I.

The Physical Layer

A. Purpose of the Physical Layer

 The primary function of the physical layer is to handle the transmission of raw bits over a
physical medium. It focuses on the hardware involved in communication and the methods
for moving data across a network.

B. Physical Layer Characteristics

1. Physical Components

o This includes tangible items like cables, connectors, switches, and network
interface cards. These components physically connect devices and facilitate data
transfer.

2. Encoding

o Encoding transforms digital data into signals that can travel through the physical
medium. This ensures that data is correctly interpreted at the receiving end.

3. Signaling

o Signaling defines how the data is physically represented on the medium. This can
be in the form of electrical voltages, light pulses, or radio waves.

4. Bandwidth

o Bandwidth is the maximum rate at which data can be transferred over the network.
It determines how much data can be sent and received in a given amount of time.

II. Copper Cabling

A. Characteristics of Copper Cabling

 Copper cabling is a widely used medium for data transmission due to its flexibility and
affordability. It uses electrical signals to transfer data between devices.

B. Types of Copper Cabling

 1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
o UTP is the most common type of copper cabling used in networks. It consists of
pairs of wires twisted together to reduce interference and crosstalk.
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
o STP is similar to UTP but includes an additional shielding to protect against
electromagnetic interference (EMI). This makes it suitable for environments with
a lot of electrical noise.
3. Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable has a single copper conductor at its center and a layer of insulation
surrounded by a metallic shield. It's commonly used for cable television and
broadband internet.

C. UTP Cabling

1. Properties of UTP Cabling

o UTP cabling is flexible, easy to install, and cost-effective. It is suitable for most
local area networks (LANs).
2. UTP Cabling Standards and Connectors
o UTP cabling follows standards like Cat5, Cat5e, Cat6, and Cat6a, each supporting
different data rates and bandwidth. RJ-45 is the most common connector for UTP
cables.
3. Straight-through and Crossover UTP Cables
o Straight-through cables connect different types of devices (e.g., a computer to a
switch), while crossover cables connect similar devices (e.g., two computers).

III. Fiber-Optic Cabling

A. Properties of Fiber-Optic Cabling

 Fiber-optic cabling uses light to transmit data, allowing for higher speeds and longer
distances compared to copper cabling. It is immune to electromagnetic interference and
provides better security for data transmission.

B. Types of Fiber Media

1. Single-Mode Fiber

o Single-mode fiber has a small core and carries light directly down the fiber, making
it suitable for long-distance communication with high bandwidth.

2. Multimode Fiber
 o Multimode fiber has a larger core, allowing multiple light paths. It is typically used
for shorter distances and is more affordable than single- mode fiber.

C. Fiber-Optic Cabling Usage

 Fiber-optic cabling is used in various applications, including telecommunications, internet

backbones, and network infrastructure for businesses and data centers.

D. Fiber-Optic Connectors

 Connectors are used to join fiber-optic cables to devices or other cables. Common types
include ST, SC, LC, and MTP/MPO connectors, each designed for different applications
and requirements.

E. Fiber Patch Cords

 Fiber patch cords are short fiber-optic cables with connectors on both ends, used for
connecting devices within a network or between patch panels.

F. Fiber versus Copper

 Fiber-optic cabling offers higher bandwidth, longer distances, and better security than
copper cabling but is generally more expensive and requires specialized equipment and
installation skills.

IV. Wireless Media

A. Wireless Transmission

 Wireless transmission involves sending data through the air using electromagnetic waves,
eliminating the need for physical cables. This allows for more flexibility and mobility in
network setups.

B. Properties of Wireless Media

 Wireless media are susceptible to interference, have varying ranges, and are affected by
physical obstructions. However, they provide convenience and ease of installation
compared to wired networks.
C. Types of Wireless Media

1. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

o Wi-Fi is a common wireless technology used for local area networking, allowing
devices to connect to the internet or each other without physical cables.

2. Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15)

o Bluetooth is designed for short-range communication between devices, such as

connecting a phone to headphones or a computer to a keyboard.

3. WiMAX (IEEE 802.16)

o WiMAX provides broadband wireless access over longer distances than Wi-Fi,
making it suitable for metropolitan area networks and rural internet access.

4. Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4)

o Zigbee is a low-power, low-data-rate wireless technology used for IoT applications,

such as smart home devices and industrial sensors.

D. Wireless LAN

 A Wireless LAN (WLAN) is a local area network that uses Wi-Fi or similar wireless
technologies to allow devices to communicate within a limited area, such as an office
building or campus.

E. Wireless Transmission Frequency Ranges

1. Radio

o Radio frequency (RF) ranges are used for various wireless communications, from
mobile phones to broadcast radio.

2. Microwaves

o Microwaves are used for point-to-point communication links and satellite

communications. They require line-of-sight between transmitter and receiver.
 3. Infrared Light

o Infrared is used for short-range, line-of-sight communication, such as remote

controls and some wireless keyboards and mice.

V. Terrestrial Microwave

A. Parabolic Dish

 Parabolic dishes are used as antennas in terrestrial microwave communication systems.

They focus the microwave signals into a narrow beam, increasing signal strength and
directionality.

B. Focused Beam

 The focused beam in microwave communication ensures that signals travel in a straight
line between two points, minimizing signal loss and interference.

C. Line of Sight Requirement

 Terrestrial microwave communication requires a clear line of sight between the

transmitting and receiving antennas. Physical obstacles like buildings or mountains can
disrupt the signal.

D. Applications

 Terrestrial microwave systems are used for various applications, including long-distance
telephone calls, television broadcasts, and data transmissions in telecommunications
networks. They are often employed as an alternative to cable or fiber in difficult-to-reach
areas.

VI. Satellite Microwave

A. Satellite as a Relay Station

 In satellite microwave communication, a satellite acts as a relay station that receives signals
from an Earth-based transmitter, amplifies them, and retransmits them back to a different
location on Earth.
B. Spatial Angular Separation

 Satellites are positioned in space with careful angular separation to avoid signal
interference and ensure clear communication paths.

C. Geostationary Orbit

 Satellites used for microwave communication are typically placed in geostationary orbit,
where they remain in a fixed position relative to the Earth's surface. This allows for
consistent communication with ground stations.

D. Applications

 Satellite microwave communication is used for television broadcasting, weather

monitoring, global positioning systems (GPS), and providing internet and telephone
services to remote areas where traditional infrastructure is lacking.

VII. Broadcast Radio

A. Omni-Directional

 Broadcast radio signals are typically omni-directional, meaning they spread out in all
directions from the antenna. This allows the signal to cover a wide area without requiring
precise aiming of the antenna.

B. No Line of Sight Requirement

 Unlike some other wireless communication methods, broadcast radio does not require a
direct line of sight between the transmitter and receiver. Signals can pass through various
obstacles, although they may be attenuated.

C. Applications

 Broadcast radio is used for transmitting AM and FM radio programs, emergency alerts,
and public service announcements. It’s also employed for various types of communication
in remote or rural areas.

D. Choice of Frequency Range

  Different frequency ranges are chosen based on the desired coverage area and signal
characteristics. For example, AM radio uses lower frequencies with longer range and better
penetration through obstacles, while FM radio uses higher frequencies with better sound
quality and less range.

VIII. Infrared

A. Data Modulates Non-Coherent Infrared Light

 Infrared communication uses non-coherent infrared light (such as LEDs) to transmit data.
This means the light signals are modulated to encode data, which is then decoded by the
receiver.

B. Relies on Line of Sight

 Infrared communication requires a direct line of sight between the transmitter and receiver.
Any physical obstruction can block the infrared signals and prevent communication.

C. Blocked by Walls

 Infrared signals cannot pass through walls or other solid objects. This limits their use to
environments where direct, unobstructed line of sight is possible.

D. Applications

 Infrared technology is used in remote controls for devices like TVs and audio equipment,
short-range wireless communication between devices (such as some computer peripherals),
and in certain types of data transfer systems where line-of-sight communication is feasible.