Marine Engineering Automation

Control System-I
A.Balasuadhakar M.E (PhD)
Assistant Professor
Syllabus
Elasticity
Stress
Strain
Tensile and Compressive Sresses
Elastic Limit
Hooke’s Law
 Applications of Hooke’s Law
The applications of Hooke’s law are as given below:
1. Most commonly, in everyday life, Hooke’s Law is
applied in springs because of their elasticity.
2. They are used not only in the Engineering field but
also used in the field of Medical Science.
3. It is used in breathing (lungs), skin, spring beds, diving
boards and car suspension systems.
4. It is used as a fundamental principle behind the
manometer, spring scale and balance wheel of the
clock.
5. It is also used as the foundation for seismology,
acoustics and molecular mechanics.
 Disadvantages of Applying
Hooke’s Law:

1. Hooke’s law is applied only in the elastic region.

2. Hooke’s law gives accurate results only for solid
bodies if the forces and deformations are small.
3. Hooke’s Law is not a universal law.
4. While learning in-depth about Hooke’s law, let
us also understand the subsequent terms which
can be used inside the mechanical properties of
solids.
Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s
Modulus
Shear Stress
Shear modulus or Modulus of Elasticity
Problems
Problems
 Problems
A rod of 150 cm long and of diameter of 2 cm is
subjected to an axial pull of 20 kN. If the
modulus of elasticity of the rod is 2 x 105
N/𝑚𝑚2 . Determine:
01. Stress, 02. strain and 03. elongation
 Problems
Find the minimum diameter of a steel wire,
which is used to raise a load of 4000 N if the
stress in the rod is not to exceed 95 𝑁 𝑚2 .
Find the Young’s modulus of a brass rod of
diameter 25 mm and of length 250 mm which is
subjected to a tensile load of 50 kN when the
extension of the rod is equal to 0.30 mm
Failure of Materials
 Modes of Failure of Materials
• Fracture
• Fatigue
• Creep
• Buckling
• Corrosion
 Fracture
• Fracture refers to the separation or fragmentation of a
material into two or more pieces under the action of
stress. Fractures in materials can occur due to various
reasons, including mechanical loads, thermal stresses,
or environmental conditions. Understanding fractures
is crucial in mechanical engineering for the design
and analysis of structures and components to ensure
safety and reliability.
• Fracture- i) Ductile fracture ii) Brittle fracture
Fracture of ship body
Ductile, Brittle fracture
 Ductile Fracture
• Involves significant plastic deformation before the
final separation.
• Usually characterized by a slow and progressive
failure. Common in materials like most metals,
particularly at higher temperatures.
• The fracture surface shows signs of necking and
considerable deformation, often with a fibrous or
dimpled appearance.
 Brittle fracture
• Occurs without significant plastic deformation.
• Typically characterized by a sudden and catastrophic
failure.
• Common in materials like ceramics, glass, and some
high-strength metals at low temperatures.
• The fracture surface is often flat and perpendicular to
the applied stress, showing little deformation.
Stages in the cup-and-cone fracture
 Cup-and-cone fracture
• First, after necking begins, small cavities, or micro voids, form in the
interior of the cross section,
• Next, as deformation continues, these micro voids enlarge, come
together, and coalesce to form an elliptical crack, which has its long
axis perpendicular to the stress direction.
• The crack continues to grow in a direction parallel to its major axis
by this micro void coalescence process .
• Finally, fracture ensues by the rapid propagation of a crack around
the outer perimeter of the neck (Figure 3.2d), by shear deformation
at an angle of about °45 with the tensile axis—this is the angle at
which the shear stress is a maximum.
• Fracture having this characteristic surface contour is termed a cup-
and-cone fracture because one of the mating surfaces is in the form
of a cup, the other like a cone.
 Fatigue failure
• Fatigue in materials refers to the weakening or failure
of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads,
typically lower than the material's ultimate tensile
strength. This phenomenon is significant because it
can lead to sudden and unexpected failures in
components that might otherwise seem to be
operating within safe limits.
• Eg fatigue failure of engine connecting rod, propeller
Fatigue failure
 Creep
• Creep is the slow, progressive deformation of a
material under constant stress over an extended
period, particularly at high temperatures.
• It is a time-dependent and permanent deformation
that occurs when materials are subjected to a constant
load or stress below their yield strength.
• Creep is significant in materials and structures
operating under high temperatures, such as in turbine
blades, nuclear reactors, and boilers.
Creep failure

Aircraft turbine blade

 Corrosion
• Corrosion is the natural process by which materials,
usually metals, deteriorate due to chemical reactions
with their environment. This degradation can
significantly impact the strength, appearance, and
functionality of the material. Corrosion can occur in
various forms and affects many industries, including
construction, transportation, and manufacturing.
Factors Influencing Corrosion
 Buckling and Collapsing
• Buckling is a form of structural instability where a
material or structural member deforms under
compressive stress, leading to a sudden sideways
deflection.
• This can occur even if the material's strength has not
been exceeded, and it is a critical failure mode for
slender structures subjected to axial loads.
• Collapsing, in this context, often refers to the failure
of the entire structure due to buckling.
Buckling
Buckling of ship
 Beams
Beam is a horizontal structure member used to carry vertical
load, shear load and sometime horizontal load. It is the major
component of building structures. It mainly use in
construction of bridges, trusses, and other structures which
carry vertical load. Beams may be define as:
• Any structure member which cross section is much smaller
compare to its length and undergoes lateral load, known as
beam.
• In other words beam is a horizontal bar witch undergoes
lateral load or couple which tends to bend it or a horizontal
bar undergoes bending stress known as beam
Types of Beams
 Cantilever Beam
• A cantilever beam is a structural element that is fixed
at one end and free at the other, meaning it is
supported only at one end and extends horizontally.
This configuration allows the beam to support loads
along its length, but it can also experience significant
bending moments and shear forces at the fixed
support.
 Applications of cantilever Beam
• Balconies: Cantilevered balconies extend from
buildings without external support columns.
• Overhanging Structures: Roof overhangs and
canopies use cantilever beams.
• Bridges: Some bridge designs incorporate
cantilevered sections for extended spans.
• Signs and Traffic Lights: Road signs and traffic
lights often use cantilevered supports.
• Aircraft Wings: Aircraft wings are designed as
cantilever structures to support aerodynamic
loads.
Cantilever Beam
 Simply Supported Beam
• A simply supported beam is a structural element
supported at both ends, typically with one end on a
pinned (hinge) support and the other end on a roller
support. This type of beam can freely rotate at the
supports and can translate vertically and horizontally
only at the roller support. The beam is subjected to
loads applied perpendicular to its length, and it
primarily resists bending.
Application of Simply supported Beam
• Bridges: Many bridge spans are designed as
simply supported beams.
• Building Floors: Floor joists and beams are
often simply supported.
• Railroad Tracks: Rails are supported by
sleepers, acting as simply supported beams.
• Roof Trusses: Roof trusses in buildings often
use simply supported beams.
Application of Simply supported Beam
 Overhanging Beam
• An overhanging beam is a type of beam that extends
beyond its supports, having one or both ends
projecting beyond the support points. This
configuration combines characteristics of both simply
supported beams and cantilever beams. The portion
of the beam between the supports behaves like a
simply supported beam, while the overhanging
sections behave like cantilever beams.
Applications of Overhanging Beam
• Balconies: Overhanging beams are often used in
the design of balconies that extend from
buildings.
• Building Eaves: Roof overhangs and eaves
frequently utilize overhanging beams.
• Bridges: Some bridge designs incorporate
overhanging sections to extend the deck beyond
the piers.
• Cantilevered Structures: Overhanging beams are
used in structures where one or both ends need
to extend beyond the supports.
Applications of Overhanging Beam
 Rigidly Fixed Beam
• A rigidly fixed beam, also known as a fixed beam or
built-in beam, is a type of beam that is fixed at both
ends, preventing any rotation or translation at the
supports. This means that both ends of the beam are
clamped, providing resistance to vertical and
horizontal forces as well as moments. The fixed
support conditions create continuous moments
along the beam, making it more rigid and less prone
to deflection compared to simply supported or
overhanging beams.
Applications of Rigidly Fixed Beam
• Building Frames: Fixed beams are used in frames
of multi-story buildings to provide rigidity.
• Bridges: Some bridge designs use fixed beams to
distribute loads and reduce deflection.
• Machinery: Fixed beams are used in machine
structures to maintain alignment and stability.
• Structural Supports: Fixed beams provide strong
support in various structures, such as retaining
walls and cantilevered structures.
Applications of Rigidly Fixed Beam
 Continuous Beam
• A continuous beam is a structural element that spans
across three or more supports, with at least two
supports having restraints against both rotation and
translation. Unlike simply supported beams, which
have supports at discrete points, continuous beams
have multiple supports that allow for continuous
bending moments and shear forces along their entire
length. This configuration enables the beam to
transfer loads more efficiently and evenly distribute
moments compared to other beam types.
 Applications of Continuous Beam
• Bridges: Many bridge spans are designed as continuous
beams to distribute loads and minimize structural
deflections.
• Building Structures: Continuous beams are used in
building frames and floors to provide stability and
support.
• Industrial Facilities: Continuous beams are used in
industrial structures to support heavy loads and
machinery.
• Railroad Bridges: Continuous beams are used in
railroad bridges to support railway tracks and distribute
train loads.
Applications of Continuous Beam
Applications of Continuous Beam
 Beams in Ships
• In ships, beams refer to structural elements that span
horizontally across the ship's hull to provide support
and stability. These beams play a crucial role in
distributing loads, maintaining the structural
integrity of the vessel, and supporting various
components and machinery onboard.
 Deck Beams
• Deck beams run horizontally across the width of the
ship's deck, providing support for the ship's
superstructure, cargo, and crew. They help distribute
the loads from the superstructure and cargo evenly
to the ship's hull.
• Construction: Deck beams are typically made from
steel or other high-strength materials to withstand
the forces and loads encountered at sea.
Deck Beams
 Bulkhead Beams
• Bulkhead beams run vertically across the ship's
hull, connecting the sides of the ship to
strengthen the structure and support the
bulkheads (walls) that divide the ship's internal
compartments.
• They provide structural integrity and help to
maintain the ship's stability and watertight
integrity by supporting the bulkheads against the
pressures exerted by cargo, water, and external
forces.
Bulkhead Beams
 Hatch Beams
• Hatch beams are located around cargo hatch
openings on the ship's deck. They support the hatch
covers and help distribute the loads from cargo and
equipment over the hatch opening to prevent
deformation or damage to the ship's structure.
• Hatch beams are designed to be robust and capable
of withstanding the loads applied during cargo
loading, unloading, and storage operations.
 Stress- Strain curve for Ductile
Material
----Stress--------

-------Strain--------------
 Stress Strain Curve
• The diagram begins with a straight line from the origin O to point A, which means that the
relationship between stress and strain in this initial region is not only linear but also
proportional (Two variables are said to be proportional if their ratio remains constant.
• The slope of the straight line from O to A is called the modulus of elasticity. Because the
slope has units of stress divided by strain, modulus of elasticity has the same units as stress
• Beyond point A, the proportionality between stress and strain no longer exists; hence the
stress at A is called the proportional limit
• With an increase in stress beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to increase more
rapidly for each increment in stress. Consequently, the stress-strain curve has a smaller and
smaller slope, until, at point B, the curve becomes horizontal.

A- Proportional Limit C- Yield Point

D- Ultimate Point E- Breaking Point
 Stress – Strain Curve
• This phenomenon is known as yielding of the material, and point B is called the
yield point. The corresponding stress is known as the yield stress of the steel.
• In the region from B to C, the material becomes perfectly plastic, which means that
it deforms without an increase in the applied load.
• After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC, the
steel begins to strain harden. During strain hardening, the material undergoes
changes in its crystalline structure, resulting in increased resistance of the material
to further deformation.
• Elongation of the test specimen in this region requires an increase in the tensile
load, and therefore the stress-strain diagram has a positive slope from C to D.
• The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and the corresponding stress (at
point D) is called the ultimate stress. Further stretching of the bar is actually
accompanied by a reduction in the load, and fracture finally occurs at a point such
as E