Syllabus content

Calculations using the equation ΔG⦵ = −RT lnK. Reactivity 1.4—How can Gibbs energy be used to
explain which of the forward or backward reaction is
The equation is given in the data booklet.
favoured before reaching equilibrium?

Reactivity 3. What are the mechanisms of chemical change?

Reactivity 3.1—Proton transfer reactions
Guiding question: What happens when protons are transferred?
Standard level and higher level: 8 hours

Reactivity 3.1.1—Brønsted–Lowry acid is a proton donor and a Brønsted–Lowry base is a proton

acceptor.
Deduce the Brønsted–Lowry acid and base in a reaction.
A proton in aqueous solution can be represented as Nature of science, Reactivity 3.4—Why has the
both H+(aq) and H3O+(aq). definition of acid evolved over time?
The distinction between the terms “base” and
“alkali” should be understood.

Reactivity 3.1.2—A pair of species differing by a single proton is called a conjugate acid–base pair.
Deduce the formula of the conjugate acid or base of any Brønsted–Lowry base or acid.
Structure 2.1—What are the conjugate acids of the
polyatomic anions listed in Structure 2.1?

Reactivity 3.1.3—Some species can act as both Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases.
Interpret and formulate equations to show acid–base reactions of these species.
Structure 3.1—What is the periodic trend in the
acid–base properties of metal and non-metal
oxides?
Structure 3.1—Why does the release of oxides of
nitrogen and sulfur into the atmosphere cause acid
rain?

Reactivity 3.1.4—The pH scale can be used to describe the [H+] of a solution:

pH = –log10[H+]; [H+] = 10–pH
Perform calculations involving the logarithmic relationship between pH and [H+].

Include the estimation of pH using universal Tools 1, 2, 3—What is the shape of a sketch graph of
indicator, and the precise measurement of pH using pH against [H+]?
a pH meter/probe. Nature of science, Tool 2—When are digital sensors
The equations for pH are given in the data booklet. (e.g. pH probes) more suitable than analogue
methods (e.g. pH paper/solution)?

Reactivity 3.1.5—The ion product constant of water, Kw, shows an inverse relationship between [H+]
and [OH–]. Kw = [H+] [OH–]
Recognize solutions as acidic, neutral and basic from the relative values of [H+] and [OH–].

The equation for Kw and its value at 298 K are given Reactivity 2.3—Why does the extent of ionization of
in the data booklet. water increase as temperature increases?

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Reactivity 3.1.6—Strong and weak acids and bases differ in the extent of ionization.
Recognize that acid–base equilibria lie in the direction of the weaker conjugate.
and are strong acids, and Reactivity 2.3—How would you expect the
group 1 hydroxides are strong bases. equilibrium constants of strong and weak acids to
The distinction between strong and weak acids or compare?
bases and concentrated and dilute reagents should Reactivity 1.1—Why does the acid strength of the
be covered. hydrogen halides increase down group 17?
Tool 1, Inquiry 2—What physical and chemical
properties can be observed to distinguish between
weak and strong acids or bases of the same
concentration?

Reactivity 3.1.7—Acids react with bases in neutralization reactions.

Formulate equations for the reactions between acids and metal oxides, metal hydroxides,
hydrogencarbonates and carbonates.
Identify the parent acid and base of different salts. Tool 1, Structure 1.1—How can the salts formed in
Bases should include ammonia, amines, soluble neutralization reactions be separated?
carbonates and hydrogencarbonates; acids should Reactivity 1.1—Neutralization reactions are
include organic acids. exothermic. How can this be explained in terms of
bond enthalpies?
Reactivity 3.2—How could we classify the reaction
that occurs when hydrogen gas is released from the
reaction between an acid and a metal?

Reactivity 3.1.8—pH curves for neutralization reactions involving strong acids and bases have
characteristic shapes and features.
Sketch and interpret the general shape of the pH curve.
Interpretation should include the intercept with the Structure 1.4—Why is the equivalence point
pH axis and equivalence point. sometimes referred to as the stoichiometric point?
Only monoprotic neutralization reactions will be Tools 1 and 3, Structure 1.3—How can titration be
assessed. used to calculate the concentration of an acid or
base in solution?

Additional higher level: 9 hours

Reactivity 3.1.9—The pOH scale describes the [OH–] of a solution. pOH = –log10[OH–]; [OH–] = 10–pOH
Interconvert [H+], [OH–], pH and pOH values.

The equations for pOH are given in the data booklet.

Reactivity 3.1.10—The strengths of weak acids and bases are described by their Ka, Kb, pKa or pKb
values.
Interpret the relative strengths of acids and bases from these data.

Reactivity 3.1.11—For a conjugate acid–base pair, the relationship Ka × Kb = Kw can be derived

from the expressions for Ka and Kb.
Solve problems involving these values.

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The use of quadratic equations is not expected in Reactivity 2.3—How can we simplify calculations
calculations. when equilibrium constants Ka and Kb are very
small?

Reactivity 3.1.12—The pH of a salt solution depends on the relative strengths of the parent acid and
base.
Construct equations for the hydrolysis of ions in a salt, and predict the effect of each ion on the pH of the
salt solution.
Examples should include the ammonium ion NH4+,
the carboxylate ion RCOO–, the carbonate ion CO32–,
and the hydrogencarbonate ion HCO3–.
The acidity of hydrated transition element ions and
(aq) is not required.

Reactivity 3.1.13—pH curves of different combinations of strong and weak monoprotic acids and
bases have characteristic shapes and features.
Interpret the general shapes of pH curves for all four combinations of strong and weak acids and bases.
Interpretation should include: intercept with the pH Tool 1—When collecting data to generate a pH
axis, equivalence point, buffer region, points where curve, when should smaller volumes of titrant be
pH = pKa or pOH = pKb. added between each measurement?

Reactivity 3.1.14—Acid–base indicators are weak acids, where the components of the conjugate
acid–base pair have different colours. The pH of the end point of an indicator, where it changes
colour, approximately corresponds to its pKa value.
Construct equilibria expressions to show why the colour of an indicator changes with pH.
The generalized formula HInd(aq) can be used to Tool 1, Inquiry 2, Reactivity 3.2—What are some of
represent the undissociated form of an indicator. the similarities and differences between indicators
Examples of indicators with their pH range are given used in acid–base titrations and in redox titrations?
in the data booklet.
Include universal indicator as a mixture of many
indicators with a wide pH range of colour change.

Reactivity 3.1.15—An appropriate indicator for a titration has an end point range that coincides
with the pH at the equivalence point.
Identify an appropriate indicator for a titration from the identity of the salt and the pH range of the
indicator.
Distinguish between the terms “end point” and
“equivalence point”.

Reactivity 3.1.16—A buffer solution is one that resists change in pH on the addition of small
amounts of acid or alkali.
Describe the composition of acidic and basic buffers and explain their actions.
Reactivity 2.3—Why must buffer solutions be
composed of weak acid or base conjugate systems,
not of strong acids or bases?

Reactivity 3.1.17—The pH of a buffer solution depends on both:

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• the pKa or pKb of its acid or base

• the ratio of the concentration of acid or base to the concentration of the conjugate base or
acid.
Solve problems involving the composition and pH of a buffer solution, using the equilibrium constant.
Include explanation of the effect of dilution of a Reactivity 2.3—How does Le Châtelier’s principle
buffer. enable us to interpret the behaviour of indicators
and buffer solutions?

Reactivity 3.2—Electron transfer reactions

Guiding question: What happens when electrons are transferred?
Standard level and higher level: 10 hours

Reactivity 3.2.1—Oxidation and reduction can be described in terms of electron transfer, change in
oxidation state, oxygen gain/loss or hydrogen loss/gain.
Deduce oxidation states of an atom in a compound or an ion.
Identify the oxidized and reduced species and the oxidizing and reducing agents in a chemical reaction.
Include examples to illustrate the variable oxidation Structure 3.1—What are the advantages and
states of transition element ions and of most main limitations of using oxidation states to track redox
group non-metals. changes?
Include the use of oxidation numbers in the naming Structure 2.3—The surface oxidation of metals is
of compounds. often known as corrosion. What are some of the
consequences of this process?

Reactivity 3.2.2—Half-equations separate the processes of oxidation and reduction, showing the
loss or gain of electrons.
Deduce redox half-equations and equations in acidic or neutral solutions.
Tool 1, Inquiry 2—Why are some redox titrations
described as “self-indicating”?

Reactivity 3.2.3—The relative ease of oxidation and reduction of an element in a group can be
predicted from its position in the periodic table.
The reactions between metals and aqueous metal ions demonstrate the relative ease of oxidation of
different metals.
Predict the relative ease of oxidation of metals.
Predict the relative ease of reduction of halogens.
Interpret data regarding metal and metal ion reactions.
The relative reactivity of metals observed in metal/ Structure 3.1—Why does metal reactivity increase,
metal ion displacement reactions does not need to and non-metal reactivity decrease, down the main
be learned; appropriate data will be supplied in groups of the periodic table?
examination questions. Tool 1, Inquiry 2—What observations can be made
when metals are mixed with aqueous metal ions,
and solutions of halogens are mixed with aqueous
halide ions?

Reactivity 3.2.4—Acids react with reactive metals to release hydrogen.

Deduce equations for reactions of reactive metals with dilute and .

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Reactivity 3.2.5—Oxidation occurs at the anode and reduction occurs at the cathode in
electrochemical cells.
Identify electrodes as anode and cathode, and identify their signs/polarities in voltaic cells and electrolytic
cells, based on the type of reaction occurring at the electrode.

Reactivity 3.2.6—A primary (voltaic) cell is an electrochemical cell that converts energy from
spontaneous redox reactions to electrical energy.
Explain the direction of electron flow from anode to cathode in the external circuit, and ion movement
across the salt bridge.
Construction of primary cells should include: half- Reactivity 1.3—Electrical energy can be derived from
cells containing metal/metal ion, anode, cathode, the combustion of fossil fuels or from
electric circuit, salt bridge. electrochemical reactions. What are the similarities
and differences in these reactions?

Reactivity 3.2.7—Secondary (rechargeable) cells involve redox reactions that can be reversed using
electrical energy.
Deduce the reactions of the charging process from given electrode reactions for discharge, and vice versa.
Include discussion of advantages and disadvantages Reactivity 2.3—Secondary cells rely on electrode
of fuel cells, primary cells and secondary cells. reactions that are reversible. What are the common
features of these reactions?

Reactivity 3.2.8—An electrolytic cell is an electrochemical cell that converts electrical energy to
chemical energy by bringing about non-spontaneous reactions.
Explain how current is conducted in an electrolytic cell.
Deduce the products of the electrolysis of a molten salt.
Construction of electrolytic cells should include: DC Structure 2.1—Under what conditions can ionic
power source connected to anode and cathode, compounds act as electrolytes?
electrolyte.

Reactivity 3.2.9—Functional groups in organic compounds may undergo oxidation.

Deduce equations to show changes in the functional groups during oxidation of primary and secondary
alcohols, including the two-step reaction in the oxidation of primary alcohols.
Include explanation of the experimental set-up for Structure 3.2—How does the nature of the
distillation and reflux. functional group in a molecule affect its physical
Include the fact that tertiary alcohols are not properties, such as boiling point?
oxidized under similar conditions. Reactivity 1.3—What is the difference between
Names and formulas of specific oxidizing agents, combustion and oxidation of an alcohol?
and the mechanisms of oxidation, will not be AHL Structure 3.1—Why is there a colour change
assessed. when an alcohol is oxidized by a transition element
compound?

Reactivity 3.2.10—Functional groups in organic compounds may undergo reduction.

Deduce equations to show reduction of carboxylic acids to primary alcohols via the aldehyde, and
reduction of ketones to secondary alcohols.
Include the role of hydride ions in the reduction Structure 3.1—How can oxidation states be used to
reaction. show that the following molecules are given in

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Names and formulas of specific reducing agents, increasing order of oxidation: CH4, CH3OH, HCHO,
and the mechanisms of reduction, will not be HCOOH, CO2?
assessed.

Reactivity 3.2.11—Reduction of unsaturated compounds by the addition of hydrogen lowers the

degree of unsaturation.
Deduce the products of the reactions of hydrogen with alkenes and alkynes.
Reactivity 3.4—Why are some reactions of alkenes
classified as reduction reactions while others are
classified as electrophilic addition reactions?

Additional higher level: 5 hours

1
Reactivity 3.2.12—The hydrogen half-cell H+(aq) + e− ⇌ H (g) is assigned a standard electrode
2 2
potential of zero by convention. It is used in the measurement of standard electrode potential, E⦵.
Interpret standard electrode potential data in terms of ease of oxidation/reduction.
Standard reduction potentials are given in the data
booklet.

Reactivity 3.2.13—Standard cell potential, E⦵cell, can be calculated from standard electrode
potentials. E⦵cell has a positive value for a spontaneous reaction.

Predict whether a reaction is spontaneous in the forward or reverse direction from E⦵ data.

Reactivity 3.2.14—The equation ΔG⦵ = − nFE⦵cell shows the relationship between standard
change in Gibbs energy and standard cell potential for a reaction.
Determine the value for ΔG⦵ from E⦵ data.
The equation and the value of F in C mol–1 are given Reactivity 1.4—How can thermodynamic data also
in the data booklet. be used to predict the spontaneity of a reaction?

Reactivity 3.2.15—During electrolysis of aqueous solutions, competing reactions can occur at the
anode and cathode, including the oxidation and reduction of water.
Deduce from standard electrode potentials the products of the electrolysis of aqueous solutions.
Electrolytic processes should include the electrolysis
of water and of aqueous solutions.
The effects of concentration and the nature of the
electrode are limited to the electrolysis of
and .

Reactivity 3.2.16—Electroplating involves the electrolytic coating of an object with a metallic thin
layer.
Deduce equations for the electrode reactions during electroplating.
Tool 1—How is an electrolytic cell used for
electroplating?

Reactivity 3.3—Electron sharing reactions

Guiding question: What happens when a species possesses an unpaired electron?

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