source: The device that generates the data to be transmitted. Examples: computer, phone,
or microphone.

2. Transmitter: Converts the data from the source into a signal that can be transmitted over
a channel. Examples: modem, encoder, or transmitter circuit.

3. Transmission System: The channel through which the signal is transmitted. Examples:
internet, phone line, or wireless network.

4. Receiver: Converts the received signal back into its original form, so the destination device
can understand it. Examples: modem, decoder, or receiver circuit.

5. Destination: The device that receives and interprets the transmitted data. Examples:
computer, phone, or speaker.
How it Works

1. The source generates data to be transmitted.

2. The transmitter converts the data into a signal.

3. The signal is transmitted through the transmission system.

4. The receiver converts the signal back into its original form.

5. The destination device receives and interprets the data.

Tasks of a Communication System

A Communication System performs several tasks to ensure reliable and efficient transmission of
information from the source to the destination. These tasks can be categorized into five main
functions:

1. Message Encoding:

 Convert the original message into a format suitable for transmission.

 Examples: text to binary, image compression, or audio encoding.

2. Message Transmission:

 Send the encoded message through a transmission medium (e.g., wire, wireless, or
fiber optic).

 Manage the flow of data to prevent congestion and errors.

3. Error Detection and Correction:

 Check the received message for errors or corruption during transmission.

 Correct errors using techniques like checksums, redundancy, or retransmission.

4. Message Decoding:

 Convert the received message back into its original format.

  Examples: binary to text, image decompression, or audio decoding.

5. Message Interpretation:

 Present the decoded message to the destination device or user.

 Ensure the message is understood correctly and in the intended format.

Types of Networks by Size

1. Personal Area Network (PAN): A small network that connects devices within a limited
area, typically up to 10 meters (33 feet). Examples: Bluetooth, Wi-Fi Direct.

2. Local Area Network (LAN): A network that connects devices within a building or
campus, typically up to 1 kilometer (0.6 miles). Examples: Ethernet, Wi-Fi.

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A network that connects devices within a

metropolitan area, typically up to 50 kilometers (31 miles). Examples: Cable TV networks,
fiber-optic networks.

4. Wide Area Network (WAN): A network that connects devices over a large geographic
area, typically spanning multiple cities or countries. Examples: Internet, VPNs.

5. Global Network: A network that connects devices worldwide, often using a combination
of WANs and the Internet. Examples: Global VPNs, international networks.

Types of Networks by Switching Technology

1. Circuit-Switched Network: A network that establishes a dedicated connection between

devices before data is transmitted. Examples: Telephone networks, ISDN.

2. Packet-Switched Network: A network that breaks data into packets and transmits them
independently, often using different routes. Examples: Internet, IP networks.

3. Message-Switched Network: A network that stores and forwards messages between

devices, often using a store-and-forward approach. Examples: Email, messaging apps.

Types of Networks by Architecture

 1. Client-Server Network: A network where devices act as either clients (requesting
services) or servers (providing services). Examples: Web servers, file servers.

2. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network: A network where devices act as both clients and servers,
sharing resources and services directly. Examples: File sharing, BitTorrent.

3. Distributed Network: A network where devices are connected in a decentralized manner,

often using a mesh topology. Examples: Blockchain, distributed databases.

4. Hierarchical Network: A network where devices are organized in a tree-like structure,

with higher-level devices controlling lower-level devices. Examples: Corporate networks,
military networks.

Here's a brief overview of Circuit Switching and Packet Switching:

Circuit Switching

How it works:

1. A dedicated communication path (circuit) is established between the sender and receiver
before data is transmitted.

2. The circuit is reserved exclusively for the duration of the connection.

3. Data is transmitted continuously over the established circuit.

4. The circuit is released when the connection is terminated.

Characteristics:

 Dedicated bandwidth and resources for the duration of the connection

 Guaranteed quality of service (QoS) and low latency

 Suitable for real-time applications like voice and video calls

 Inefficient for bursty or intermittent traffic

 Examples: Traditional telephone networks, ISDN, and some legacy WANs

Advantages:

 Guaranteed bandwidth and QoS

 Low latency and jitter

 Simple network architecture

Disadvantages:

 Inefficient use of resources (dedicated circuit even when no data is being sent)

 Limited scalability and flexibility

 Not suitable for bursty or intermittent traffic

Packet Switching

How it works:

1. Data is broken into small packets with headers containing source and destination
information.

2. Packets are transmitted independently through the network, taking different routes if
necessary.

3. Packets may be stored and forwarded (buffered) at intermediate nodes.

4. The receiving device reassembles the packets into the original data.

Characteristics:

 Shared bandwidth and resources among multiple connections

 Best-effort delivery with no guaranteed QoS

 Suitable for bursty or intermittent traffic

 Examples: Internet, IP networks, and most modern WANs

Advantages:
  Efficient use of resources (shared bandwidth and resources)

 Scalable and flexible network architecture

 Suitable for bursty or intermittent traffic

Disadvantages:

 No guaranteed QoS or bandwidth

 Higher latency and jitter due to packet switching and buffering

 More complex network architecture

In summary, Circuit Switching is suitable for real-time applications that require dedicated
bandwidth and low latency, while Packet Switching is more efficient for bursty or intermittent
traffic and is widely used in modern networks.