CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms. They can be classified into

two main types: prokaryotic cells (e.g., bacteria) and eukaryotic cells (e.g., plant and animal

cells). Eukaryotic cells have a more complex structure, with various organelles that perform specific

functions to maintain cellular life.

Major Cell Components

1. Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane):

Structure: A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates.

Function: The cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell, providing

a selective barrier that maintains homeostasis. It also facilitates communication and signaling

between cells.

2. Cytoplasm:

Structure: A gel-like substance composed of water, salts, and various organic molecules, filling the

interior of the cell.

Function: The cytoplasm provides a medium for chemical reactions to occur and contains all

organelles, which are suspended within it.

3. Nucleus:

Structure: A double-membrane-bound organelle containing the cell's genetic material (DNA). The

nucleus includes the nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, nucleolus, and chromatin.

Function: The nucleus is the control center of the cell, responsible for storing genetic information,

coordinating cell activities like growth, metabolism, protein synthesis, and cell division.

4. Nucleolus:

Structure: A dense region within the nucleus, composed of RNA and proteins.

Function: The nucleolus is responsible for ribosome synthesis, producing rRNA and assembling it

with proteins to form ribosomal subunits.

5. Mitochondria:

Structure: Double-membrane-bound organelles with their own DNA. The inner membrane is

folded into cristae to increase surface area.

Function: Mitochondria are the powerhouse of the cell, generating ATP through cellular

respiration. They also play roles in apoptosis (programmed cell death) and energy metabolism.
 6. Ribosomes:

Structure: Small, non-membrane-bound organelles composed of rRNA and proteins, found either

floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Function: Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis, where mRNA is translated into polypeptides.

7. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

Structure: A network of membranous tubules and sacs (cisternae) that extends throughout the

cytoplasm. It comes in two forms: Rough ER (with ribosomes) and Smooth ER (without ribosomes).

Function:

Rough ER: Synthesizes and processes proteins, particularly those that will be secreted from the cell

or incorporated into the cell membrane.

Smooth ER: Synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbohydrates, detoxifies drugs and poisons, and stores

calcium ions.

8. Golgi Apparatus:

Structure: A stack of flattened, membrane-bound sacs called cisternae.

Function: The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids received from the

ER for storage or transport out of the cell.

9. Lysosomes (mostly in animal cells):

Structure: Membrane-bound vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes.

Function: Lysosomes digest and break down waste materials, cellular debris, and foreign

substances. They play a crucial role in the recycling of cellular components (autophagy).

10. Peroxisomes:

Structure: Small, membrane-bound organelles containing enzymes that produce and break down

hydrogen peroxide.

Function: Peroxisomes detoxify harmful substances, break down fatty acids, and metabolize

reactive oxygen species.

 11. Cytoskeleton:

Structure: A network of protein filaments, including microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and

microtubules.

Function: The cytoskeleton provides structural support, maintains cell shape, enables cell

movement, and facilitates intracellular transport and cell division.

12. Centrosomes and Centrioles (mostly in animal cells):

Structure: The centrosome is composed of two centrioles, which are cylindrical structures made of

microtubules.

Function: The centrosome organizes microtubules and is important for the process of cell division,

particularly during the formation of the mitotic spindle.

13. Vacuoles:

Structure: Membrane-bound sacs within the cytoplasm. Plant cells typically have a large central

vacuole, while animal cells may have smaller vacuoles.

Function:

In plants: The central vacuole stores nutrients, waste products, and maintains turgor pressure (the

pressure of the cell contents against the cell wall), which is crucial for plant structure.

In animals: Vacuoles store nutrients, waste products, and play roles in endocytosis and exocytosis.

14. Chloroplasts (in plant cells):

Structure: Double-membrane-bound organelles containing their own DNA, with thylakoids

arranged into stacks called grana, surrounded by the stroma.

Function: Chloroplasts are responsible for photosynthesis, converting light energy into chemical

energy stored in glucose. They also play a role in synthesizing fatty acids and amino acids.

15. Cell Wall (in plant cells, fungi, and some prokaryotes):

Structure: A rigid layer outside the plasma membrane, composed mainly of cellulose in plants,

chitin in fungi, and peptidoglycan in bacteria.

Function: The cell wall provides structural support, protection, and helps maintain the shape of the

cell. In plants, it also regulates the intake of water through osmotic pressure.

16. Plasmodesmata (in plant cells):

Structure: Channels that pass through the cell walls of adjacent plant cells, connecting their

cytoplasm.

Function: Plasmodesmata allow the transport of materials and communication between plant cells.