Control Systems

WIN TER ED I TI ON
Contents

3 — 7 ways model predictive control benefits your food and

beverage operation?

10 — Justifying the changing landscape of control system

modernization

14 — Free PLC programming software for education

20 — Which IEC 61131-3 programming language is best? Part 1

26 — Fundamentals of cascade control

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7 ways model predictive
control benefits your food and  Back to TOC

beverage operation?
Model predictive control offers food and beverage operations a variety
of gains in efficiency, safety and waste reduction.

T he food and beverage (F&B) industry is characterized by a highly competitive

landscape, ever-changing consumer demands and stringent regulations, and
attention to advanced process controls can help. Plant engineering and operations
managers face the challenge of optimizing production processes to minimize waste,
reduce energy consumption and ensure product quality. One innovative solution is
model predictive control (MPC), a control strategy that can help achieve operational
excellence.

Operators can expand understanding of advanced process control by looking at the

essential steps required to evaluate and execute a successful MPC project in the F&B
industry from the perspective of a control system integrator.

Step 1: Define MPC objectives and scope

Before diving into the technicalities, defining the project’s objectives and scope is cru-
cial. Some common goals for implementing MPC in the F&B industry include:

• Maximizing throughput

• Minimizing energy consumption

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7 ways model predictive control benefits your food and beverage operation?

• Reducing waste and product variability  Back to TOC

• Ensuring product quality and safety.

Once the objectives are clear, identify the specific processes and equipment to be
included in the project scope. This step helps you establish a solid foundation for the
project and facilitate alignment with stakeholders.

Step 2: Assess the current control system

Perform a thorough evaluation of the existing control system to identify gaps, limita-
tions and potential areas for improvement. This assessment aids in gauging the feasi-
bility and potential benefits of integrating MPC into the plant. Some essential aspects
to consider include the following:

• Control system architecture: Determine if the current architecture can support

adding an MPC layer. If not, upgrading the control system to a more advanced
platform may be necessary.

• Control system performance: Analyze historical data and benchmark the current
control system’s performance to identify areas where MPC could provide significant
benefits.

• Integration compatibility: Assess the compatibility of the existing control system

with MPC software to ensure seamless integration.

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7 ways model predictive control benefits your food and beverage operation?

 Back to TOC

Step 3: Select the right MPC technology Consider the 7 steps to MPC
implementation in your food
and vendor and beverage application.
Choosing the appropriate MPC technology and vendor is Courtesy: Control Engineering
with Interstates information
crucial to the success of a project. An MPC project can be
complicated and costly if your partner doesn’t have the right
knowledge or capabilities. Consider the following factors when making a decision:

• Technical capabilities: Evaluate the vendor’s ability to deliver a customized MPC

solution that meets specific requirements.

• Industry expertise: Select a vendor with a proven track record in the F&B industry,
demonstrating a deep understanding of unique challenges and needs.

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7 ways model predictive control benefits your food and beverage operation?

• Scalability: Ensure the chosen MPC technology can be scaled up or down to ac-  Back to TOC
commodate future changes in the plant’s operational needs.

• Support and training: Opt for a vendor that offers comprehensive support and
training to ensure a smooth transition and long-term success.

Step 4: Develop a detailed project plan for MPC use

After selecting the right MPC technology and vendor, develop a detailed project plan
that includes:

• A timeline with milestones for all project stages, from system design and imple-
mentation to testing, commissioning and post-project support

• A risk management plan that identifies potential obstacles and mitigation strategies

• A resource allocation plan that outlines the personnel, equipment and financial
resources required for each stage of the project.

Step 5: Implement the MPC solution

Work closely with the selected vendor during the implementation phase to ensure that
the MPC solution meets the project objectives and integrates seamlessly with existing
control systems. Key activities during this phase include:

• System design: Collaborate with the vendor to design a customized MPC solution
that addresses the plant’s needs and challenges.

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7 ways model predictive control benefits your food and beverage operation?

• Data collection and modeling: Gather historical process data to develop an ac-  Back to TOC
curate mathematical model of the plant’s dynamics, which is essential for MPC’s
predictive capabilities.

• Control strategy development: Design a suitable control strategy based on the

developed model that optimizes the plant’s performance according to the defined
objectives.

• Software integration: Integrate the MPC software with the existing control sys-
tem, ensuring all necessary interfaces and communication protocols are in place.

Step 6: Testing and commissioning for MPC

Before deploying the MPC solution in a production environment, it’s vital to conduct
rigorous testing and commissioning to ensure its effectiveness and reliability. This
phase includes:

• Simulation testing: Validate the performance of the MPC solution in a simulated

environment to identify potential issues and fine-tune the control strategy.

• Closed-loop testing: Run the MPC solution in a closed-loop setting within the
plant to assess its real-world performance and make any necessary adjustments.

• Operator training: Train plant personnel to use the MPC solution effectively, en-
suring a smooth transition and long-term success.

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7 ways model predictive control benefits your food and beverage operation?

Step 7: Performance monitoring and optimization for MPC  Back to TOC

After successful implementation, continuously monitor the MPC solution’s performance
to ensure it meets the defined objectives and delivers the desired results. Key activities
during this phase include:

• Performance benchmarking: Compare the MPC solution’s performance against

predefined benchmarks and the previous control system to assess improvements.

• Data analysis: Analyze process data to identify trends, potential issues and areas
for further optimization.

• Optimization: Fine-tune the MPC solution based on the collected data and in-
sights to maximize its effectiveness and achieve optimal plant performance.

• Periodic reviews: Conduct regular reviews with your vendor and plant personnel to
discuss the MPC solution’s performance and address any concerns or challenges.

Systematic approach for MPC project includes assessment

Implementing a successful MPC project in the F&B industry requires a systematic ap-
proach encompassing clear objectives, thorough assessment, vendor selection, imple-
mentation, testing and continuous monitoring. By following these steps, plant engi-
neering and operations managers can unlock the full potential of MPC technology to
enhance operational efficiency, reduce waste and ensure product quality in their facil-
ities. With the right planning, execution and partnership with a reliable control system
integrator, you can harness the power of MPC to drive your plant’s success in today’s
competitive landscape.
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7 ways model predictive control benefits your food and beverage operation?

Implementing MPC in the F&B industry holds immense value for plant operations  Back to TOC
by offering advanced process optimization, adaptability and foresight. In this highly
competitive and rapidly evolving sector, MPC can be instrumental in enhancing criti-
cal variables such as product quality, energy efficiency, throughput and waste reduc-
tion. By employing predictive models and adaptive control strategies, MPC enables
real-time adjustments to process conditions, accommodating variations in raw ma-
terials and ever-changing consumer demands. This powerful technology allows op-
erators to identify and mitigate potential issues before they escalate, ensuring con-
sistent product quality and safety while maximizing overall operational performance.
Ultimately, the incorporation of MPC in the F&B industry can substantially improve
key performance indicators, directly contributing to increasing profitability, sustain-
ability and competitiveness.

Dan Riley
Dan Riley is analytics manager at Interstates.

9
Justifying the changing landscape of
control system modernization  Back to TOC

While some justifications for control system modernization projects have

remained virtually unchanged for decades, others such as workforce
shortages, cybersecurity and sustainability are relatively new considerations.

J ustifying a control system modernization project is a task that many plant support
personnel or corporate engineers may be required to do. The reasons for this have
changed over time. While some drivers never go away, others have evolved, and still
more are new.

1. When automation lifecycle support ends

The predominant driver for control system modernizations has always been hardware
and software obsolescence and end of lifecycle support. This is sometimes referred to
as “depreciation.” As suppliers upgrade their products and introduce new lines, previ-
ous offerings are phased out. As a result, manufacturer support becomes more expen-
sive and may even cease altogether. Having spares on hand can mitigate this issue, but
only until the spares run out or board level repair service is no longer offered. Further-
more, as systems age, failures occur more often. And while the number of spares may
seem likely to hold out for years, it may be the case that the laptops used for program-
ming require obsolete operating systems and are therefore difficult to replace if they
are lost or damaged. The possibility of downtime and other risks associated with un-
supported and obsolete equipment therefore remain a key driver for modernizations.

2. Cybersecurity risks in older control systems

Another major driver that continues to evolve is cybersecurity. The core concerns sur-
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Justifying the changing landscape of control system modernization

rounding control system cybersecurity have  Back to TOC

been around for decades. However, the 2010
publicization of Stuxnet coupled with the
release of NIST’s Cybersecurity Framework
several years later has increased interest in
the field. As a result, many new cybersecu-
rity technologies are available for new con-
trol systems. Whereas previously, ICS cyber
controls may have been limited to using a
second NIC card for network isolation, cur-
rent security programs are likely to include
firewalls, access control, anti-virus (or other
EDR), automated backup and intrusion de-
tection. These controls are more cost effec-
Updating a control system
tive when paired with a control system modernization. requires justification. Are
you including these six
reasons in your calculations?
3. Next-generation control systems with em- Courtesy: Applied Control
bedded retiree knowledge Engineering Inc.
The workforce driver also has changed in the past 10 to 15 years.
Previously, the primary concern was the anticipated retirement of baby boomers who made
up a large portion of manufacturing workers, which could lead to the loss of institutional
knowledge. That trend has already been borne out; many experienced manufacturing work-
ers have already retired. Moreover, COVID-19 and the Great Resignation have accelerated
their exodus. Companies that didn’t capture institutional knowledge or implement new
control systems before their departure are now at a major disadvantage. Other workforce
concerns include the tight labor market and labor shortages. New workers must be trained
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Justifying the changing landscape of control system modernization

to operate and support the control systems, which takes time. Plus, once those workers  Back to TOC
have been trained, they also must be retained. Shortening the training time through use of
a digital twin is one possible solution. Another is the implementation of human-machine in-
terfaces (HMIs) that support good design practices. Examples of features that facilitate this
include situational awareness graphics and alarm management features that allow workers
to find and respond to the information they need, when they need it. This allows them to
spend time learning plant processes and troubleshooting production issues.

4. Control system modernization justification: Safety

Other justifications exist for control system modernization. For example, electrical
safety and arc flash protection has come to the forefront in recent years. Safety is often
the leading value for manufacturers and older control panel designs; extensive use of
120VAC I/O needs to be reviewed. When integrating AC voltages for controls, a new
enclosure can segregate the dangerous voltages from low voltage equipment. In these
cases, an electrical safety budget may be tapped to help fund a modernization project.

5. Control system upgrade justification: Continuous improvement

Another new driver is continuous improvement methodologies that aim to squeeze
more value out of limited plant resources. While companies have always tried to max-
imize the productivity of their operating equipment, the control system has become a
more integral part of that effort today. Gathering data and sharing it with a manufactur-
ing execution system (MES) that is performing overall equipment effectiveness (OEE)
calculations is an example of this. It allows plants to dedicate resources to addressing
the highest value problems rather than chasing the squeaky wheel that operations staff
complain about, which may have little effect on the bottom line. A control system that
is unable to interact fully with the MES is ripe for modernization. Removing paper re-
cords and double entry is an area that can save a plant money and eliminate errors by
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Justifying the changing landscape of control system modernization

integrating the control system with other systems on site, and also can be used to help  Back to TOC
justify the project. Big data initiatives, predictive maintenance and analytics also fall
within this category. All of this entails getting contextualized information to the right
person in the right place through the right tool.

6. Modern control systems help sustainability efforts

Finally, the last driver for modernization is sustainability. With sustainability goals prev-
alent among manufacturing companies, operators should evaluate if their control sys-
tem can support those goals. If not, a control system modernization project may need
to be part of the corporate sustainability push. Having a control system that allows for
the optimization of equipment usage is one way. That optimization — especially in site
utilities where there are multiple boilers, chillers and air handlers — is an easy win for
sustainability. Many plants are replacing fixed-speed motor starters with VFDs. These
can be more energy efficient, and there is a measurable payback. Having a control
system that allows for process changes to reduce waste and off-spec products also falls
under sustainability as this helps companies reduce waste. To meet these sustainability
goals, a control system modernization project may be required.

Funding any modernization will require a justification. At the end of the day, end-users
need to ask, “Does the existing system meet our reliability, sustainability, training and
continuous improvement goals while also meeting our high standards of safety and
security?” If their old system is not meeting those standards, it is important to include
the requirements — and resulting justification — in the modernization project.

Ian Burns
Ian Burns is president at Applied Control Engineering Inc.
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Free PLC programming software
for education  Back to TOC

Available programmable logic controller (PLC) software that is free for

users is crucial for users and students who can’t currently access a lab.
See table with a breakdown.

W ith the pandemic measures and schools transitioning to remote education pro-
fessors looking for ways to get students hands-on experience using programma-
ble logic controllers (PLCs) without a lab. I’ve also been looking for ways to present PLC
programming concepts in a way that people can follow along at home without having to
buy expensive hardware and software, so I thought I’d share what I’ve found here.

This article is the first step by identifying free software with the requisite functionality.
The next step was to actually teach the programming concepts, which I’ve been doing
on a growing playlist on YouTube, which demonstrate programming concepts in a way
that’s deliberately vendor independent.

Six important aspects

I’ve got a lot of opinions and preferences when it comes to PLC programming software,
but I’ve paired this down to a few main points that I think are relevant to education.

• Free

• Tag-based

• IEC 61131 language support

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Free PLC programming software for education

• User-defined type (Struct) support  Back to TOC

• Code reuse features like functions and add-on instructions

• Built-in simulation.

Eight free PLC programming softwares to consider

I looked for all the free programming software I could find and listed it here. I’ve
worked with some of these extensively. The rest, I downloaded and tried for the sake
of this article. Here’s the software, in no particular order.

1. Connected components workbench

2, Machine expert basic

3, TwinCAT 3

4. Productivity

5. Do-more

6. CoDeSys

7. Open PLC

8. Sysmac Studio
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Free PLC programming software for education

Connected components workbench  Back to TOC

I’ve used this software to program PLCs, HMIs, and configure drives. My impression is
always that it’s a little clunky, but that’s from the perspective of trying to maximize work
efficiency. From the perspective of trying to learn PLC programming, I think this is a
reasonable option.

CCW only supports three of the IEC 61131 languages, but they’re the right three in my
opinion (LD, ST, FBD). The latest version (v12) includes simulation in the free version as
well. The biggest downside for education is more advanced programming features are
not available in the free version.

A final thought here: This is made by Allen Bradley, but it’s based on Microsoft Visual Stu-
dio. It’s laid out differently than typical AB environments, so experience with CCW isn’t like-
ly to translate into RS5000 or RSLogix500. This environment is a little closer to some other
Visual Studio based applications, so there’s still some transfer to other brands.

Machine expert basic

Modicon is known as one of the first PLC manufacturers. It’s now owned by Schneider
Electric, and continues to make PLCs. Their Machine Expert (formerly known as SoMa-
chine) comes in a free version (“Basic”) that’s good enough to service an existing ma-
chine. One thing I found interesting is their implementation of the IEC 61131 languag-
es allowed automatic conversion between the languages (with some limitations).

A ladder logic routine could be displayed and edited as instruction list, for example.
This could be a handy tool for learning languages, although it probably wouldn’t show
how a human would write code in the different languages.
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Free PLC programming software for education

My impressions after using the software is that it’s pretty simple to use, but still feels  Back to TOC
foreign compared to most others. For example, Allen Bradley has a normal layout and
way of doing things, then many other manufacturers will have a layout and feel some-
where between that and Beckhoff. Machine Expert feels like it’s outside that continu-
um, and I think that’s my only complaint from an educational perspective. It’s easy to
use, and has the easiest simulation mode I’ve seen. Certainly worth considering for
class use.

TwinCAT 3
Beckhoff is a little unusual in industrial automation. All of their PLCs are actually indus-
trial PCs (IPCs). The programming environment is based on Microsoft Visual Studio,
so it looks a little like CCW, but it’s more refined and powerful. Beckhoff licenses the
runtime (the part that lives on the IPC), not the IDE (the programming environment), so
the software is free with the full set of features.

This is the most powerful programming environment I’m aware of for industrial automa-
tion, and it’s nice to have access to all that power for free. However, some of that power
comes at the cost of being different than what a person is likely to see in the US automa-
tion industry. This is a great programming environment for programmers, but may be too
complicated for a maintenance technician that will have minimal programming responsi-
bilities. For this reason, I can’t recommend it for general programming education.

Productivity suite
AutomationDirect targets the low-cost market, so free software is often a part of that.
The Productivity line of PLCs is their high-end offering in that space. The software
doesn’t have advanced functionality, but is fairly polished for what it does. I’ve used
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Free PLC programming software for education

this on a real project, and wouldn’t mind using it again. It’s worth consideration as a  Back to TOC
learning platform. The downsides include few advanced features, ladder logic only
programming, and no simulation.

Do-more
This is AutomationDirect’s middle line of PLCs. It appears to be similar to the Productiv-
ity line, but address based. The big selling point for this application in education is the
built in simulation. It’s a ladder logic only platform. That’s fine for learning the basics, but
I think PLC education should include structured text and function block as well.

CoDeSys
Smart Software Solutions (S3) develops CoDeSys for use on other company’s hardware,
so that’s where the licensing happens. The benefit is that this software is fairly flexible
and matches a lot of use cases. CoDeSys is mostly used on smaller hardware brands,
large brands whose primary focus isn’t PLCs, and peripheral devices.

Sometimes the hardware manufacturer will offer customized versions of the CoDeSys
environment, and the vanilla version is available free on the CoDeSys website. I hav-
en’t worked with this on real projects, but I have played with it a bit for curiosity’s sake.
It appears to be fully featured, easy to use, and it has an easy to use simulator. This
is probably a good option for learning PLC programming. As a bonus, this package
includes HMI programming, as well.

OpenPLC
This is a new player in the PLC space. As the name suggests, it’s open source and free
to download. It implements all five languages of IEC 61131 and has a built-in simula-
18
Free PLC programming software for education

tor. I’m impressed that such a young open-source project looks as good as this does.  Back to TOC
That being said, in my tinkering with it, I don’t think it’s ready for prime time yet.

Omron Sysmac Studio

I’ve worked with Omron’s Sysmac Studio quite a bit in the field. It’s PLC, HMI, and
robot programming all wrapped in one. It’s easy to use, feels familiar when comparing
to other big names, and has built in simulation. It doesn’t support instruction list or
sequential function chart, which is fine with me. The problem is there isn’t necessarily
a free version, but there’s a free online version of Sysmac Studio. This runs in a virtual
machine in the cloud and allows 30 minutes of access at a time. You can upload files
to the VM, so this could
probably work in a class
setting.

Table: PLC soft-

ware breakdown

Jon Breen
Jon Breen, owner, Breen
Machine Automation Ser-
vices, LLC

19
Which IEC 61131-3 programming
language is best? Part 1  Back to TOC

With so many programmable logic controller (PLC) programming languages

and standards from which to choose, what is the right choice for automation
and controls applications? Part 1 provides an overview and focuses on Ladder
Diagram (LD) and Sequential Function Chart (SFC).

P rogramming language choices for programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are many.
It is said the great thing about standards is there are so many to choose from!
While this is meant as sarcasm, in the case of IEC 61131-3 Programming Languages, it
is an advantage to have several language standards from which to choose.

Many students enter my training classes with the mindset they will choose the lan-
guage best for them and then specialize in that language. At the beginning of class,
they often ask what language I recommend. Or, “What is the best language?”

I usually respond to this question by asking, “What is the best number in the Hindu-Ar-
abic number system?” or “What is the best word in the English language?” (A student
recently said the best English word is “spork,” but I think that answer is still awaiting
universal consensus).

As with lawn power tools, it is most efficient to use the best programming language
for the application, to avoid the complexity of driving the square application peg into
the round tool hole. With IEC 61131-3 programming languages, PLC programming and
maintenance are enhanced when the strengths of all the languages are used.

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Which IEC 61131-3 programming language is best? Part 1

Programming languages: LD, SFC, FBD, CFC and ST  Back to TOC

“Which IEC 61131-3 Programming Language is best? Part 1” (this article) discusses the
strengths and best applications Ladder Diagram (LD) and Sequential Function Chart (SFC).

“Which IEC 61131-3 Programming Language is best? Part 2” will discuss Function
Block Diagram (FBD), Continuous Function Chart (CFC), Structured Text (ST), and how
they can be mixed and matched for optimal results.

What is Ladder diagram (LD) programming?

Ladder diagram programming, or LD, traces its history back some 100 years to relay
ladder logic (RLL), which was created to describe systems of electrical components
such as relays, timers and motors. In the early days of automation, when PLCs were
replacing relays and timers, it made perfect sense to create a programming language
familiar to the user base and similar to the tool it was replacing. Unfortunately, as con-
trollers became more capable and evolved past relays and timers, the original LD lan-
guage was pressed into services it was never intended for and was poorly suited.

This situation was exacerbated by the slow pace at which PLC vendors provided new
languages better suited to PLC and programmable automation controllers (PAC) appli-
cations. This was particularly true with controllers originating in North America, which
explains the global differences in the enduring popularity of LD.

Strengths of LD programming
The strength of LD and the key to its enduring popularity is its graphical nature. Of all
the generalizations one can say about engineers (as is often illustrated in your favor-
ite Dilbert cartoon), it is safe to say engineers tend to be graphically oriented. (Who
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Which IEC 61131-3 programming language is best? Part 1

among us can effectively communicate without paper and pencil, or a white board?)  Back to TOC
Early on, most LD programming alternatives were text-based languages that did not
resonate with engineers’ graphical nature. This led to further reluctance to move on
from LD. Fortunately, that situation is changing.

LD remains a great language for which it was originally intended – complex Boolean
logic. Staying within this realm, LD logic is simple to design and simple to debug.
Figure 3 illustrates this point by showing the same Boolean logic in several IEC 61131-
3 languages. Say we are expecting “Inspect” to be TRUE. How easy is it to determine
why the result is not as expected? In LD, the answer is quickly determined by observing
where the path of solid blue contacts is interrupted (GantryIsRight is not TRUE). In CFC
and FBD, the issue also can be determined by observing the progress of the blue path,
but it does require mentally evaluating the ANDs and ORs. Evaluating the issue in text
is a challenge.

What is sequential function chart (SFC) programming?

Sequential function chart (SFC) is a graphical language great for expressing state ma-
chines, and, like LD, appeals to the graphical nature of engineers. To provide better
context, this programming language discussion will be broken into two parts:

1. State machines in general, and

2. The language to implement a state machine.

What are state machines?

State machines date back many years, but only more recently have been applied to
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Which IEC 61131-3 programming language is best? Part 1

industrial programming. State machines are a very powerful method for expressing a  Back to TOC
system whose behavior depends on past history, such as any logic with:

1. Set coils or reset coils

2. Seal-in logic (Boolean feedback)

3. Internal flags that are set by the code to affect the behavior of the code on future
scans.

In reality, even the simple TON On-Timer and R-Trig one-shot are state machines. Their
next behaviors depend on previous inputs and behaviors. (Has IN gone true? Has the
target time been reached?)

State machines offer many benefits over other coding techniques:

1. They’re easy to design because it clearly describes the states a system can be
in, how the system transitions between those states and the actions the system
should take while in those states.

2. During runtime, it is easy to see exactly what state a system is in, what it is doing
in that state, and what will cause it to move to the next state (or why it isn’t moving
to the next state if something has gone wrong in the process).

3. It promotes well-conceived and well-organized designs. It assures all possible even-

tualities have been handled (thus eliminating the chance of being called in the mid-
dle of the night to fix code that didn’t properly address an unusual condition). 23
Which IEC 61131-3 programming language is best? Part 1

4. Easy to determine that every possible eventuality has been properly tested. Just  Back to TOC
print out the SFC and cross off each state and transition as it is exercised. When
everything is crossed off, testing is complete (and the programmer’s confidence
level is 100%).

State machines can be implemented in different ways.

How to implement a state machine

While state machines can be implemented in almost any language, they require a
specific coding technique, which consists of steps, transitions, branches/jumps, and
actions.

Steps describe the states of which a system can reside; Transitions indicate when a
system should move from one step to the next; branches and jumps indicate what that
next step should be; and actions specify what operation should be performed while in
that step (or entering or exiting that step).

Due to its graphical nature and specialization for the job, SFC is the most natural
choice of language for state machines.

For system requiring unusual complexity or flexibility, state machines also can be im-
plemented in text-based languages. For organizations locked into using LD, state ma-
chines can even be implemented in LD by using a coil for each state, transition logic
to energize/deenergize each coil to move the system from one state to the next, and
separate logic that uses state-coils to implement the actions.

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Which IEC 61131-3 programming language is best? Part 1

Some vendors also provide an implementation of unified modeling language (UML)  Back to TOC
state diagrams as a more powerful and flexible alternative to SFC, but this comes at
the price of a longer learning curve and limited acceptance in the industrial controls
community.

When it comes to state machines, the choice of language is secondary to the choice of
technique within the language. In SFC, the language forces the use of the state ma-
chine technique. In other languages, it’s up to the discipline of the engineer to use the
proper technique. If the functionality depends on previous history, it’s a state machine.
For optimal code, implement it as such.

Use the right language for control system programming

To communicate effectively in the English language, it’s important to have the right vo-
cabulary and know how to use that vocabulary effectively. To create effective industrial
controls programs, it is important to have the right languages and know how to use
those languages effectively. IEC 61131-3 provides the languages, and this article has
provided guidance on effective use of LD and SFC. See Part 2 for use of FBD, CFC and
ST. Go forth and program effectively with IEC 61131-3 Programming Languages.

Gary L. Pratt
Gary L. Pratt, P.E. is president of ControlSphere Engineering.

25
Fundamentals of cascade control
 Back to TOC
Sometimes two controllers can do a better job of keeping one process
variable where you want it.

W hen multiple sensors are available for measuring conditions in a controlled pro-
cess, a cascade control system can often perform better than a traditional sin-
gle-measurement controller. Consider, for example, the steam-fed water heater shown
in the sidebar Heating Water with Cascade Control. A traditional controller is shown
measuring the temperature inside the tank and manipulating the steam valve opening
to add more or less heat as inflowing water disturbs the tank temperature. This ar-
rangement works well enough if the steam supply and the steam valve are sufficiently
consistent to produce another X% change in tank temperature every time the control-
ler calls for another Y% change in the valve opening.

However, several factors could alter the ratio of X to Y or the time required for the tank
temperature to change after a control effort. The pressure in the steam supply line
could drop while other tanks are drawing down the steam supply they share, in which
case the controller would have to open the valve more than Y% in order to achieve the
same X% change in tank temperature.

Or, the steam valve could start sticking as friction takes its mechanical toll over time.
That would lengthen the time required for the valve to open to the extent called for by
the controller and slow the rate at which the tank temperature changes in response to
a given control effort.

A better way
A cascade control system could solve both of these problems where a second control-
26
Fundamentals of cascade control

ler has taken over responsibility for manipulating the valve opening based on measure-  Back to TOC
ments from a second sensor monitoring the steam flow rate. Instead of dictating how
widely the valve should be opened, the first controller now tells the second controller
how much heat it wants in terms of a desired steam flow rate.

The second controller then manipulates the valve opening until the steam is flowing at
the requested rate. If that rate turns out to be insufficient to produce the desired tank
temperature, the first controller can call for a higher flow rate, thereby inducing the
second controller to provide more steam and more heat (or vice versa).

That may sound like a convoluted way to achieve the same result as the first control-
ler could achieve on its own, but a cascade control system should be able to provide
much faster compensation when the steam flow is disturbed. In the original single-con-
troller arrangement, a drop in the steam supply pressure would first have to lower the
tank temperature before the temperature sensor could even notice the disturbance.
With the second controller and second sensor on the job, the steam flow rate can be
measured and maintained much more quickly and precisely, allowing the first controller
to work with the belief that whatever steam flow rate it wants it will in fact get, no mat-
ter what happens to the steam pressure.

The second controller can also shield the first controller from deteriorating valve per-
formance. The valve might still slow down as it wears out or gums up, and the second
controller might have to work harder as a result, but the first controller would be unaf-
fected as long as the second controller is able to maintain the steam flow rate at the
required level.

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Fundamentals of cascade control

Without the acceleration afforded by the second controller, the first controller would  Back to TOC
see the process becoming slower and slower. It might still be able to achieve the de-
sired tank temperature on its own, but unless a perceptive operator notices the effect
and re-tunes it to be more aggressive about responding to disturbances in the tank
temperature, it too would become slower and slower.

Similarly, the second controller can smooth out any quirks or nonlinearities in the
valve’s performance, such as an orifice that is harder to close than to open. The second
controller might have to struggle a bit to achieve the desired steam flow rate, but if it
can do so quickly enough, the first controller will never see the effects of the valve’s
quirky behavior.

Elements of cascade control

The Cascade Control Block Diagram shows a generic cascade control system with two
controllers, two sensors, and one actuator acting on two processes in series. A primary
or master controller generates a control effort that serves as the setpoint for a sec-
ondary or slave controller. That controller in turn uses the actuator to apply its control
effort directly to the secondary process. The secondary process then generates a sec-
ondary process variable that serves as the control effort for the primary process.

The geometry of this block diagram defines an inner loop involving the secondary con-
troller and an outer loop involving the primary controller. The inner loop functions like
a traditional feedback control system with a setpoint, a process variable, and a control-
ler acting on a process by means of an actuator. The outer loop does the same except
that it uses the entire inner loop as its actuator.

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Fundamentals of cascade control

In the water heater example, the tank temperature controller would be primary since it  Back to TOC
defines the setpoint that the steam flow controller is required to achieve. The water in
the tank, the tank temperature, the steam, and the steam flow rate would be the pri-
mary process, the primary process variable, the secondary process, and the secondary
process variable, respectively (refer to the Cascade Control Block Diagram). The valve
that the steam flow controller uses to maintain the steam flow rate serves as the actua-
tor which acts directly on the secondary process and indirectly on the primary process.

Requirements
Naturally, a cascade control system can’t solve every feedback control problem, but it
can prove advantageous if under the right circumstances:

• The inner loop has influence over the outer loop. The actions of the secondary
controller must affect the primary process variable in a predictable and repeatable way
or else the primary controller will have no mechanism for influencing its own process.

• The inner loop is faster than the outer loop. The secondary process must react
to the secondary controller’s efforts at least three or four times faster than the pri-
mary process reacts to the primary controller. This allows the secondary controller
enough time to compensate for inner loop disturbances before they can affect the
primary process.

• The inner loop disturbances are less severe than the outer loop disturbances.
Otherwise, the secondary controller will be constantly correcting for disturbances
to the secondary process and unable to apply consistent corrective efforts to the
primary process.
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Fundamentals of cascade control

Steam-fed water heaters as in the example are particularly amenable to cascade con-  Back to TOC
trol because raising or lowering the steam flow rate raises or lowers the tank tempera-
ture without any additional actuators, a valve can manipulate a steam flow rate almost
instantaneously in comparison to the slow pace at which steam can heat the water in a
large tank, and disturbances to the steam supply pressure are relatively infrequent and
easily compensated by the steam flow controller.

Cascade control block diagram

A cascade control system reacts to physical phenomena shown in blue and process
data shown in green.

In the water heater example:

• Setpoint – temperature desired for the water in the tank

• Primary controller (master) – measures water temperature in the tank and asks
the secondary controller for more or less heat

• Secondary controller (slave) – measures and maintains steam flow rate directly

• Actuator – steam flow valve

• Secondary process – steam in the supply line

• Inner loop disturbances – fluctuations in steam supply pressure

• Primary process – water in the tank

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Fundamentals of cascade control

• Outer loop disturbances – fluctuations in the tank temperature due to uncon-  Back to TOC
trolled ambient conditions, especially fluctuations in the inflow temperature

• Secondary process variable – steam flow rate

• Primary process variable – tank water temperature

Challenges
Cascade control can also have its drawbacks. Most notably, the extra sensor and con-
troller tend to increase the overall equipment costs. Cascade control systems are also
more complex than single-measurement controllers, requiring twice as much tuning.
Then again, the tuning procedure is fairly straightforward: tune the secondary con-
troller first, then the primary controller using the same tuning tools applicable to sin-
gle-measurement controllers.

However, if the inner loop tuning is too aggressive and the two processes operate on
similar time scales, the two controllers might compete with each other to the point of
driving the closed-loop system unstable. Fortunately, this is unlikely if the inner loop is
inherently faster than the outer loop or the tuning forces it to be.

And it’s not always clear when cascade control will be worth the extra effort and ex-
pense. There are several classic examples that typically benefit from cascade con-
trol-often involving a flow rate as the secondary process variable-but it’s usually easier
to predict when a cascade control system won’t help than to predict when it will.

Vance VanDoren
Vance VanDoren, PhD, PE, is a Control Engineering contributing content specialist.
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 Control Systems
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