In: Meziro, Jack et. al. (Hg.

) (2000): Learning as
Transformation. Critical Perspectives on a Theory in
Progress. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 3-33. 1
Learning to Think Like an Adult
Core Concepts of Transformation Theory

Jack Mezirow

defining condition of being human is our urgent need to un-

A d erstand and order the meaning of our experience, to inte-
grate it with what we know to avoid the threat of chaos. If we are
unable to understand, we often turn to tradition, thoughtlessly seize
acplanations by authority figures, or resort to various psychological
mechanisms, such as projection and rationalization, to create imag-
inary meanings.

Making Meaning as a Learning Process

As there are no fixed truths or totally definitive knowledge, and
because circumstances change, the human condition may be best
understood as a continuous effort to negotiate contested meanings.
Milan Kundera, in The Book of Laughter und Forgetting, wisely sug-
~ t thats if there were too much incontestable meaning in the world
we would succumb under its weight.
That is why it is so important that adult leaming emphasize con-
textual understanding, critical reflection on assumptions, and val-
idating meaning by assessing reasons. The justification for much
of what we know and believe, our values and our feelings, depends
on the context-biographical, historical, cultural-in which they
are embedded. We make meaning with different dimensions of
awareness and understanding; in adulthood we may more clearly
 Leaming to Think Like an Adult 5

understand our experience when we know under what conditions . . . [the] epistemic cognition, must be introduced to
an expressed idea is true or justified. In the absence of fixed truths explain how humans monitor their problem solving when
and confronted with often rapid change in circumstances, we can- engaged in ill-structured problems, i.e. those which do
not fully trust what we know or believe. Interpretations and opin- not have an absolutelycorrect Solution. Epistemic cogni-
ions that may have worked for us as children often do not as adults. tion has to do with reflection on the limits of knowledge,
Our understandings and beliefs are more dependable when they pro- the certainty of knowledge, and the criteria for knowing.
duce interpretations and opinions that are more justifiable or true than .
. . [Elpistemic cognition emerges in late adolescence,
would be those predicated upon other understandings or beliefs. Formu- although its form may change in the adult years.
lating more dependable beliefs about our experience, assessing their
contexts, seeking informed agreement on their meaning and justifi- In this formulation, transformative leaming pertains to epistemic
cation, and making decisions on the resulting insights are central to cognition.
the adult leaming process. Transformation Theory attempts to ex- Leaming is understood as the process of using a prior interpre-
plain this process and to examine its implications for action-oriented tation to construe a new or revised interpretation of the meaning of
adult educators. one's experience as a guide to future action. We appropriate symbol-
Bruner (1996) identifies four modes of making meaning: (1) es- ic models, composed of images and conditioned affective reactions
tablishing, shaping, and maintaining intersubjectivity; (2) relating acquired earlier through the culture or the idiosyncrasies of parents
events, utterances, and behavior to the action taken; (3) constru. or caretakers-a highly individualistic "frame of referencel'-and
ing of particulars in a normative context-deals with meaning rel- make analogies to interpret the meaning of our new sensory expe-
ative to obligations, Standards, conformities, and deviations; (4) rience (Rosenfield, 1988). Leaming may be intentional, the result
making propositions-application of rules of the symbolic, syntac. of deliberate inquiry; incidental, a by-product of another activity in-
tic, and conceptual Systems used to achieve decontexualized mean. volving intentional leaming; or mindlessly assimilative. Aspects of
ings, including rules of inference and logic and such distinctions as both intentional and incidental leaming take place outside leamer
whole.part, object-attribute, and identity-othemess. awareness.
Bruner's list is incomplete. Transformation Theory adds a fifth and Construal in intentional or incidental learning involves the use
crucial mode of making meaning: becoming critically aware of one's of language to articulate our experience to ourselves or to others. A
own tacit assumptions and expectations and those of others and as. third type of construal Heron (1988) describes as presentational. In
sessing their relevance for making an interpretation. presentational construal we do not require words to make meaning,
Kitchener (1983, p. 230) has suggested that there are three lev. as when we experience presence, motion, color, texture, direction.
els of cognitive processing: ality, aesthetic or kinesthetic experience, empathy, fee1'ings, appre.
ciation, inspiration, or transcendence. We use language here only
At the first level, individuals compute, memorize, read when we experience a problem in understanding or Want to share
and comprehend. At the second level [metacognition], the experience.
they monitor their own Progress and products as they are Beliefs do not need to be encoded in words. They may be en-
engaged in first-order cognitive tasks. . . . The third level coded in repetitive interactions and generalized. Weiss reminds us
 Leaming to Think Like an Adult 7

that a person's beliefs about himself or herself and his or her world girding our ideas and those supporting our emotional responses to
are intimately bound up with his or her affects. He writes (1997, the need to change.
P. 428): As language and culturally specific social practices are implicated
in leaming, understanding will be enabled and constrained by the
Indeed, research into the unconscious acquisition of historical knowledge-power networks in which it is embedded. The
knowledge demonstrates that the human being has an assumptions of these historical networks and their supporting ide-
.enormous capacity nonconsciously to make inferences ologies need to be brought into awareness and critical reflection by
from complex data, to solve difficult puzzles, and to make the leamer to make possible a greater degree of autonomous leam-
broad generalizations from particular experiences. . . . ing. We need to focus on who is doing the leaming and under what
[T]he nonconscious capacity of people to acquire infor- circumstances to understand the transformative leaming process.
mation is much more sophisticated and rapid than their The who, what, when, where, why, and how of leaming may be
conscious capacity to do this. Also human beings have only understood as situated in a specific cultural context. However,
no conscious access to the nonconscious process that the content of a comprehensive leaming theory cannot be dictated
they use to acquire information. People cannot describe exclusively by cultural interests. What we have in common are hu-
them; they are conscious only of the results of their non- man connectedness, the desire to understand, and spiritual in-
conscious mental activities. completeness. Cultures enable or inhibit the realization of common
human interests, ways of communicating and realizing learning
Art, music, and dance are alternative languages. Intuition, imag- capabilities.
ination, and dreams are other ways of making meaning. Inspiration, Mindful leaming is defined by Langer (1997, p. 4) as the contin-
empathy, and transcendence are central to self-knowledge and to uous creation of new categories, openness to new information, and
drawing attention to the affective quality and poetry of human ex- an implicit awareness of more than one perspective. Mindlessness
perience. Dirkx (1997, p. 85) writes of "learning through soul" in- involves relying on past forms of action or previously established
volving "a focus on the interface where the socioemotional and the distinctions and categories.
intellectual world meet, where the inner and outer worlds converge." It should be understood that there are different degrees of com-
Psychotherapists use transference to facilitate the making of mean- prehension and mindfulness regarding becoming aware of one's
ing by their patients. Modeiing a way of leaming by an educator, such thoughts. In adulthood, knowing how you know involves awareness
as becoming critically reflective of one's assumptions, may also influ- of the context-sources, nature, and consequences-of your inter-
ence the way a learner makes meaning. pretations and beliefs and those of others. In adulthood, informed
Cognition has strong affective and conative dimensions; all the decisions require not only awareness of the source and context of
sensitivity and responsiveness of the Person participates in the in- our knowledge, values, and feelings but also critical reflection on
vention, discovery, interpretation, and transformation of meaning. the validity of their assumptions or premises.
Transformative learning, especially when it involves subjective Transformative leaming refers to the process by which we trans-
reframing, is often an intensely threatening emotional experience form our taken-foregranted frames of reference (meaning perspec.
in which we have to become aware of both the assumptions under- tives, habits of mind, mind-sets) to make them more inclusive,
 Leaming to Think Like an Adult 9

discriminating, Open, emotionally capable of change, and reflective Understanding in communicative leaming requires that we as-
so that they may generate beliefs and opinions that will prove more sess the meanings behind the words; the coherence, truth, and ap-
true or justified to guide action. Transformative leaming involves propriateness of what is being communicated; the truthfulness and
participation in constructive discourse to use the experience of oth- qualifications of the speaker; and the authenticity of expressions of
ers to assess reasons justifying these assumptions, and making an feeling. That is, we must become critically reflective of the assump-
action decision based on the resulting insight. tions of the person communicating. We need to know whether the
Transformation Theory's focus is on how we leam to negotiate person who gives us a diagnosis about our health is a trained med-
and act on our own purposes, values, feelings, and meanings rather ical worker, that one who gives us direction at work is authorized to
than those we have uncritically assimilated from others-to gain do so, or whether a stranger who talks to us on a bus is just passing
greater control over our lives as socially responsible, clear-thinking the time or trying to sell us something, proselytize, or pick us up.
decision makers. As such, it has particular relevance for leaming in The meaning of the words the stranger uses depends on his or her
contemporary societies that share democratic values. Because this assumptions.
theory particularly addresses the interests of adult education, as Assumptions include intent, sometimes implied as a subtext;
this vocation has evolved in the West, it assumes the perfectability what is taken for granted, like conventional wisdom; a particular
of human beings when this refers to improving our understanding religious worldview; whether one means what is said and in what
and the quality of our actions through meaningful leaming. sense it is meant-literally or metaphorically, as a joke or caricature;
Transformative learning has both individual and social dimen- the frame of reference; the character-liar, zealot, crook-and qual-
sions and implications. It demands that we be aware of how we come ifications of the person communicating; and the relevance and tim-
to our knowledge and as aware as we can be about the values that ing of the communication and the context-biographical, historical,
lead us to our perspectives. Cultural canon, socioeconomic struc- and cultural-within which what is being communicated makes
tures, ideologies and beliefs about ourselves, and the practices they sense. Communicative leaming often involves a critical assessment
Support often conspire to foster conformity and impede development of assumptions supporting the justification of norms.
of a sense of responsible agency. Most learning involves elements of both domains. Hart (1990)
pointed out that challenging premises involved in instrumental leam-
Domains of Learning ing itself involves communicative leaming. In instrumental leaming,
Habermas (1984) has helped us understand that there are two major problem solving and inquiry follow a hypothetical-deductive log.
domains of leaming with different purposes, logics of inquiry, crite- ic (test a hypothesis; analyze its consequences). In communicative
ria of rationality, and modes of validating beliefs. One is insrrumen- learning, inquiry assumes a metaphorical-abductive logic (make an
tal iearning-learning to control and manipulate the environment analogy; let each step in understanding dictate the next one). Leam.
or other people, as in task-oriented problem solving to improve per- ing may involve a transformation in frame of reference in either do.
formance. The other is comrnunicative iearning-leaming what others main.
mean when they communicate with you. This often involves feel- We establish the validity of our problematic beliefs in instru.
ings, intentions, values, and moral issues. mental leaming by empirically testing to determine the truth of an
 Leaming to Think Like an Adult 11

assertion. In communicative leaming, we determine the justifica- belief. This involves assessing reasons advanced by weighing the
tion of a problematic belief or understanding through rational dis- supporting evidence and arguments and by examining alternative
course to arrive at a tentative best judgment. The only alternatives perspectives. Reflective discourse involves a critical assessment of
to discourse for justifying a belief are to appeal to tradition, author- assumptions. It leads toward a clearer understanding by tapping col-
ity, or force. lective experience to arrive at a tentative best judgment. Discourse
Here rationality refers to assessing reasons supporting one's op- is the forum in which "finding one's voice" becomes a prerequisite
tions as objectively as possible and choosing the most effective means for free full participation. Kegan (1994) writes that the two great-
available to achieve one's objectives. In instrumental leaming, ratio- est yeamings in human experience are to be included and to have
nality is judged by whether we are able to achieve technical success a sense of agency. Of course, agency is intimately dependent on oth-
in meeting our objectives (for example, use methods that result in ers and on one's inclusion in discourse. Discourse always reflects wid-
improved performance). In communicative leaming, rationality is er pattems of relationship and power.
judged by our success in coming to an understanding conceming the Effective participation in discourse and in transformative leaming
issues at hand. requires emotional maturity-awareness, empathy, and control-
In coping with the external world, instrumental competence what Goleman (1998) calls "emotional intelligenceW-knowing and
involves attainment of improved task-oriented performance. But managing one's emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions
communicative competence refers to the ability of the leamer to in others and handling relationships-as well as clear thinking. Gole-
negotiate his or her own purposes, values, feelings, and meanings man elaborates emotional competencies for each of these dimensions
rather than to simply act on those of others (what 1 later refer to as of emotional intelligence. Major social competencies include empa-
autonomous thinking). We test our interpretations and beliefs in- thy (understanding others and cultivating opportunity through di-
strumentally by hypothesis testing and empirical measurement when verse people and political awareness) and social skills (adeptness in
we can and justify them communicatively through reflective dis- getting desired responses from others). Self-regulation includes selfd
course when we cannot. control and trustworthiness (maintaining Standards of honesty and
Although Habermas suggests a third learning domain, emanci- integrity). Based on his extensive qualitative research, Goleman
pation, Transformation Theory redefines this as the transformation claims that emotional intelligence accounts for 85 percent to 90 per.
process that pertains in both instrumental and communicative leam- Cent of success at work, more than I.Q. or expertise, a view that War-
ing domains. Habermas also suggests two additional leaming domains: ren Bennis (1998) Shares.
normative leaming-leaming oriented to common values and an ex- Our culture conspires against collaborative thinking and the
pectation of certain behavior reflecting those values-and impres- development of social competence by conditioning us to think
sionistic leaming-leaming to enhance one's impression on others. adversarially in terms of winning or losing, of proving ourselves
smart, worthy, or wise. Deborah Tannen (1998) writes of ours as an
Reflective Discourse "argument culture," a cultural paradigm that conditions us to ap-
Discourse, in the context of Transformation Theory, is that special- proach anything we need to accomplish together as a fight between
ized use of dialogue devoted to searching for a common under- opposing sides, like a debate or like settling differences by litiga-
standing and assessment of the justification of an interpretation or tion. Political discourse becomes reduced to negative advertising.
 Leaming to Think Like an Adult

In televised or radio talk shows public discourse becomes a process identifying the common in the contradictory, tolerating the anxi.
of finding spokespersons for different points of view who are the ety implicit in paradox, searching for synthesis, and reframing.
most extreme and polarized. We tend to believe that there are two If one has a totally revolutionary way of expressing understand.
sides to every issue and only two. We set out to win an argument ing, she may be unable to find Support from others. It may take years
rather than to understand different ways of thinking and different to convince the world of the validity of a revolutionary idea, but for
frames of reference, and to search for common ground, to resolve the concept to become validated, if it cannot be proven empiricall~,
differences, and to get things done. its justification must eventually be established through discourse.
In an argument culture, the quality of information that we get Our option in the face of paradox is to bridge, through ongoing
is compromised: however bizarre and unwarranted a viewpoint negotiations, the simultaneous existence of mutually exclusive in-
may be, such as denial of the Holocaust, it becomes "the other side," ternal, external, and relational realities. Bruner (1990, p. 30) defines
as though everything has another side. Tannen's analysis of our argu- open-mindednessas "a willingness to construe knowledge and val-
ment culture is a valuable sourcebook for those who would facili- ues from multiple perspectives without loss of commitment to one's
tate transformative learning and have a priority in helping adults own values." Reflective discourse involves what the Greek Skeptics
learn how to move from self-serving debate to empathic listening called epoche, a provisional suspension of judgment about the truth
and informed constructive discourse. or falsity of, or the belief or disbelief in, ideas until a better detenni-
Consensus building is an ongoing process, and a best collective nation can be made.
judgment is always subject to review by a broader group of partici- The generic role of discourse in human communication implies
pants. A best (or more dependable) judgment is always tentative certain conditions for its full realization (and, by implication, a set
until additional evidence, argument, or a different perspective is of conditions for optimizing adult learning and education as well).
presented that may change it. This is why it is essential to seek out To more freely and fully participate in discourse, participants must
and encourage viewpoints that challenge prevailing norms of the have the following:
dominant culture in matters of class, race, gender, technology, and
More accurate and complete information
environmental protection. Agreement based on the unchallenged
norms of a culture will be obviously less informed and dependable Freedom from coercion and distorting self-deception
than those based on a wider range of experience.
Openness to alternative points of view: empathy and
Ideally, a best judgment is based on the broadest consensus pos-
concern about how others think and feel
sible, but consensus is not always feasible. In striving for consensus
it is important not only to seek a wide range of views but to allow dis- The ability to weigh evidence and assess arguments
sension. Discourse requires only that participants have rhe will and objectively
readiness to seek understanding and to reach some reasonable agree-
Greater awareness of the context of ideas and, more crit-
ment. Feelings of trust, solidarity, security, and empathy are essen-
ically, reflectiveness of assumptions, including their own
tial preconditions for free full participation in discourse. Discourse
is not based on winning arguments; it centrally involves finding An equal opportunity to participate in the various roles
agreement, welcoming difference, "trying on" other points of view, of discourse
 Leaming to Think Like an Adult 15

Willingness to seek understanding and agreement and leamers; the successful educator works herself out of her job as edu-
to accept a resulting best judgment as a test of validity cator and becomes a collaborative leamer.
until new perspectives, evidence, or arguments are Although not necessarily a good example of connected knowing,
encountered and validated through discourse as yield- the ideal of a graduate seminar may serve in some respects as a model
ing a better judgment of group discourse. In a model seminar, there are a Set of commonly
accepted norrns that Support the ideal conditions of discourse-there
The claim is that if everyone could participate in discourse un- is no outside coercion (other than that intemalized as a result of prior
der these conditions there would be a consensus supporting them experience or of being expected to come to the seminar informed on
as norms. These ideal conditions constitute a principle; they are the concepts and issues to be discussed), everyone has an equal op-
never fully realized in practice. They imply, in effect, what Bellah portunity to contribute, participants are informed on the topic to be
and others (1985) refer to as "democratic habits of the heart": re- discussed, and there are norms of courtesy, active listening, studying
spect for others, self-respect, willingness to accept responsibility issues in advance, and taking tums to talk. Academic freedom per-
for the common good, willingness to welcome diversity and to ap- mits anyone to be critically reflective of established cultural norms
proach others with openness. or viewpoints.
There is also a close relationship between the ideal conditions To assess and fully understand the way others interpret experi-
of discourse and what Belenky and her colleagues (1986, pp. 143- ence requires discourse, and to understand and assess the reasons for
146) refer to as "really talking," in which emphasis is placed on their beliefs and understandings requires the ability to become crit-
active listening, domination is absent, reciprocity and cooperation ically reflective of their assumptions and our own. Culture, history,
are prominent, and judgment is withheld until one empathically and biograph~determine the manner and degree to which these
understands another's point of view: "Compared to other positions, human faculties for intersubjectivity, reflective discourse, and mind-
there is a capacity at the position of constructed knowledge to at- ful leaming become realized in time and place.
tend to another person and to feel related to that person in spite of Values like freedom, equality, tolerance, social justice, and ratio-
what may be enormous differences. . . . Empathy is a central feature nality provide essential norms for free full participation in discourse,
in the development of connected procedures for knowing . . . atten- that is, for fully understanding our experience. Cultures and soci-
tive caring is important in understanding not only people but also eties differ in the degree to which critical reflection and discourse
the written word, ideas, even impersonal objects." are encouraged. In a democracy, like all such norms that influence
Discourse is the process in which we have an active dialogue educational, political, and moral decisions, they are, at least in the-
with others to better understand the meaning of an experience. It ory, dependent for their validity on an informed consensus by those
may include interaction within a group or between two persons, in- effected. This is a consensus arrived at through discourse free from
cluding a reader and an author or a viewer and an artist. domination, ideally under the conditions specified earlier.
Fostering discourse, with a determined effort to free participa- Preconditions for realizing these values and finding one's voice
tion from distortions by power and influence, is a long-established for free full participation in discourse include elements of maturity,
priority of adult educators. The generally accepted model of adult education, safety, health, economic security, and emotional intelli-
education involves a transfer of authority from the educator to the gence. Hungry, homeless, desperate, threatened, sick, or frightened
 Learning to Think Like an Adult 17

adults are less likely to be able to participate effectively in discourse from the idiosyncrasies of primary caregivers. We tend to embrace
to help us better understand the meaning of our own experiences. frames of reference that complement each other. Particularly com-
This is one reason why adult educators are dedicated to social justice. prehensive and dominant paradigms or Systems of belief that unite
Full development of the human potential for transformative the particular with the universal become "worldviews," like the con-
learning depends on values such as freedom, equality, tolerance, cept of logos in ancient Greece, Christian belief in the Middle Ages
social justice, civic responsibility, and education. It assumes that and Reformation, and science and technology in the twentieth cen-
these values are basic to our human need to constructively use the tury. One's fiame of reference may include intentionally or inciden-
experience of others to understand, or make more dependable, the tally leamed philosophical, economic, sociological, and psychological
meaning of our experience. One might argue that their claim as orientations or theories as well.
human rights and their political significance are predicated on this A frame of reference is composed of two dimensions, a habit of
foundation. To borrow a phrase from Camus, without these values mind and resulting points of view. A Mit ofmind is a Set of assump-
"even a transformed world would not be worth living in, and man, tions-broad, generalized, orienting predispositions that act as a
even if 'new,' would not deserve to be respected" (quoted in Ful- filter for interpreting the meaning of experience. Some varieties of
ghum, 1997, p. 77). habits of mind are the following:

Sociolinguistic (cultural canon, ideologies, social

Meaning Structures norms, customs, "language games," secondary social-
ization)
A frame ofreference is a "meaning perspective," the structure of as-
sumptions and expectations through which we filter sense impres- Moral-ethical (conscience, moral norms)
sions. It involves cognitive, affective, and conative dimensions. It
Epistemic (learning styles, sensory preferences, focus
selectively shapes and delimits perception, cognition, feelings, and
on wholes or parts or on the concrete or abstract)
disposition by predisposing our intentions, expectations, and pur-
poses. It provides the context for making meaning within which we Philosophical (religious doctrine, philosophy, transcen-
choose what and how a sensory experience is to be construed and/or dental world view)
appropriated.
Psychological (self-concept, personality traits or types,
Frames of reference are the results of ways of interpreting ex-
repressed parental prohibitions that continue to dictate
perience. They may be either within or outside of our awareness.
ways of feeling and acting in adulthood, emotional
Many of our most guarded beliefs about ourselves and our world-
response Patterns, images, fantasies, dreams; for a
that we are smart or dumb, good or bad, winners or losers-are in-
Freudian interpretation See Gould 1978, for a Jungian
ferred from repetitive affective experience outside of awareness.
interpretation See Boyd 1991)
Because of such affectively encoded experience each Person can be
said to live in a different reality. Aesthetic (values, tastes, attitudes, Standards, and judg-
Our frames of reference often represent cultural paradigms (col- ments about beauty and the insight and authenticity of
lectively held frames of reference)-leaming that is unintention- aesthetic expressions, such as the sublime, the ugly, the
ally assimilated from the culture-r personal perspectives derived tragic, the humorous, the "drab", and others)
 Leaming to Think Like an Adult 19

Habits of mind include conservative or liberal orientation; tendency A frame of reference that is more dependable, as we have seen,
to move toward or away from people; approaching the unknown produces interpretations and opinions that are more likely to be jus-
fearful or confident; preference to work alone or with others; eth- tified (through discursive assessment) or true (through empirical
nocentricity (seeing people different from your group negatively or assessment) than those predicated on a less dependable frame of ref-
as inferior); tendency to respect or challenge authority; thinking erence. A more dependable frame of reference is one that is more
like a scientist, soldier, lawyer, or adult educator; intepreting behav- inclusive, differentiating, permeable (open to other viewpoints),
ior as a Freudian or a Jungian; approaching a problem analytically critically reflective of assumptions, emotionally capable of change,
or intuitively; focusing on a problem from whole to parts or vice and integrative of experience. Insofar as experience and circum-
versa; introversion or extroversion; Patterns of acting as a perfec- stance permit, we move toward more dependable frames of refer-
tionist, victim, or incompetent; fear of change; thinking conven- ence to better understand our experience.
tionally about one's roles; occupational, disciplinary, religious,
educational, capitalist, Marxist, or postmodemist; and many oth- Transformations
er orientations and worldviews.
A habit of mind becomes expressed as a point of view. A point of Leaming occurs in one of four ways: by elaborating existing frames
view comprises clusters of meaning schemes-sets of immediate spe- of reference, by learning new frames of reference, by transforming
cific expectations, beliefs, feelings, attitudes, and judgments-that points of view, or by transforming habits of mind.
tacitly direct and shape a specific interpretation and determine how Transformation refers to a movement through time of refor-
we judge, typify objects, and attribute causality. Meaning schemes mulating reified structures of meaning by reconstructing dominant
commonly operate outside of awareness. They arbitrarily determine narratives. The process rnay itself become a frame of reference, a
what we see and how we see it-cause-effect relationships, scenar- dispositional orientation. As mentioned earlier, we transform
ios of sequences of events, what others will be like, and our ideal- frames of reference-our own and those of others-by becoming
ized self-image. They suggest a line of action that we tend to follow critically reflective of their assumptions and aware of their con-
automatically unless brought into critical reflection. text-the source, nature, and consequences of taken-for-granted
Our values and sense of self are anchored in our frames of refer- beliefs. Assumptions on which habits of mind and related points
ence. They provide us with a sense of stability, coherence, commu- of view are predicated rnay be epistemological, logical, ethical,
nity, and identity. Consequently they are often emotionally charged psychological, ideological, social, cultural, economic, political, eco-
and strongly defended. Other points of view are judged against the logical, scientific, or spiritual, or rnay pertain to other aspects of
standards set by our points of view. Viewpoints that call our frames experience.
of reference into question rnay be dismissed as distorting, deceptive, Brookfield (1995) emphasizes the importance of three common
ill intentioned, or crazy. assumptions for critical reflection: paradigmatic assumptions that
Who we are and what we value are closely associated. So quese stmcture the world into fundamental categories (the most difficult
tions raised regarding one's values are apt to be viewed as a personal to identify in oneself), prescriptive assumptions about what we think
attack. Leaming tends to become narrowly defined as efforts to add ought to be happening in a specific situation, and causal assumptions
compatible ideas to elaborate our fixed frames of reference. However, about how the world works and how it rnay be changed (the easiest
this disposition rnay be changed through transformative learning. to identify).
 Leaming to Think Like an Adult

Transformative learning refers to transforming a problematic ment on individual learner gains, and perhaps we take action on
frame of reference to make it more dependable in our adult life by our reflective insight by tuming to another form of evaluation, such
generating opinions and interpretations that are more justified. We as portfolio assessment.
become critically reflective of those beliefs that become problematic. Becoming critically reflective of assumptions underlying con-
Beliefs are often inferential, based on repetitive emotional interac- tent, process, or premise is common in both instrumental and
tions and established outside of our awareness. Frames of reference communicative learning. Reflectivity involves reasoning and/
rnay be highly individualistic or shared as paradigms. Transforma- or intuition. Both are significantly influenced by conditioned emo-
tive leaming is a way of problem solving by defining a problem or by tional responses. Many beliefs are generalized from repetitive inter-
redefining or reframing the problem. We often become critically actions outside of consciousness. Transformations rnay be focused
reflective of our assumptions or those of others and arrive at a trans- and mindful, involving critical reflection, the result of repetitive
formative insight, but we need to justify our new perspective through affective interaction or of mindless assimilation-as in moving to
discourse. a different culture and uncritically assimilating its canon, norms,
Imagination is central to understanding the unknown; it is the and ways of thinking.
way we examine alternative interpretations of our experience by Transformations in habit of mind rnay be epochal, a sudden, dra-
"trying on" another's point of view. The more reflective and Open matic, reorienting insight, or incremental, involving a progressive
we are to the perspectives of others, the richer our imagination of series of transformations in related points of view that culminate in
alternative contexts for understanding will be. a transformation in habit of mind. For example, a traditionally ori-
In instrumental leaming we can transform our points of view by ented woman takes a late-aftemoon adult education class. She rnay
becoming critically reflective of assumptions supporting the content come to wonder why the other women in the class stick around to
andlor process of problem solving. For example, in deciding how to discuss interesting issues when she has to rush home to make dinner
assign grades to leamers in a class we rnay become critically reflec- for her husband. She rnay engage in transformative leaming by
tive of the content of the problem: How might one select and as- becoming critically reflective of her point of view on this topic. If she
sign value to different indicators-standardized tests, written work, experiences a related progression of such critically reflective questions
teacher-made tests, participation, group work, and others? We rnay about her assumptions in several different situations, this can lead to
also become critically reflective of the process of solving the prob- a nansformation in her habit of mind regarding her role as a woman.
lem: Do we have a sufficiently representative sample of student Cohen (1997) describes how an educator can help adult students
performance in the selected indicators to make a fair judgment? with negative experiences in school to feel more secure as leamers
Critical anal~sisof content or process in instrumental leaming can in doing classwork. Over time, a series of these transformations in
lead to significantly improved performance by the educator. point of view about oneself as a learner ("I can understand these
We rnay transform our habit of mind by becoming critically re- ideas") rnay cumulatively lead to a transformation in self-concept
flective of our premises in defining the problem, such as by ques- ("I am a smart, competent personl')-a habit of mind.
tioning the validity of our assumptions supporting the concept of We change our point of view by trying on another's point of view.
competitive grading in the first place rather than focusing assess- We are unable to do this with a habit of mind. The most personally
 Leaming to Think Like an Adult

significant and emotionally exacting transformations involve a cri- the historical dimensions of our dilemma" and "confronting it as a
tique of previously unexamined premises regarding one's self ("a difficulty to be worked through."
woman's place is in the home, so I must deny myself a career that I Transformative learning may occur through objective or subjec-
would love"). tive reframing. Objective reframing involves critical reflection on the
Transformations often follow some variation of the following assumptions of others encountered in a narrative or in task-oriented
phases of meaning becoming clarified (see Chapter Eleven): problem solving, as in "action leaming" (Revans, 1982). Subjective
refrßming involves critical self-reflection of one's own assumptions
1. A disorienting dilemma about the following:
2. Self-examination with feelings of fear, anger, guilt, or shame
A narrative-applying a reflective insight from some-
3. A critical assessment of assumptions
one else's narrative to one's own experience
4. Recognition that one's discontent and the process of transfor-
mation are shared A system-economic, cultural, political, educational,
communal, or other-as in Freire's (1970) cwcientiza-
5. Exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and
tion, consciousness raising in the womens' movement
actions
and the civil rights movement
6. Planning a Course of action
A n organization or workplace-as in Argyris's (1982)
7. Acquiring knowledge and skills for implementing one's plans
"double loop learning"
8. Provisional trying of new roles
Feelings and interpersonal relations-as in psychologi-
9. Building competence and self-confidence in new roles and
cal counseling or psychotherapy
relationships
10. A reintegration into one's life on the basis of conditions The ways one leams, including one's own frames of ref-
dictated by one's new perspective erence, per Se, in some adult education programs-as in
Isaacs' (1993) "triple loop learning"
Clark (1993) found that an earlier Stage of exploration may be
followed by encountering a "missing piece" that provides the inte- Critical reflection in the context of psychotherapy focuses on as-
gration necessary for a transformative experience. sumptions regarding feelings pertaining to interpersonal relation-
Frosty (1998, p. 72) observes, "From women's and black con- ships; in adult education its focus is on an infinitely wider range of
sciousness movements come insights that psychic transformations concepts and their accompanying cognitive, affective, and conative
involve a revisioning of self in the eyes and responses of similar 0th- dimensions. This distinction is important in differentiating between
ers and/or a beneficial cycle of desire, identification and re-apportion these two professional fields. Subjective reframing commonly in-
of a stronger subjectivity through relations with those who them- volves an intensive and difficult emotional struggle as old perspec-
selves successfully transcend oppression." tives become challenged and transformed.
Boyd (1991, p. 198) has identified two fundamental steps toward A mindful transformative learning experience requires that the
a personal transformation: "making public, primarily for ourselves, learner make an informed and reflective decision to act on his or
 Leaming to Think Like an Adult

her reflective insight. This decision may result in immediate action, eties is that an adult is able to understand the issues, will make ra-
delayed action, or reasoned reaffirmation of an existing Pattern of tional choices as a socially responsible, autonomous agent and, at
action. Taking action on reflective insights often involves overcom- least sometimes, is free to act on them. Even partial autonomy re-
ing situational, emotional, and informational constraints that may quires communicative competence and transformative learning.
require new leaming experiences in order to move forward. As chal- A sense of agency implies that one can understand perceptively.
lenging one's cherished beliefs (a leap into the unknown) often Such understanding requires the ability and disposition to become
invokes a threatening emotional experience, the qualities that con- critically reflective of one's own assumptions as well as those of oth-
stitute emotional intelligence (see p. 11) are essential conditions of ers, engage fully and freely in discourse to validate one's beliefs, and
transformative learning. Freedom involves not just the will and effectively take reflective action to implement them.
insight to change but also the power to act to attain one's purpose. But learning theory must recognize the crucial role of support-
As Novak claims: "Perspective transformation represents not only ive relationships and a supportive environment in making possible
a total change in life perspective, but an actualization of that per- a more confident, assured sense of personal efficacy,of having a self-
spective. In other words life is not seen from a new perspective, it is or selves--more capable of becoming critically reflective of one's
lived from that perspective" (quoted in Paprock, 1992, p. 197). habitual and sometimes cherished assumptions, and of having the
Tennant (1998, p. 374) Sees as a test of transformative learning self-confidence to take action on reflective insights. The power to
"the extent to which it exposes the social and cultural embedded- control and determine our actions in the context of out desires and
ness and taken-for-granted assumptions in which the self is located; intentions is a definition of will. Transformative learning includes
explore[s] the interests served by the continuation of the self thus this conative dimension. The development of these dispositions is
positioned; incite[s] a refusal to be positioned in this way when the intimately dependent on others and, by extension, on wider pat-
interests served are those of domination and oppression; and en- terns of relationship and power. Maxine Greene observes: "lt is
courage[s] alternative readings of the text of experience." actually through the process of effecting transformations that the
Critical reflection, discourse, and reflective action always exist human self is created and re-created" (1988, p. 21).
in the real world in complex institutional, interpersonal, and his- Although it is clear that our interests and priorities change in
torical Settings, and these inevitably significantly influence the pos- the different seasons of our lives, development in adulthood may be
sibilities for transformative learning and shape its nature. The understood as a learning process-a phased and often transforma-
possibility for transformative learning must be understood in the tive process of meaning becoming clarified through expanded aware-
context of cultural orientations embodied in our frames of reference, ness, critical reflection, validating discourse, and reflective action
including institutions, customs, occupations, ideologies, and inter- as one moves toward a fuller realization of agency. For Robert Kegan,
ests, which shape our preferences and limit our focus. We need to "transforming our epistemologies, liberating ourselves from that in
become critically reflective of their assumptions and consequences. which we are embedded, making what was a subject into object so
that we can 'have it' rather than to 'be had' by it-this is the most
powerful way I know to conceptualize the growth of the mind"
Adulthood
(1994, P. 34).
A n adult is commonly defined as a Person old enough to be held Döbert, Habermas, and Nunner.Winkler (1987, p. 296) com-
responsible for his or her acts. The assumption in democratic soci- ment: "Finally adolescents form the notions of heteronomy and
 Learning to Think Like an Adult 27

autonomy; they recognize the difference between existing conven- Acquiring the ability to make more autonomous choices is a process
tions and justifiable norms. The orientation guiding action becomes never fully realized. An autonomous choice is one in which the indi-
increasingly abstract, focusing first on concrete need, then duty and vidual is "free to act and judge independently of extemal constraints
finally autonomous will." on the basis of her own reasoned appraisal" (p. 54).
Although adolescents may leam to become critically reflective This process has to do with assessing reasons supporting beliefs.
of the assumptions of others, becoming critically reflective of one's To do so effectively, this involves becoming critically reflective of
own assumptions appears tobe much more likely to occur in adults their assumptions, validating assertions through empirical test or
(See Chapter Two). King and Kitchener (1994) have found that it is discourse, and making a decision to act on one's critical insight. For
well into adulthood that we develop reflective judgment, the process Siegal and Transformation Theory, critical thinking is coextensive
of participation in critical discourse to assess reasons and make ten- with rationality.
tative judgments regarding contested beliefs. The process of self-empowerment, acquiring greater control of
one's life as a liberated leamer, is, of course, always limited by social,
historical, and cultural conditions. Sociologists,feminists, and ecol-
Toward a Philosophy of Adult Education ogists have helped us become aware that human beings are essen-
Adult education may be understood as an organized effort to assist tially relational. Our identity is formed in webs of affiliation within
leamers who are old enough to be held responsible for their acts to a shared life world. Human reality is intersubjective; our life histo-
acquire or enhance their understandings, skills, and dispositions. ries and language are bound up with those of others. It is within the
Central to this process is helping leamers to critically reflect On, ap- context of these relationships, govemed by existing and changing
propriately validate, and effectively act on their (and others') be- cultural paradigms, that we become the persons we are. Transfor-
lief~,interpretations, values, feelings, and ways of thinking. Our mative leaming involves liberating ourselves from reified forms of
human need to understand our experience, the necessity that we do thought that are no longer dependable.
so through critical discourse, and the optimal conditions enabling Jansen and Wildemeersch (1998) point out that social conditions
us to do so freely and fully provide a foundation for a philosophy of for acquiring a sense of autonomy in our society often implies q d -
adult education. Kegan (1994, p. 232) notes that leaming that re- ifications-that only through a particular kind and quantity of edu-
flects on itself can only be accomplished through transforrnaybnal cation may one acquire the abilities to participate fully in social and
education, "a 'leading out' from an established habit of mind," an economic life. This assumes social integration; marginalized groups
order of mental complexity that enables self-direction,a qualitative are often excluded. The implication is that social identity and full-
change in how one knows. fledged social and economic participation require the proper qual-
Siegal(1990, p. 58) describes a liberated Person as one "free from ifications and that we all have equal access to the necessary education
unwarranted and undesirable control of unjustified beliefs, unsup- and training to become qualified. Of course, this is a shibboleth. A
attitudes and paucity of ability which can prevent one from further assumption is that there are always rewarding career oppor-
taking charge of her own life." Fostering these liberating conditions tunities out there for those who are qualified. Adult educators are
for making more autonomous and informed choices and developing committed to efforts to create a more equal Set of enabling condi-
a sense of self-empowerment is the cardinal goal of adult education. tions in our society, to the ideal of social justice.
 Learning to Think Like an Adult

The postmodern emphasis that a Person is constructed from to be excluded and, by implication, dominated? Tennant (1998,
sources outside oneself is a valuable insight. Rubenson (1998, p. 257) p. 370) challenges the postmodemist notion that autonomy implies
observes: "Lifelong leaming for all is conditional on a working life an intemalization of extemally imposed disciplines of regulation, a
organized in a way that promotes the use of literacy and a society way to produce cultural conformity
where people are encouraged to think, act, and be engaged." Fostering greater autonomy in thinking is both a goal and a
There are obvious inequities in the social structure reflecting method for adult educators. (For a different view See Candy, 1991,
asymmetrical power relationships and perpetuating inequalities that p. 8.) As used here, achieving greater autonomy in thinking is a
profoundly influence the way one understands experience. Leam- product of transformative leaming-acquiring more of the under-
ers need to become critically reflective of how these factors have standings, skills, and dispositions required to become more aware of
shaped the ways they think and their beliefs so they may take col- context of interpretations and beliefs, critically reflective of assump-
lective action to ameliorate them. tions, able to participate freely and fully in rational discourse to find
There is a reciprocity between democratic theory and Trans- common meaning and validate beliefs, and effective in acting on
formation Theory. Warren (1992, p. 8) contends that democracies the result of this reflective leaming process.
inherently create opportunities for self-transformation: "[Wlere Autonomy here does not represent a fixed goal to be achieved
individuals more broadly empowered, especially in the institutions or an arbitrary norm, but movement in the process of transforma-
that have most impact on their everyday lives (workplaces, schools, tive leaming toward greater understanding of the assumptions sup-
local governments, etc.), their experiences would have transfor- porting one's concepts, beliefs, and feelings and those of others.
mative effects: they would become more public spirited, more tol- Emancipation in this context is no search for certainty and control
erant, more knowledgeable, more attentive to the interests of others, through totalizing explanations and the elimination of difference.
and more probing of their own interests." Nevertheless concepts such as autonomy, emancipation, rational-
Transformation Theory suggests that transformative learning ity, education, and democracy are all contested meanings that re-
inherently creates understandings for participatory democracy by quire continuing critical reflection on their assumptions and
developing capacities of critical reflection on taken-for-granted as- practices, and validation through continuing discourse.
sumptions that Support contested points of view and participation in Learners may be helped to explore all aspects of a frame of ref-
discourse that reduces fractional threats to rights and pluralism, con- erence: its genealogy, power allocation, internal logic, uses, af-
flict, and the use of power, and foster autonomy, self-development, fective and intuitive dimensions, advantages, and disadvantages.
and self-govemance-the values that rights and freedoms presum- The frame may be understood as a coherent, meaningful way to
ably are designed to protect. organize events and feelings with costs and benefits that may be as-
Autonomous thinking may be understood as a competence ac- sessed. An intellectual and emotional grasp of a particular frame of
quired through transformative leaming. Leaming to become reference Opens space for the operation of others. The leamer can
autonomous thinker clearly involves the interaction of perso 2;; look at the Same experience from a variety of points of view and
situational variables. We must ask: Who is granted the opportunity See that concepts and feelings depend on the perspective through
to achieve autonomous thinking?Who is excluded, Cast as the Other which they occur. Kegan writes: "This kind of leaming cannot be
 Learning to Think Like an Adult

accomplished through informational training, the acquisition of fer their authority over the leaming group to the group itself as soon
skills, but only through transformational education, a 'leading out' as this is feasible, and they become collaborative leamers. They mod-
from an established habit of mind" (1994, p. 232). el and share their commitment and act on their convictions by en-
The broader purpose, the goal, of adult education is to help adults couraging and assisting learners to critically assess the validity of
realize their potential for becoming more liberated, socially respon- norms from altemative perspectives, arrive at best tentative judg-
sible, and autonomous learners-that is, to make more informed ments through discourse, and effectively act on them. In social
choices by becoming more critically reflective as "dialogic thinkers" action contexts, such as social movements, labor and popular edu-
(Basseches, 1984) in their engagement in a given social context. cation, or community development programs, adult educators may
Adult educators actively strive to extend and equalize the opportu- choose to work with leamers with whom they have a feeling of sol-
nities for them to do so. idarity.
It is important to differentiate this goal of adult education from In fostering transformative learning efforts, what Counts is what
its objective-to help adult learners assess and achieve what it is the individual learner wants to learn. This constitutes a starting
they Want to learn. Learning objectives may be personal, such as point for a discourse leading to a critical examination of normative
getting a better job or helping a child do homework, or may focus assumptions underpinning the leamer's (and often the educator's)
on social change (in the context of a social movement, some com- value judgments or normative expectations. (For methods of fos-
munity development and literacy programs, or labor union edu- tering critical reflection, see Mezirow and Associates, 1990; and
cation) or on organizational change. We need to recognize the Brookfield, 1995.)
difference between our goals as educators and the objectives of our Adult educators create protected learning environments in
leamers that we Want to help them achieve. which the conditions of social democracy necessary for transforma-
Transformative leamers, with social or organizational change as tive leaming are fostered. This involves blocking out power rela-
objectives, seek out others who share their insights to form cells of tionships engendered in the structure of communication, including
resistance to unexamined cultural norms in organitations, commu- those traditionally existing between teachers and leamers. Central
nities, families, and political life; they become active agents of cul- to the goal of adult education in democratic societies is the process
tural change. of helping leamers become more aware of the context of their prob-
Adult educators are never neutral. They are cultural activists lematic understandings and beliefs, more critically reflective on
committed to Support and extend those canon, social practices, insti- their assumptions and those of others, more fully and freely engaged
tutions, and Systems that foster fuller freer participation in reflective in discourse, and more effective in taking action on their reflective
discourse, transformative learning, reflective action, and a greater judgments. Curricula, instructional methods, materials, assessment,
realization of agency for all leamers. Justification for the norms de- and faculty and staff development should address both learner
rived from these commitments is continually Open to challenge objectives and this goal of adult education.
through critical discourse.
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