FLUID FLOW BASIC EQUATIONS

This lecture will introduce the student to some of the important aspects of fluid flow (momentum transfer). Later,
other subjects will be introduced to give the fledgling engineer the competence required to meaningfully deal with
this overall area of momentum transport and fluid flow.
The subjects in this lecture will include:
 Fluid statics
 Fluid flow phenomena,
 Categories of fluid flow behavior,
 Equations of change relating the momentum transport,
 Macroscopic approach to fluid flow.

FLUID STATICS:
 The behavior of fluids at rest
 This can be involved in process operations in a number of ways. One such case is in the measurement of
pressure differentials in a system.
¦

Review topic: Pressure

 A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
 We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid.
 The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress.
 Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of newtons per square meter
𝑁
(𝑚2 ) or Pascal (Pa).

o Absolute pressure (𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 ):

The actual pressure at a given position and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e.,
absolute zero pressure).
o Atmospheric Pressure (𝑃 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ):
The local/actual pressure in an open environment.
 o Gage Pressure (𝐏𝐠𝐚𝐠𝐞 ):
Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so
they indicate the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure.
This difference is called the gage pressure.
The gauge used to measure the air pressure in an automobile tire reads the gage pressure. If the
gauge reading is 32 psi, it indicates a pressure of 32 psi above the atmospheric pressure.
o Vacuum Pressure (𝐏𝐯𝐚𝐜 ):
Pressure below atmospheric pressure and are measured by vacuum gages. This is the difference
between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.

𝐏𝐠𝐚𝐠𝐞 = 𝐏𝐚𝐛𝐬 − 𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐦

𝐏𝐯𝐚𝐜 = 𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐦 − 𝐏𝐚𝐛𝐬

Fluid Static 1
Variation of pressure with depth
 The pressure in a fluid at rest does not change in the horizontal direction. This can be shown easily
by considering a thin horizontal layer of fluid and doing a force balance in any horizontal direction.
 However, in the vertical direction in a gravity field, pressure in a fluid increases with depth
because more fluid rests on deeper layers, and the effect of this “extra weight” on a deeper layer
is balanced by an increase in pressure as shown in the figure below:

o The pressure of a fluid at rest increases with depth (as a result of added weight)
 o Free-body diagram of a rectangular fluid element in equilibrium.

Let: ∆z = rectangular fluid height

∆x = rectangular fluid depth
Assuming the density , ρ, to be constant
𝐠
W = weight of fluid element = mg′ = ρ ( ) ∆x∆z
𝐠𝐜
Force balance:
𝐠
∑ 𝐅𝐳 = 𝐦𝐚𝐳 = 𝟎 ∶ 𝐏𝟐 ∆𝐱 − 𝐏𝟏 ∆𝐱 − 𝛒 ( ) ∆𝐱∆𝐳 = 𝟎
𝐠𝐜
Dividing by ∆x,
𝐠
∆𝐏 = 𝐏𝟐 − 𝐏𝟏 = 𝛒 ( ) ∆𝐳
𝐠𝐜
Conclusion:
 Pressure difference between 2 points in constant density is proportional to the vertical
distance i.e. pressure in a fluid increases linearly with depth. (Deep sea diver’s perspective)
 Vertical distance, ∆𝒛, of a given fluid is used as a measure of pressure called “pressure head”.

𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 , 𝐠 𝐜

G 𝐠𝐜 MASS LENGTH TIME FORCE
𝐜𝐦 𝐠𝐦 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 − 𝐜𝐦
𝟗𝟖𝟏 𝟏 Gram centimeter Sec Dyne
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 − 𝐝𝐲𝐧𝐞
𝐦 𝐤𝐠 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 − 𝐦
𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝟏 Kilogram meter Sec Newton
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 − 𝐧𝐞𝐰𝐭𝐨𝐧
𝐟𝐭 𝐥𝐛 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 − 𝐟𝐞𝐞𝐭
𝟑𝟐. 𝟐 𝟑𝟐. 𝟐 Pound Feet Sec lb-force
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 − 𝐥𝐛 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
𝐟𝐭 𝐬𝐥𝐮𝐠 − 𝐟𝐞𝐞𝐭
𝟑𝟐. 𝟐 𝟏 Slug Feet Sec lb-force
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐− 𝐥𝐛 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
For liquids which are essentially “incompressible” substances and the variation of the density with depth is
negligible,

Let:
P1 = Patm , be the pressure at Pt. 1 (free surface of a liquid open to atmosphere)
Therefore:
𝐠
𝐏𝟐 = 𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐦 + 𝛒𝐡
𝐠𝐜
𝐠
𝐨𝐫 𝐏𝐠𝐚𝐠𝐞 = 𝐏𝟐 − 𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐦 = 𝛒𝐡
𝐠𝐜
 Pressure in a liquid at rest increases linearly with distance from the free surface.

For gases at rest and for small to moderate distances, the variation of pressure with height is negligible because
of their low density.

𝐠
𝐏𝐛𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐦 = 𝐏𝐭𝐨𝐩 + 𝛒𝐡 𝐠 -
𝐜
𝐠
𝐨𝐫 𝐏𝐠𝐚𝐠𝐞 = 𝐏𝐛𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐦 − 𝐏𝐭𝐨𝐩 = 𝛒𝐡 ≅𝟎
𝐠𝐜
 The pressure in tank or in a room containing a gas can be considered to be uniform since the weight of the
gas is too small to make significant difference

For fluids whose density changes significantly with elevation:

 Since pressure decreases in an upward direction and when the variation of density with elevation is
known, the pressure difference between points 1 and 2 can be determined by integration to be:
𝟐
𝐠
∆𝐏 = 𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 = − ∫ 𝛒𝐝𝐳
𝟏 𝐠𝐜
 For constant density and constant gravitational acceleration, this relation reduces to:
𝐠
∆𝐏 = 𝐏𝟐 − 𝐏𝟏 = 𝛒∆𝐳
𝐠𝐜
Fluid pressure at different cross sections and directions:
 Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape or cross section of the container. It changes with
the vertical distance, but remains constant in other directions. Therefore, the pressure is the same at
all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid.
 The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid regardless of
geometry, provided that the points are interconnected by the same fluid.

𝐠
𝐏𝐀 = 𝐏𝐁 = 𝐏𝐂 = 𝐏𝐃 = 𝐏𝐄 = 𝐏𝐅 = 𝐏𝐆 = 𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐦 + 𝛒𝐡
𝐠𝐜
𝐏𝐇 ≠ 𝐏𝐈

Pascal Law:
 A consequence of the pressure in a fluid remaining constant in the horizontal direction is that that
the pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount.

o Lifting of a large weight by a small force by the application of Pascal’s law (Pascal’s
Machine).
Since ∶ P1 = P2

F1 F2 F2 A 2
Also, = → =
A1 A2 F1 A1
A
∗ 2 is known as "ideal mechanical advantage of the hydraulic lift
A1
A2
∗ Using a hydraulic car jack with a piston area ratio of = 10
A1
∗ A person can lift a 1000 − kg car by applying a force of just 100 kgf (908N)
Barometic Equations:
A. Directly Vertical
 An important equation relating to fluid statics is the barometric equation:
𝐝𝐏 𝐠
=𝛒 = (𝐃𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐥𝐲 𝐕𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥)
𝐝𝐙 𝐠𝐜
𝐠
or : ∆𝐏 = 𝐏𝟐 − 𝐏𝟏 = 𝛒 ∆𝐳
𝐠𝐜
Where:
P = pressure; Z = vertical distance; 𝛒 = fluid density;
𝐟𝐭 𝐦
g = acceleration of gravity = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟐 𝟐 𝐨𝐫 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝟐
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝐬𝐞𝐜
𝐥𝐛 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 − 𝐟𝐞𝐞𝐭 𝐤𝐠 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 − 𝐦
𝐠 𝐜 = 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟐 𝟐
𝐨𝐫 𝟏
𝐬𝐞𝐜 − 𝐥𝐛 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 − 𝐧𝐞𝐰𝐭𝐨𝐧

Hydrostatic Equilibrium

 For engineering calculations and for incompressible fluid with density constant and between the two
definite heights 𝑍𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍𝑏 ,
𝐏𝐛 𝐏𝐚 𝐠
− = (𝐙𝐚 − 𝐙𝐛 )
𝛒 𝛒 𝐠𝐜
𝐏𝐛 − 𝐏𝐚 𝐠
= (𝐙𝐚 − 𝐙𝐛 )
𝛒 𝐠𝐜
∆𝐏 𝐠
= ∆𝐙
𝛒 𝐠𝐜
o “Consider the barometric equation with respect to the world itself. If, for example, we find
ourselves on the surface of the Pacific Ocean, then we know that the pressure is atmospheric. On
the other hand, if we dive to the bottom of the ocean until you reach the ocean floor, we would find
that the pressure is many times atmospheric with the difference due to the effect predicted by the
barometric equation for ocean water.
o Likewise, if we would go to California, we would find that the pressure in Death Valley (282 feet
below sea level) is higher than that at the top of Mount Apo (elevation 14,494 feet). Once again the
difference in pressure would be governed by the barometric equation.”
B. Directly Not Vertical direction
𝐝𝐏 𝐠
=𝛒 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛉 (𝐃𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐥𝐲 𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐕𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥)
𝐝𝐥 𝐠𝐜
Where:
𝜃 = angle between the vertical Z and the dimension 𝒍
*Note:
In using the barometric equation, we also must consider the usage of the terms absolute, gauge, and
atmospheric pressure.
𝐏𝐀𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 = 𝐏𝐠 + 𝐏𝐀𝐭𝐦
Where:
𝑃𝐴𝑡𝑚 = ambient pressure at that point where we make the reading.
𝑃𝑔 = gauge pressure read by some measuring device for a vessel or a container.
C. Barometric equation for ideal gas:
𝐝𝐏 𝐠
=𝛒 (𝐃𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐥𝐲 𝐕𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥)
𝐝𝐙 𝐠𝐜

𝐏𝐌
𝐁𝐮𝐭 ∶ 𝛒 =
𝐑𝐓
𝐠 𝐏𝐌 𝐠
𝐝𝐏 = 𝛒 𝐝𝐙 = ( ) 𝐝𝐙
𝐠𝐜 𝐑𝐓 𝐠 𝐜

𝐝𝐏 𝐠𝐌 𝐝𝐏 𝐠𝐌
= 𝐝𝐙 ; 𝐀𝐥𝐬𝐨, − 𝐝𝐙 = 𝟎
𝐏 𝐠 𝐜 𝐑𝐓 𝐏 𝐠 𝐜 𝐑𝐓

If T is constant and by integration between level a and b,

𝐏𝐛
𝐝𝐏 𝐠𝐌 𝐙𝐛
∫ − ∫ 𝐝𝐙 = 𝟎
𝐏𝐚 𝐏 𝐠 𝐜 𝐑𝐓 𝐙𝐚

𝐏𝐛 𝐠𝐌
𝐥𝐧 + (𝐙 − 𝐙𝐚 ) = 𝟎 (𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐙𝐚 > 𝐙𝐛 )
𝐏𝐚 𝐠 𝐜 𝐑𝐓 𝐛

𝐏𝐛 𝐠𝐌 𝐏𝐛 𝐠𝐌(𝐙𝐛−𝐙𝐚 )
[− ]
𝐥𝐧 =− (𝐙 − 𝐙𝐚 ) 𝐨𝐫 =𝐞 𝐠𝐜 𝐑𝐓
𝐏𝐚 𝐠 𝐜 𝐑𝐓 𝐛 𝐏𝐚

Fluid Static 2
 Another aspect of fluid statics that will be utilized later in this text is the Principle of Archimedes relating
to buoyant force.
 Buoyant force for an object floating in a liquid is:
𝐠 𝐠
𝐅𝐁 = [𝛒𝐋𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 𝐕𝐋𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 + 𝛒𝐀𝐢𝐫 𝐕𝐀𝐢𝐫 ]
𝐠𝐜 𝐠𝐜
Where:
𝑉𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑉𝐴𝑖𝑟 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
 Hydrostatic Equilibrium in a centrifugal Field:

F = ma = mass x acceleration
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑎 = 𝑟𝜔2
𝐝𝐅 = 𝐫𝛚𝟐 𝐝𝐦
Where: dF = centrifugal force
dm = mass of liquid
ω = angular velocity, rad/s
r = radial distance
 𝐝𝐅 = 𝐫𝛚𝟐 𝐝𝐦 = 𝐫𝛚𝟐 [𝟐𝛑𝛒𝐫𝐛𝐝𝐫]
dF
= rω2 [ρdr] = dP
2πrb
P2 r2
∫ dP = ω2 ρ ∫ rdr
P1 r1

𝛚𝟐 𝛒(𝐫𝟐 𝟐 − 𝐫𝟏 𝟐 )
𝐏𝟐 − 𝐏𝟏 = (𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐫𝟐 − 𝐫𝟏 ≈ 𝐬𝐦𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞)
𝟐

Manometry:
Suppose a manometer is used to measure a pressure differential in a pipe with a flowing fluid ‘‘x” at room
temperature as shown in figure below The manometer reads a differential height of 0.3323 m. The liquid in the pipe
has a density of 1260 kg mass/ m3 . Mercury (density of 13,600 kg/ m3) is the manometer fluid. What is the pressure
measured?

∆𝐏 = (𝐏𝟏 − 𝐏𝟓 ) = the overall pressure differential in the system

Using the barometric equation step by step.
dP g
=ρ (Directly Vertical)
dZ gc
Pt. 1 to Pt. 2 The interface between the flowing fluid(x)and manometer fluid (y)
g
P1 − P2 = ρx (Z1 − Z2 )
gc
g g
P1 − P2 = ρx [0 − (Zm + R m )] = −ρx (Zm + R m )
gc gc
g
P2 = P1 + ρx (Zm + R m )
gc
Pt. 2 to Pt. 4 The interface between the manometer fluid (x) and manometer fluid(y)
g
P2 − P4 = ρY (Z2 − Z4 )
gc
g g
P2 − P4 = ρY (0 + R m ) = ρY R m
gc gc
g
P4 = P2 − ρY R m
gc
g
But: P2 = P1 + ρx (Zm + R m )
gc
g g
Therefore, P4 = P1 + ρx (Zm + R m )−ρY R m
gc gc
g g
Also, P4 = P1 + ρx Zm + R m (ρx −ρY )
gc gc
Pt. 4 to Pt. 5 The interface between the manometer fluid (y) and flowing fluid(x)
g
P4 − P5 = ρx (Z4 − Z5 )
gc
g g
P4 − P5 = ρx (0 + Zm ) = ρx Zm
gc gc
g
P5 = P4 − ρx Zm
gc
g g
But P4 = P1 + ρx Zm + R m (ρx −ρY )
gc gc
g g g
Therefore, P5 = P1 + ρx Zm + R m (ρx −ρY ) − ρx Zm
gc gc gc
g
P5 − P1 = R m (ρx −ρY )
gc
Substituting the values from the problem,
kgm kgm
R m = 0.3323 m; ρx = 1260 3 ; ρHg = 13600
m m3

𝐦 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠−𝑚
For metric, 𝑔 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒈𝒄 = 1
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 −𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛

𝐦
𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝟐 kgm
Therefore, P5 − P1 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 (0.3323 m)(1260 − 13,600) 3
𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝑚 m
1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 − 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛

𝑁 𝑁
P5 − P1 = −40,226.709 or P1 − P5 = 40,226.709 ≈ 40,266.709 Pa
m2 m2

For simple manometer,

𝑃1 𝑃2

𝐠
∆𝐏 = 𝐏𝟐 − 𝐏𝟏 = 𝐑 𝐦 (𝛒𝐦 − 𝛒𝐟 )
𝐠𝐜
Where:
P2 = Pressure on the depressed side
P1 = Pressure on the Elevated side
∆h = R m = depressed distance
ρm = higher density or manometer fluid
ρf = lighter density fluid

If the fluid is a gas, the density (𝜌𝑓 )𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 ≪≪ 𝜌𝑚 .

g
∆P = R m ρm
gc
For Well-type manometer,

𝑨𝒄 𝒈
∆𝑷 = 𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 = 𝝆𝒇 𝑹𝒎 (𝟏 + )
𝑨𝒘 𝒈𝒄
Where:
𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑦 = 𝑅𝑚 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜌𝑓 = 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝐴𝑐 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝐴𝑤 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙
If the well large in comparison to the column,
𝒈
∆𝐏 = 𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 = 𝑹𝒎 𝝆𝒇
𝒈𝒄

For inclined Manometer,

𝒈
𝑷𝒂 − 𝑷𝒃 = 𝑹𝟏 (𝝆𝑨 − 𝝆𝑩 )𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶
𝒈𝒄

Where: 𝝆𝑨 = 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝆𝑩 = 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅

Two-liquid Manometer:
 Small differences in pressure in gases are often measured with this type of manometer

𝑔
∆𝑷 = (𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 ) = 𝒉𝒎 (𝝆𝒎𝟏 − 𝝆𝒎𝟐 )
𝑔𝑐

Measuring Pressure with a Multi-fluid Manometer

The water in a tank is pressured by air, and the pressure is measured by a multi-fluid manometer as shown
above. The tank is located on a mountain at an altitude of 1400 meters where the atmospheric pressure
is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air pressure in the tank if ℎ1 = 0.10 𝑚 , ℎ2 = 0.20 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ3 = 0.35 𝑚. Take
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
the densities of water, oil and mercury to be 1000 3 , 850 3 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 13,600 3 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦.
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

Solution:
The air pressure in the pressurized water tank is measured by a multi-fluid manometer
g g g
P1 + ρwater h1 + ρoil h2 − ρmercury h3 = Patm
gc gc gc
g
P1 = Patm − (ρwater h1 + ρoil h2 − ρmercury h3 )
gc
m
9.81 2 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑃1 = 85.6 𝑘𝑃𝑎 − ( sec ) [(1000 3 ) (0.1𝑚) + (850 3 ) (0.2𝑚) − (13,600 3 ) (0.35𝑚)]
𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 − 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑵 𝟏 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑷𝟏 = 𝟖𝟓. 𝟔 𝒌𝑷𝒂 − [𝟗𝟖𝟏 + 𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟕. 𝟕 − 𝟒𝟔, 𝟔𝟗𝟓. 𝟔] ( ) = 𝟏𝟐𝟗. 𝟔𝟒𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝒎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵
𝟐
𝒎𝟐
FLUID DYNAMICS -A PHENOMONOLOGICAL APPROACH
 The fluid is put into motion,
 Fluid behavior is determined by its physical nature, the flow geometry, and its velocity.

Osborne Reynolds’ Experiment on Newtonian fluids (those that obey Newton’s Law of Viscosity).

Reynolds experiment - streamline flow

Experiment results and discussion:

 Reynolds injected a dye stream into water flowing in a glass tube.
 At certain fluid velocities the dye stream moved in a straight line
 This behavior was found to occur over the entire cross section of the tube for a given overall flow rate.
 Also, the dye streams' velocity was the same for a given radial distance from the tube center (or wall). Hence,
at a particular circumference. the velocity had the same value.
 Also, the maximum fluid velocity occurred at the tube's center line and then decreased as the radius
approached the radius of the tube wall.

Conclusion:
 These behavior patterns led to conclusion that such flows were streamline (i.e., the dye stream showed a
straight line behavior with a given velocity at a circumference). Furthermore, since the velocity moved from
a maximum at the tube center to a minimum at the wall, the fluid itself moved in shells or lamina. Because
of these patterns of behavior, it was termed such flows as streamline and laminar

Laminar flow Pattern

 By increasing the flow rate, the stream line began to move in a sinuous or oscillating pattern and ultimately
developed into a chaotic pattern of eddies and vortices. The chaotic flow was termed turbulent flow, and the
intermediate range was called transition flow.

Transition and turbulent flow Pattern

Two principal forces involved in the experiment:

1. Inertia forces
𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 = 𝝆𝝊 ̅𝟐
Where:
𝜐̅ = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
 2. Viscous Forces
̅
𝝁𝝊
𝑽𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 =
𝑫
Where:
μ = fluid′ s viscosity
D = tube diameter
3. Ratio of Inertia Forces and Viscous Forces

𝐈𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐚 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐬 ̅𝟐
𝝆𝝊 𝑫𝝊̅ 𝝆
= = = 𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 = 𝑹𝒆𝒚𝒏𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒔 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝑹𝒆
𝐕𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐬 𝝁𝝊̅ 𝝁
𝑫

The significance of the Reynolds number:

 Reynolds number serves as a criterion to describe laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow conditions.
Laminar Flow:
 In laminar flow, the fluid moves in layers called laminas, in streamlines. Laminar flow need not be in a straight
line. For laminar flow, the flow follows the curved surface of an airfoil smoothly, in layers.
 The closer the fluid layers are to the airfoil surface, the slower they move. Moreover, the fluid layers slide
over one another without fluid being exchanged between the layers, that is, without lateral mixing of the
layers.
 “At the laminar region (lower flow rates) the viscous forces predominate, giving low Reynolds number
values.
Turbulent Flow:
 In turbulent flow, secondary random motions are superimposed on the principal flow and there is an exchange
of fluid from one adjacent sector to another.
 Also, there is an exchange of momentum such that slow moving fluid particles speed up and fast moving
particles give up their momentum to the slower moving particles and slow down themselves. Flow moves
instantaneously in many directions, but mean flow is in the downstream direction.
 As flow rates increase, inertia forces become important until in turbulent flow these forces predominate,
giving high Reynolds number values”
Transition Flow:
 When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, obstructions and cross-section and direction changes can result in
variations in flow velocities and flow profiles. The laminar or turbulent flow criteria in terms of Re can be in
error. In fully developed flow, the distortions will be absent.
 The length of obstruction-less pipe to restore fully developed flow is called the “transition length”.

Laminar Flow: Re: ≤ 2,100

Transition Flow: Re: >2,100 < 4,000
Turbulent Flow: Re ≥ 4,000

Transition length for laminar and turbulent flow:

 Approximate length of straight pipe necessary for completion of the final velocity distribution

For laminar flow,

𝑿𝒊
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝑹𝒆
𝑫
Where:
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐷 = 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
For turbulent flow,
𝒙𝒊 = 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑹𝒆 ≈ (𝟒𝟎 𝒕𝒐 𝟓𝟎)𝑫
Eddy:
 An eddy is the swirling of a fluid and the reverse current created when the fluid flows past an
obstacle. The moving fluid creates a space devoid of downstream flowing fluid on the downstream
side of the object.
 Fluid behind the obstacle flows into the void creating a swirl of fluid on each edge of the obstacle,
followed by a short reverse flow of fluid behind the obstacle flowing upstream, toward the back of
the obstacle.
 They are formed, for example, in rivers when water comes up against an obstacle (most commonly
rocks) and has to pass around it, creating a void in the flow directly downstream. They are also
formed in any “flowing fluid under turbulent flow” conditions in a conduit such as a pipe.

Flow characteristics as a function of the shape of relative velocity profiles/distribution in a tube or pipe:

 Laminar Flow: Parabolic shape

 Turbulent flow: Blunter in shape

*Note: The Ultimate beyond Laminar and Turbulent is “Ideal” or Plug flow where all velocities
across the tube cross section are the same just like in the flow reactors or flow-through packed bed.
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID BEHAVIOR
 Many fluids obey Newton’s Law of Viscosity. In these fluids, which are called Newtonian, the viscosity is
a property of the system.
 As such, it depends on the substance or substances in the system, temperature, and pressure but not on the
velocity gradient, which is the rate of shear or on the time parameter.

In nature there are many other fluid systems other than the Newtonian fluids. Therefore, the general
classification of fluid system according to its behavior are:
1. Newtonian
 Newtonian fluids are named after Sir Issac Newton (1642 - 1726) who described the flow
behavior of fluids with a simple linear relation between shear stress [mPa] and shear rate [1/s].
 Some examples of Newtonian fluids include water, organic solvents, and honey. For those
fluids viscosity is only dependent on temperature.
 This means that the viscosity of Newtonian fluids will remain a constant no matter how fast
they are forced to flow through a pipe or channel (i.e. viscosity is independent of the rate of
shear).
 An exception to the rule is Bingham plastics, which are fluids that require a minimum stress to
be applied before they flow. These are strictly non-Newtonian, but once the flow starts they
behave essentially as Newtonian fluids (i.e. shear stress is linear with shear rate). A great
example of this kind of behavior is mayonnaise.
2. “Simple” non-Newtonian (the viscosity is a function of shear rate )
 In reality most fluids are non-Newtonian, which means that their viscosity is dependent on
shear rate (Shear Thinning or Thickening) or the deformation history (Thixotropic fluids). In
contrast to Newtonian fluids, non-Newtonian fluids display either a non-linear relation between
shear stress and shear rate, have a yield stress, or viscosity that is dependent on time or
deformation history (or a combination of all the above).
3. “Complex” non-Newtonian (the behavior is a function of both rate of shear and the time
parameter)
4. Fluids influenced by external force fields
5. Fluids that are non-continuous
6. Relativistic fluids
“Simple” non-Newtonian (the viscosity is a function of shear rate)
 Those fluids in which the rate of shear influences the flow behavior

𝒅𝑽𝑿
Comparison shear stress (𝝉) vs. shear rate ( )
𝒅𝒚
*Newtonian (A), shear-thinning (B), and shear-thickening (C) fluids.
 Using Newton’s Law of Viscosity so that we have an apparent viscosity (𝝁𝒂𝒑𝒑 ) :
𝒅𝑽𝑿
𝝉𝒚𝒙 = −𝝁𝒂𝒑𝒑 (𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏’𝒔 𝑳𝒂𝒘 𝒐𝒇 𝑽𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚)
𝒅𝒚
𝝉𝒚𝒙
𝝁𝒂𝒑𝒑 =
𝒅𝑽
− 𝑿
𝒅𝒚
If we plot the behavior of apparent viscosity, 𝝁𝒂𝒑𝒑 on a log-log plot, we obtain Figure below:

𝑑𝑉𝑋
Log of apparent viscosity (𝜇𝑎𝑝𝑝 ) vs. log of shear rate ( )
𝑑𝑦
*Newtonian (A), shear-thinning (B), and shear-thickening (C) fluids.
Figure Interpretation:
 The apparent viscosity, 𝝁𝒂𝒑𝒑 for a Newtonian is a constant.
 The other fluids show a decreasing apparent viscosity with increasing shear rate (shear-thinning fluid) or an
increasing apparent viscosity with an increasing shear rate (shear-thickening fluid).
 Shear-thinning fluids are also called pseudoplastic, whereas shear-thickening fluids are termed dilatant.
 The overall science that considers flow and deformation of fluids (as well as solids) is termed “rheology”.
 The velocity profile of a pseudoplastic fluid flowing in a circular tube is not a parabola (not even in
laminar flow) but rather a blunted profile (same as that of a Newtonian turbulent flow).
 Thixotropy is a time-dependent shear thinning property. Certain gels or fluids that are thick (viscous) under
static conditions will flow (become thin, less viscous) over time when shaken, agitated, sheared or
otherwise stressed (time dependent viscosity). They then take a fixed time to return to a more viscous state.
In more technical language: some non-Newtonian pseudoplastic fluids show a time-dependent change
in viscosity; the longer the fluid undergoes shear stress, the lower its viscosity. A thixotropic fluid is a fluid
which takes a finite time to attain equilibrium viscosity when introduced to a step change in shear rate.
 Some thixotropic fluids return to a gel state almost instantly, such as ketchup, and are
called pseudoplastic fluids. Others such as yogurt take much longer and can become nearly solid.
Many gels and colloids are thixotropic materials, exhibiting a stable form at rest but becoming fluid when
agitated.
  Some fluids are anti-thixotropic: constant shear stress for a time causes an increase in viscosity or even
solidification. Constant shear stress can be applied by shaking or mixing. Fluids which exhibit this property
are usually called rheopectic. They are much less common.

Fluid Behaviour Effect on shear rate Time-dependent Examples

Pseudoplastic Thinning No Polymer solutions, starch suspension,
mayonnaise, paints
Thixotropic Thinning Yes Some polymer solution, shortening, some
paints
Newtonian None No Gases, most simple liquids
Dilatant Thickening No Corn flour-sugar solution, wet beach sand,
starch in water
Rheopectic Thickening Yes Bentonite clay suspension, gypsum
suspension, colloidal suspension, pigmented
ink
 It is obvious that the “simple” non-Newtonians cannot be treated by Newton’s Law of Viscosity.
As such, other approaches must be taken which lead to rheological constitutive equations:

Ostwald-De Waele Power Law :

𝒅𝑽𝑿 𝒏−𝟏
𝝉𝒚𝒙 = −𝒌 | |
𝒅𝒚
Where:
𝒅𝑽𝑿
| | = absolute value of the rate of shear ; shear rate or the velocity gradient perpendicular to the plane of shear
𝒅𝒚
k = consistency index
n = flow behavior index.
Also:
𝒅𝜸 𝒏
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 (𝝉𝒚𝒙 ) = 𝒌 | |
𝒅𝒕
 The power law is not applicable over the entire range of shear rate behavior but rather only
𝑑𝛾
where log 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑣𝑠. log 𝑑𝑡 is a straight line.
 Also, note that the flow behavior index, n, is the slope of such a plot.

System Values for flow behavior index (n)

Fluid Type n Examples
Shear-thinning (pseudoplastic) < 1.0 Polymer solutions; polymer melts; foods
Newtonian 1.0 Water, Organic fluids
Shear-thickening (dilatant) > 1.0 Continuous & dispersed phases (water-sand; cement, water-corn;
starch; etc.)

“Complex” non-Newtonian:
Fluids in which the time parameter becomes a factor.
𝒅𝜸 𝒅𝜸
𝝉 = 𝝓 ( , 𝒕) 𝑰𝒇 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 ∶ 𝝉 = 𝝁
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
MULTIDIMENSIONAL FLUID FLOW - THE EQUATIONS OF CHANGE

Navier-Stoke Equations:
 In physics, the Navier–Stokes equations describe the motion of viscous fluid substances.
 These balance equations arise from applying Newton's second law to fluid motion, together with the
assumption that the stress in the fluid is the sum of a diffusing viscous term (proportional to the gradient of
velocity) and a pressure term—hence describing viscous flow.
 Navier–Stokes equations are useful because they describe the physics of many phenomena
of scientific and engineering interest. They may be used to model the weather, ocean currents, water flow
in a pipe and air flow around a wing.
 The Navier–Stokes equations in their full and simplified forms help with the design of aircraft and cars, the
study of blood flow, the design of power stations, the analysis of pollution, and many other things.
 The solution of the Navier–Stokes equations is a flow velocity. It is a field, since it is defined at every point
in a region of space and an interval of time. Once the velocity field is calculated, other quantities of
interest, such as pressure or temperature, may be found.
 The Navier-Stokes equations, developed by Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel Stokes in 1822, are
equations which can be used to determine the velocity vector field that applies to a fluid, given some
initial conditions. They arise from the application of Newton’s second law in combination with a fluid
stress (due to viscosity) and a pressure term.

A. Equation of Continuity for Cartesian/Rectangular Coordinates (x, y, 𝒛):

Mass Balance along Cartesian Coordinates:

General Equation: ∑𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
 For fluid infinitesimally small
 Consider the conservation of mass, using “stationary Volume element for mass balance” or on a per unit
volume analysis,
Mass rate in - Mass rate out = Mass accumulation rate

Based on the above figure , by letting ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 approach zero, the differential equation will be:

𝝏𝝆 𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
= − ( (𝝆𝝊𝒙 ) + (𝝆𝝊𝒚 ) + (𝝆𝝊𝒛 )) (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠)
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

𝝏𝝆 𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
𝒐𝒓 + (𝝆𝝊𝒙 ) + (𝝆𝝊𝒚 ) + (𝝆𝝊𝒛 ) = 𝟎 (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠)
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
Using differential and separated into density and velocity derivatives:
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜐𝑥 𝜕𝜐𝑦 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
= −𝜌 ( + + ) = − [𝜐𝑥 + 𝜐𝑦 + 𝜐𝑧 ]
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜐𝑥 𝜕𝜐𝑦 𝜕𝜐𝑧

𝐵𝑢𝑡: ( + + ) = ( ∇ ∙ 𝜐) = 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝝏𝝆 𝝏𝝆 𝝏𝝆 𝝏𝝆
= −𝝆(𝛁 ∙ 𝝊) = − [𝝊𝒙 + 𝝊𝒚 + 𝝊𝒛 ]
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

For a fluid of constant density (i.e., incompressible, usually being assumed in the fluid transport):

𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, = −𝜌(∇ ∙ 𝜐) = − [𝜐𝑥 + 𝜐𝑦 + 𝜐𝑧 ] = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝝏𝝊𝒙 𝝏𝝊𝒚 𝝏𝝊𝒛

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, ( + + ) = ( 𝛁 ∙ 𝝊) = 𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

Momentum Balance: (Equation of Motion in Cartesian/Rectangular Coordinates)

 For a momentum balance using “stationary Volume element ”

(Momentum rate in) - (Momentum rate out) + (Sum of all forces acting on the system)
= (Momentum accumulation rate)

Note:
𝜕𝜐𝑥
 The momentum rate expressions would include both a convective (for example, 𝜌𝜐𝑥 ) and
𝜕𝑥
a molecular transport term (involving shear stress).
 The force term would include both pressure and gravity forces.

Using the approach for the equation of continuity and letting ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 approach zero,
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= − ( (𝜌𝜐𝑥 ) + (𝜌𝜐𝑦 ) + (𝜌𝜐𝑧 )) (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑜𝑟 + (𝜌𝜐𝑥 ) + (𝜌𝜐𝑦 ) + (𝜌𝜐𝑧 ) = 0 (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
a. For Simple non-Newtonian Fluids (∑ 𝑭 = 𝒎 ∙ 𝒂)
For x-component:

𝜕𝜐𝑥 𝜕𝜐𝑥 𝜕𝜐𝑥 𝜕𝜐𝑥 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥

𝜌( + 𝜐𝑥 + 𝜐𝑦 + 𝜐𝑧 ) = −𝜌𝑔𝑥 − −( + + )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

For y-component:
𝜕𝜐𝑦 𝜕𝜐𝑦 𝜕𝜐𝑦 𝜕𝜐𝑦 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑦
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑥 + 𝜐𝑦 + 𝜐𝑧 ) = −𝜌𝑔𝑦 − −( + + )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
For z-component:
𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑧
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑥 + 𝜐𝑦 + 𝜐𝑧 ) = −𝜌𝑔𝑧 − −( + + )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

b. For Newtonian fluids of constant densities and viscosities:

𝚫𝝊
∑ 𝑭 = 𝒎 ∙ 𝒂 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝒂 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝊 = 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛, 𝒕)
𝒕

On a per unit volume analysis,

For x-component: ∑ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝒎 ∙ 𝒂𝒙
𝜕𝑃 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑥 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑥 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑥 𝜕𝜐𝑥 𝜕𝜐𝑥 𝜕𝜐𝑥 𝜕𝜐𝑥
+𝜌𝑔𝑥 − +𝜇( 2 + 2
+ 2
) = 𝜌( + 𝜐𝑥 + 𝜐𝑦 + 𝜐𝑧 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜐𝑥 𝜕𝜐𝑥 𝜕𝜐𝑥 𝜕𝜐𝑥
∗∗ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∶ = 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ; 𝜐𝑥 , 𝜐𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜐𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

For y-component: ∑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝒎 ∙ 𝒂𝒚
𝜕𝑃 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑦 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑦 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑦 𝜕𝜐𝑦 𝜕𝜐𝑦 𝜕𝜐𝑦 𝜕𝜐𝑦
+𝜌𝑔𝑦 − +𝜇( 2 + 2
+ 2
) = 𝜌( + 𝜐𝑥 + 𝜐𝑦 + 𝜐𝑧 )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

For z-component: ∑ 𝑭𝒛 = 𝒎 ∙ 𝒂𝒛
𝜕𝑃 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧
+𝜌𝑔𝑧 − +𝜇( 2 + 2
+ 2
) = 𝜌( + 𝜐𝑥 + 𝜐𝑦 + 𝜐𝑧 )
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

B. Equation of Continuity for Cylindrical Coordinates (r, 𝜽, 𝒛):

Mass Balance:
𝜕𝜌 1 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
+ (𝜌𝑟𝜐𝑟 ) + (𝜌𝜐𝜃 ) + (𝜌𝜐𝑧 ) = 0 (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧

Momentum Balance: (Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates)

In terms of shear stress, 𝜏:

For r-component:
𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 2 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑟 ) 1 𝜕𝜏𝑟𝜃 𝜏𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜏𝑟𝑧
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + − + 𝜐𝑧 )= − −( + − + ) + 𝜌𝑔𝑟
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧
For 𝜃-component:
𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 1 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟 2 𝜏𝑟𝜃 ) 1 𝜕𝜏𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜏𝜃𝑧
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + + 𝜐𝑧 )= − −( 2 + + ) + 𝜌𝑔𝜃
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
For z-component:
𝝏𝝊𝒛 𝝏𝝊𝒛 𝝊𝜽 𝝏𝝊𝒛 𝝏𝝊𝒛 𝝏𝑷 𝟏 𝝏(𝒓𝝉𝒓𝒛 ) 𝟏 𝝏𝝉𝜽𝒛 𝝏𝝉𝒛𝒛
𝝆( + 𝝊𝒓 + + 𝝊𝒛 )= − −( + + ) + 𝝆𝒈𝒛
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝒛
In terms of velocity gradients for a Newtonian fluid with constant 𝜌 and 𝜇:

For r-component:
𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 2 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜐𝑟 ) 1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑟 2 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑟
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + − + 𝜐𝑧 )= − +𝜇[ ( )+ 2 − + ] + 𝜌𝑔𝑟
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 2
For 𝜃-component:
𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 1 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜐𝜃 ) 1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝜃 2 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜕 2 𝜐𝜃
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + + 𝜐𝑧 )= − +𝜇[ ( )+ 2 + + ] + 𝜌𝑔𝜃
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 2
For z-component:
𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝑃 1𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧 1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + 𝜐𝑧 )= − +𝜇[ (𝑟 )+ 2 + ] + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝑧 2

C. Equation of Continuity for Spherical Coordinates (r, 𝜽, 𝜙):

Mass Balance:

Momentum Balance: (Equation of Motion in Spherical Coordinates)

In terms of shear stress, 𝜏:

For r-component:
𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜙 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 2 + 𝜐𝜙 2
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + − − )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟
2
𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟 𝜏𝑟𝑟 ) 1 𝜕(𝜏𝑟𝜃 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃) 1 𝜕𝜏𝑟𝜙 𝜏𝜃𝜃 + 𝜏𝜙𝜙
= − −( 2 + + − ) + 𝜌𝑔𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟

For 𝜽-component:
𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝜙 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝜙 2 cot 𝜃
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + − + − )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 𝑟
2
1 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟 𝜏𝑟𝜃 ) 1 𝜕(𝜏𝜃𝜃 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃) 1 𝜕𝜏𝑟𝜙 𝜏𝑟𝜃 𝐶𝑜𝑡 𝜃
= − −( 2 + + + − 𝜏𝜙𝜙 ) + 𝜌𝑔𝜃
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 𝑟

For 𝝓-component:
𝜕𝜐𝜙 𝜕𝜐𝜙 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜙 𝜐𝜙 𝜕𝜐𝜙 𝜐𝜙 𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝜙
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + + + cot 𝜃)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 𝑟
1 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟 2 𝜏𝑟𝜙 ) 1 𝜕(𝜏𝜃𝜙 ) 1 𝜕𝜏𝜙𝜙 𝜏𝑟𝜙 2 cot 𝜃
= − −( 2 + + + + 𝜏𝜃𝜙 ) + 𝜌𝑔𝜙
𝑟𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 𝑟

In terms of velocity gradients for a Newtonian fluid with constant 𝜌 and 𝜇:

For r-component:
𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜙 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 2 + 𝜐𝜙 2
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + − )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟
𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕2 1 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑟 1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑟
= − + 𝜇 [ 2 2 (𝑟 2 𝜐𝑟 ) + 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 )+ 2 2
( 2 )] + 𝜌𝑔𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜕𝜙
For 𝜽-component:
𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝜙 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝜙 2
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + + − cot 𝜃)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 𝑟
1 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝜃 1 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜐𝜃 sin 𝜃 1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝜃 2 𝜕𝜐𝑟 2 cos 𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜙
= − + 𝜇 [ 2 (𝑟 2 )+ 2 ( )+ 2 ( )+ 2 − ] + 𝜌𝑔𝜃
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 2 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝜕𝜙

For 𝝓-component:
𝜕𝜐𝜙 𝜕𝜐𝜙 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜙 𝜐𝜙 𝜕𝜐𝜙 𝜐𝜙 𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝜙
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + + − cot 𝜃)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 𝑟
1 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝜙 1 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜐𝜙 sin 𝜃 1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝜙 2 𝜕𝜐𝑟 2 cos 𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃
= − + 𝜇 [ 2 (𝑟 2 )+ 2 ( )+ 2 ( )+ 2 + ]
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 2 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝜕𝜙
+ 𝜌𝑔𝜙

Sample Problem:
Consider a Newtonian fluid flowing in a circular tube at constant temperature as shown on figure below. The fluid
(in laminar flow) is in steady-state flow and has a fully developed velocity profile.
a. What is the velocity profile across the tube?
b. Also, find the shear stress profile

Laminar flow in a tube

Solution:

a. Velocity profile across the tube

For cylindrical coordinates,
Let: z = axial dimension
r = radial dimension
Assume constant 𝜌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇

Using: Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates

In terms of velocity gradients for a Newtonian fluid with constant 𝜌 and 𝜇:

*Since there is only a 𝜐𝑍 (velocity in the axial direction) and no pressure gradients for both components r and 𝜃,
component r and 𝜃 = 0

For r-component:
𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 2 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜐𝑟 ) 1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑟 2 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑟
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + − + 𝜐𝑧 )= − +𝜇[ ( )+ 2 − + ] + 𝜌𝑔𝑟 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 2
For 𝜃-component:
𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 1 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜐𝜃 ) 1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝜃 2 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜕 2 𝜐𝜃
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + + 𝜐𝑧 )=− +𝜇[ ( )+ 2 + + ] + 𝜌𝑔𝜃 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 2
For z-component:
𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧 1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + 𝜐𝑧 )= − +𝜇[ (𝑟 )+ 2 + ] + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝑧 2

Also Equation of Continuity for Cylindrical Coordinates (r, 𝜃, 𝑧):

𝜕𝜌 1 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
+ (𝜌𝑟𝜐𝑟 ) + (𝜌𝜐𝜃 ) + (𝜌𝜐𝑧 ) = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜌
= 0 (𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝜕𝑡
1 𝜕
(𝜌𝑟𝜐𝑟 ) = 0 (𝑁𝑜 𝜐𝑟 )
𝑟 𝜕𝑟
1 𝜕
(𝜌𝜐𝜃 ) = 0 (𝑁𝑜 𝜐𝜃 )
𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕
Therefore, (𝜌𝜐𝑧 ) = 0
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜐 𝜕2 𝜐
Since 𝜌 is constant, 𝜕𝑧𝑧 = 0 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝜕𝑧 𝑧 = 0
Using the z-component of Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates in terms of velocity gradient,

𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧 1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧

𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + 𝜐𝑧 )= − +𝜇[ (𝑟 )+ 2 + ] + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕𝜐𝑧
= 0 (𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝜐𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0 ( 𝑁𝑜 𝜐𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜐𝜃 )
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝜐𝑧 =0 (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧
= 0 (𝑛𝑜 𝜃 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2
𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧
= 0 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝜕𝑧 2
 Therefore,
𝜕𝑃 𝜇 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧
0=− + (𝑟 ) + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝜕𝑃 𝜇 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧
− 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = (𝑟 )
𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝜕𝑃 ∆𝑃
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝐿 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 =
𝜕𝑧 𝐿
∆𝑃 𝜇 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧
− 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = (𝑟 )
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

∆𝑃 − 𝜌𝑔𝑧 𝜇 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧
= (𝑟 )
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝐿𝑒𝑡: ∆𝑃 = 𝑃 − 𝑃̅𝑜
̅ 𝑜 ) − 𝜌𝑔𝑧
(𝑃 − 𝑃 𝜇 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧
= (𝑟 )
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝐿𝑒𝑡: 𝑃̅𝐿 = 𝑃 − 𝜌𝑔𝑧
̅𝐿 − 𝑃̅𝑜 ) 𝜇 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧
(𝑃
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, = (𝑟 )
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )
−(𝑃 𝜇 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝑜𝑟 = (𝑟 )
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )𝑟
−(𝑃 𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝜕𝑟 = 𝜕 (𝑟 )
𝜇𝐿 𝜕𝑟

*Since only r is involved, we can write the above equation as ordinary differentials

̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )𝑟
−(𝑃 𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑 (𝑟 )
𝜇𝐿 𝑑𝑟

Integrating and using the boundary conditions,

𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝑟 =0; 𝑟 =0
𝑑𝑟

𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝑟=𝑟; 𝑟 = 𝑟
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐
𝑟=𝑟 ̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )𝑟 𝑟 =𝑟 𝑧
−(𝑃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝜐𝑧
∫ [ 𝑑𝑟] = ∫ [𝑑 (𝑟 )]
𝑟=0 𝜇𝐿 𝜕𝜐
𝑟 𝑧 =0 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑟

̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )𝑟2
−(𝑃 𝜕𝜐𝑧
=𝑟
2𝜇𝐿 𝑑𝑟

̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )𝑟
−(𝑃 𝜕𝜐𝑧
=
2𝜇𝐿 𝑑𝑟
 Again integrating and using the boundary conditions,

̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )𝑟
−(𝑃
𝑑𝑟 = 𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝜇𝐿
𝑟=𝑟
−(𝑃̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )𝑟 𝜐𝑧 =𝜐𝑧
∫ [ 𝑑𝑟] = ∫ 𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝑟=𝑅 2𝜇𝐿 𝜐𝑧 =0

Where: R = cylinder radius

̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )
−(𝑃
[𝑟2 − 𝑅2 ] = [𝜐𝑧 − 0]
4𝜇𝐿

̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )
(𝑃
[−𝑟2 + 𝑅2 ] = 𝜐𝑧
4𝜇𝐿

̅𝐋 )𝑹𝟐
̅𝟎 − 𝐏
(𝐏 𝐫 𝟐
Or: 𝛖𝐳 = [𝟏 − (𝐑) ] (𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)
𝟒𝛍𝐋

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∶ 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑡 velocity (𝜐𝑍 ) at any instant flow

𝑅 = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒

𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = 0 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦

̅𝟎 − 𝐏
(𝐏 ̅𝐋 )𝑹𝟐
𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐞, 𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐕𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝛖𝐳 )𝐦𝐚𝐱 =
𝟒𝛍𝐋

𝐫 𝟐
𝐇𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞, 𝛖𝐳 = (𝛖𝐳 )𝐦𝐚𝐱 [𝟏 − ( ) ] (𝐏𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐜 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐟𝐢𝐠𝐮𝐫𝐞)
𝐑

(𝐏𝟎 − 𝐏𝐋 )𝑹𝟐 𝟏
𝑨𝒍𝒔𝒐, 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝝊𝒁 𝒂𝒗𝒆 = = (𝝊𝒁 𝒎𝒂𝒙 )
𝟖𝛍𝐋 𝟐

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆, 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚

𝐫 𝟐
∗ 𝛖𝐳 = 𝟐 (𝝊𝒁 𝒂𝒗𝒆 ) [𝟏 − ( ) ]
𝐑

𝝅(𝐏𝟎 − 𝐏𝐋 )𝑹𝟒 𝝆
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 (𝒎̇) =
𝟖𝛍𝐋
b. Shear stress profile2
As in the previous computation , only the Equation of Continuity and the z component of the Equation of Motion
apply.
From the Equation of Continuity,
𝝏𝝊𝒛
=𝟎 (𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒊𝒕𝒚)
𝝏𝒛
The z-component of Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates in terms of velocity gradient:
𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧 1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + 𝜐𝑧 )= − +𝜇[ (𝑟 )+ 2 + ] + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝑧 2

Using the z-component of Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates in terms of shear stress, 𝜏:
𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 ) 1 𝜕𝜏𝜃𝑧 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑧
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + 𝜐𝑧 )= − −( + + ) + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜐𝑧
= 0 (𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝜐𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0 ( 𝑁𝑜 𝜐𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜐𝜃 )
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝜐𝑧 =0 (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜏𝜃𝑧
= 0 (𝑛𝑜 𝜃 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑧
= 0 (𝑛𝑜 𝑧 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝜕𝑧
Therefore,
𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
0= − − + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
𝑜𝑟 0 = + − 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
Therefore,
𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
− 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = −
𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑃 ∆𝑃
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝐿 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 =
𝜕𝑧 𝐿
∆𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
− 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = −
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
∆𝑃 − 𝜌𝑔𝑧 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
=−
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝐿𝑒𝑡: ∆𝑃 = 𝑃 − 𝑃̅𝑜
̅ 𝑜 ) − 𝜌𝑔𝑧
(𝑃 − 𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
=−
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝐿𝑒𝑡: 𝑃̅𝐿 = 𝑃 − 𝜌𝑔𝑧
̅𝐿 − 𝑃̅𝑜 )
(𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, =−
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟

̅𝐿 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝑜)
𝑟𝑑𝑟 = −𝑑(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
𝐿

Integrating and using the boundary conditions,

𝑟 =0; 𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 = 0
𝑟=𝑟; 𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 = 𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧
 ̅𝐿 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝑜 ) 𝑟=𝑟 𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 = 𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧
∫ 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = − ∫ 𝑑(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
𝐿 𝑟=0 𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 =0

̅𝐿 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝑜 )𝑟 2
= − (𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 + 𝐶1 )
2𝐿
(𝑃̅𝐿 − 𝑃̅𝑜 )𝑟 𝐶1
÷ 𝑟, = − (𝜏𝑟𝑧 + )
2𝐿 𝑟

𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐶1 = 0 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝝉𝒓𝒛 would be infinite at 𝑟 = 0.

̅𝑳 − 𝑷
(𝑷 ̅ 𝒐 )𝒓 ̅𝟎 − 𝑷
(𝑷 ̅ 𝑳 )𝒓
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝝉𝒓𝒛 = − =
𝟐𝑳 𝟐𝑳

Shear stress profile in a tube

Exercise:
An incompressible fluid is flowing at steady state in the annular region (i.e., torus or ring between two concentric
cylinders). The coaxial cylinders have an outside radius of 𝑟2 and inner radius of 𝑟1 Find:
a) Shear stress profile
b) Velocity profile
c) Maximum and average velocities

a. Shear stress profile

As in the previous computation , only the Equation of Continuity and the z component of the Equation of Motion
apply.
From the Equation of Continuity,
𝝏𝝊𝒛
=𝟎 (𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒊𝒕𝒚)
𝝏𝒛

Using the z-component of Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates in terms of shear stress, 𝜏:
𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 ) 1 𝜕𝜏𝜃𝑧 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑧
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + 𝜐𝑧 )= − −( + + ) + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
 𝜕𝜐𝑧
= 0 (𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝜐𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0 ( 𝑁𝑜 𝜐𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜐𝜃 )
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝜐𝑧 =0 (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜏𝜃𝑧
= 0 (𝑛𝑜 𝜃 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑧
= 0 (𝑛𝑜 𝑧 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝜕𝑧

Therefore,
𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
0= − − + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
𝑜𝑟 0 = + − 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
Therefore,
𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
− 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = −
𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑃 ∆𝑃
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝐿 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 =
𝜕𝑧 𝐿
∆𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
− 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = −
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
∆𝑃 − 𝜌𝑔𝑧 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
=−
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝐿𝑒𝑡: ∆𝑃 = 𝑃 − 𝑃̅𝑜
̅ 𝑜 ) − 𝜌𝑔𝑧
(𝑃 − 𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
=−
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝐿𝑒𝑡: 𝑃̅𝐿 = 𝑃 − 𝜌𝑔𝑧
̅𝐿 − 𝑃̅𝑜 )
(𝑃 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, =−
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟

̅𝐿 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝑜)
𝑟𝑑𝑟 = −𝑑(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
𝐿
Integrating and using the boundary conditions,
𝑟 = 𝑟1 ; 𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 = 𝑟1 𝜏𝑟𝑧
𝑟 = 𝑟2 ; 𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 = 𝑟2 𝜏𝑟𝑧

̅𝐿 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝑜 ) 𝑟=𝑟2 𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 =𝑟2 𝜏𝑟𝑧
∫ 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = − ∫ 𝑑(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
𝐿 𝑟=𝑟1 𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 =𝑟1 𝜏𝑟𝑧

̅𝐿 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝑜 )𝑟2 2 (𝑃 ̅𝐿 − 𝑃 ̅ 𝑜 )𝑟1 2 𝐶1
− = − (𝑟2 𝜏𝑟𝑧 − 𝑟1 𝜏𝑟𝑧 + )
2𝐿 2𝐿 𝑟
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐶1 = 0 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝝉𝒓𝒛 would be infinite at 𝑟 = 𝑟1 𝑜𝑟 𝑟2 .
̅𝐿 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝑜 )(𝑟2 2 − 𝑟1 2 )
= −(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )(𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
2𝐿
̅𝐿 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝑜 )(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )(𝑟2 + 𝑟1 )
= −(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )(𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
2𝐿
̅ ̅
(𝑃𝐿 − 𝑃𝑜 )(𝑟2 + 𝑟1 )
= −(𝜏𝑟𝑧 )
2𝐿

̅𝑳 − 𝑷
(𝑷 ̅ 𝒐 )(𝒓𝟐 + 𝒓𝟏 ) ̅𝟎 − 𝑷
(𝑷 ̅ 𝑳 )(𝒓𝟐 + 𝒓𝟏 )
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝝉𝒓𝒛 = − =
𝟐𝑳 𝟐𝑳
b. Velocity profile across the tube
For cylindrical coordinates,
Let: z = axial dimension
r = radial dimension
Assume constant 𝜌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇

Using: Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates

In terms of velocity gradients for a Newtonian fluid with constant 𝜌 and 𝜇:

*Since there is only a 𝜐𝑍 (velocity in the axial direction) and no pressure gradients for both components r and 𝜃,
component r and 𝜃 = 0

For r-component:
𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 2 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜐𝑟 ) 1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑟 2 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑟
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + − + 𝜐𝑧 )= − +𝜇[ ( )+ 2 − + ] + 𝜌𝑔𝑟 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 2
For 𝜃-component:
𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 𝜐𝑟 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝜃 1 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 1 𝜕(𝑟𝜐𝜃 ) 1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝜃 2 𝜕𝜐𝑟 𝜕 2 𝜐𝜃
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + + 𝜐𝑧 )=− +𝜇[ ( )+ 2 + + ] + 𝜌𝑔𝜃 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 2
For z-component:
𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧 1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧
𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + 𝜐𝑧 )= − +𝜇[ (𝑟 )+ 2 + ] + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝑧 2

Also Equation of Continuity for Cylindrical Coordinates (r, 𝜃, 𝑧):

𝜕𝜌 1 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
+ (𝜌𝑟𝜐𝑟 ) + (𝜌𝜐𝜃 ) + (𝜌𝜐𝑧 ) = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜌
= 0 (𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝜕𝑡
1 𝜕
(𝜌𝑟𝜐𝑟 ) = 0 (𝑁𝑜 𝜐𝑟 )
𝑟 𝜕𝑟
1 𝜕
(𝜌𝜐𝜃 ) = 0 (𝑁𝑜 𝜐𝜃 )
𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕
Therefore, (𝜌𝜐𝑧 ) = 0
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜐 𝜕2 𝜐
Since 𝜌 is constant, 𝜕𝑧𝑧 = 0 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝜕𝑧 𝑧 = 0
Using the z-component of Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates in terms of velocity gradient,

𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧 1 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧

𝜌( + 𝜐𝑟 + + 𝜐𝑧 )= − +𝜇[ (𝑟 )+ 2 + ] + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕𝜐𝑧
= 0 (𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜐𝜃 𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝜐𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0 ( 𝑁𝑜 𝜐𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜐𝜃 )
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝜐𝑧 =0 (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝜕𝑧
2
1 𝜕 𝜐𝑧
= 0 (𝑛𝑜 𝜃 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2
 𝜕 2 𝜐𝑧
= 0 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝜕𝑧 2

Therefore,
𝜕𝑃 𝜇 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧
0=− + (𝑟 ) + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝜕𝑃 𝜇 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧
− 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = (𝑟 )
𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝜕𝑃 ∆𝑃
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝐿 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 =
𝜕𝑧 𝐿
∆𝑃 𝜇 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧
− 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = (𝑟 )
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

∆𝑃 − 𝜌𝑔𝑧 𝜇 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧
= (𝑟 )
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝐿𝑒𝑡: ∆𝑃 = 𝑃 − 𝑃̅𝑜
̅ 𝑜 ) − 𝜌𝑔𝑧
(𝑃 − 𝑃 𝜇 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧
= (𝑟 )
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝐿𝑒𝑡: 𝑃̅𝐿 = 𝑃 − 𝜌𝑔𝑧
̅𝐿 − 𝑃̅𝑜 ) 𝜇 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧
(𝑃
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, = (𝑟 )
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )
−(𝑃 𝜇 𝜕 𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝑜𝑟 = (𝑟 )
𝐿 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )𝑟
−(𝑃 𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝜕𝑟 = 𝜕 (𝑟 )
𝜇𝐿 𝜕𝑟

*Since only r is involved, we can write the above equation as ordinary differentials

̅𝟎 − 𝑷
−(𝑷 ̅ 𝑳 )𝒓 𝝏𝝊𝒛
𝒅𝒓 = 𝒅 (𝒓 )
𝝁𝑳 𝒅𝒓

**The above equation still holds, but the velocity in the annulus will reach a maximum at some radius r = 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 which is
between 𝒓𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝟐 as shown in the above figure.

Integrating and using the boundary conditions,

𝜕𝜐 𝜕𝜐
𝑟=𝑟; 𝑟 𝑧=0 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 0
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐𝑧
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 ; 𝑟 = 𝑟
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝜕𝜐
𝑟=𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 ̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )𝑟 𝑟 =𝑟 𝑧
−(𝑃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝜐𝑧
∫ [ 𝑑𝑟] = ∫ [𝑑 (𝑟 )]
𝑟=𝑟 𝜇𝐿 𝑟
𝜕𝜐𝑧
=0 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑟
 ̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )𝑟2 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜕𝜐𝑧
−(𝑃 𝜕𝜐𝑧 𝑟
[ ] = [𝑟 ] 𝑑𝑟
2𝜇𝐿 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 0

̅𝟎 − 𝑷
−(𝑷 ̅ 𝑳 )(𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐 ) 𝝏𝝊𝒛
=𝒓
𝟐𝝁𝑳 𝒅𝒓

̅𝟎 − 𝑷
(𝑷 ̅ 𝑳 )(𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 ) 𝝏𝝊𝒛
𝒐𝒓 =𝒓
𝟐𝝁𝑳 𝒅𝒓

Re-Integrating and using the boundary conditions, (for inner radius, 𝒓𝟏 )

𝑟=𝑟; 𝜐𝑍 = 0
𝑟 = 𝑟1 ; 𝜐𝑍 = 𝜐𝑍

̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )(𝑟 2 − 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 )

(𝑃 𝜕𝜐𝑧
=𝑟
2𝜇𝐿 𝑑𝑟

̅0 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝐿 )(𝑟 2 − 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝜐𝑧 = ( )
2𝜇𝐿 𝑟

𝜐𝑍 =𝜐𝑍 ̅0 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝐿 ) 𝑟=𝑟1 𝑑𝑟
∫ 𝜕𝜐𝑧 = ∫ (𝑟 2 − 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 ) ( )
𝜐𝑍 =0 2𝜇𝐿 𝑟=𝑟 𝑟

𝜐𝑍 =𝜐𝑍 ̅0 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝐿 ) 𝑟=𝑟1 𝑑𝑟 𝑟=𝑟1
𝑑𝑟
∫ 𝜕𝜐𝑧 = [∫ (𝑟 2 ) − ∫ (𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 )]
𝜐𝑍 =0 2𝜇𝐿 𝑟=𝑟 𝑟 𝑟=𝑟 𝑟

𝜐𝑍 =𝜐𝑍 ̅0 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝐿 ) 𝑟=𝑟1 𝑟=𝑟1
𝑑𝑟
∫ 𝜕𝜐𝑧 = [∫ (𝑟𝑑𝑟) − ∫ (𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 )]
𝜐𝑍 =0 2𝜇𝐿 𝑟=𝑟 𝑟=𝑟 𝑟

̅0 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝐿) 𝑟2 𝑟1
𝜐𝑍 = [ − 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 ln 𝑟 ]
2𝜇𝐿 2 𝑟

̅𝟎 − 𝑷
(𝑷 ̅ 𝑳 ) (𝒓𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐 ) 𝒓𝟏
𝝊𝒁 = [ − 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 𝐥𝐧 ]
𝟐𝝁𝑳 𝟐 𝒓

Re- Integrating and using the boundary conditions, (for outer radius, 𝒓𝟐 ),
𝑟=𝑟; 𝜐𝑍 = 0
𝑟 = 𝑟2 ; 𝜐𝑍 = 𝜐𝑍

̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )(𝑟 2 − 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 )

(𝑃 𝜕𝜐𝑧
=𝑟
2𝜇𝐿 𝑑𝑟

̅0 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝐿 )(𝑟 2 − 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝜐𝑧 = ( )
2𝜇𝐿 𝑟

𝜐𝑍 =𝜐𝑍 ̅0 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝐿 ) 𝑟=𝑟2 𝑑𝑟
∫ 𝜕𝜐𝑧 = ∫ (𝑟 2 − 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 ) ( )
𝜐𝑍 =0 2𝜇𝐿 𝑟=𝑟 𝑟
 𝜐𝑍 =𝜐𝑍 ̅0 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝐿 ) 𝑟=𝑟2 𝑑𝑟 𝑟=𝑟2
𝑑𝑟
∫ 𝜕𝜐𝑧 = [∫ (𝑟 2 ) − ∫ (𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 )]
𝜐𝑍 =0 2𝜇𝐿 𝑟=𝑟 𝑟 𝑟=𝑟 𝑟

𝜐𝑍 =𝜐𝑍 ̅0 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝐿 ) 𝑟=𝑟2 𝑟=𝑟2
𝑑𝑟
∫ 𝜕𝜐𝑧 = [∫ (𝑟𝑑𝑟) − ∫ (𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 )]
𝜐𝑍 =0 2𝜇𝐿 𝑟=𝑟 𝑟=𝑟 𝑟

̅0 − 𝑃
(𝑃 ̅ 𝐿) 𝑟2 𝑟2
𝜐𝑍 = [ − 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 ln 𝑟 ]
2𝜇𝐿 2 𝑟

̅𝟎 − 𝑷
(𝑷 ̅ 𝑳 ) (𝒓𝟐 𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐 ) 𝒓𝟐
𝝊𝒁 = [ − 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 𝐥𝐧 ]
𝟐𝝁𝑳 𝟐 𝒓

Combining the Re-integrated equation for inner radius, 𝑟1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑟2
̅𝟎 − 𝑷
(𝑷 ̅ 𝑳 ) (𝒓𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐 ) 𝒓𝟏
𝝊𝒁 = [ − 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 𝐥𝐧 ]
𝟐𝝁𝑳 𝟐 𝒓

̅𝟎 − 𝑷
(𝑷 ̅ 𝑳 ) (𝒓𝟐 𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐 ) 𝒓𝟐
𝝊𝒁 = [ − 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 𝐥𝐧 ]
𝟐𝝁𝑳 𝟐 𝒓

𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √ 𝒓𝟐 ( )
𝐥𝐧 ( ) 𝟐
𝒓𝟏

̅0 − 𝑃̅𝐿 )
(𝑃 𝑟 2
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟, 𝜐𝑧 = [1 − ( ) ]
4𝜇𝐿 𝑅

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔, 𝒓 = 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹 = (𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 ) , 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎

̅𝟎 − 𝑷
(𝑷 ̅ 𝑳) 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, (𝝊𝒛 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = [𝟏 − ( ) ]
𝟒𝝁𝑳 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏

1 𝑟2 2 − 𝑟1 2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ 𝑟 ( )
ln ( 2 ) 2
𝑟1

𝟐
1 𝑟2 2 − 𝑟1 2
√ 𝑟2 ( 2
)
̅𝟎 − 𝑷
̅ 𝑳) ln ( )
(𝑷 𝑟1
(𝝊𝒛 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏−
𝟒𝝁𝑳 (𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 )

{ [ ] }

Another case of derivation: Co-axial Annulus (Refer to Geankoplis)

FLUID FLOW EQUATION - THE MACROSCOPIC APPROACH

Mass Balance:
 In a steady flow/ streamline flow, the rate of mass entering the flow system equals that leaving, as
mass can neither accumulated nor depleted within a flow system under steady conditions

Mass Balance- Continuity

Equation of Continuity (for compressible and incompressible fluids):

𝒎̇ = 𝝆𝝊𝑺 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
Therefore, the mass of fluid entering and leaving the tube per unit time ,

𝒎̇ = 𝝆𝒂 𝝊𝒂 𝑺𝒂 = 𝝆𝒃 𝝊𝒃 𝑺𝒃

Average Velocity:
 If the flow through the stream tube lies wholly or in part in which shear stresses exist, the
velocity (𝝊), will vary from point to point across the area 𝑺𝒂 and also 𝝊𝒃 will vary from
point to point across area 𝑺𝒃 . At this instance, local velocity differs with the average
velocity.
𝒔𝒃
𝒎̇ = 𝝆 ∫ 𝝊𝒅𝑺
𝒔𝒂
̅ of the entire stream flowing through cross sectional area S will be,
The average velocity 𝝊
𝒎̇ 𝟏 𝒔𝒃
̅=
𝝊 = ∫ 𝝊𝒅𝑺
𝝆𝑺 𝑺 𝒔𝒂

Therefore,
 𝒒
̅=
𝒗 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝒒 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑺
 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a closed system: Constant Mass
∆𝑼 = 𝑸 − 𝑾

Where: U = internal energy; W = work ; Q = heat

In general, ∆𝑬 = 𝑸 − 𝑾

Where: E = all the energy types involved = (internal, kinetic, potential, electric, etc.)

 The First Law of Thermodynamics for an open system : Constant Volume and steady state situation

General Bernoulli Concept :

 The sum of the kinetic, potential, and flow energies of a fluid particle is constant along a
streamline during steady flow when the compressibility and frictional effects are negligible

General Bernoulli Equation:

𝑷 𝒈 𝝊𝟐 −𝒅𝑾𝒔
∆( + 𝒛 + ) = − 𝑭𝒉 (𝑩𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒊 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈)
𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟐 𝒅𝒎

*Neglecting friction and shaft work:

−𝒅𝑾𝒔
− 𝑭𝒉 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒎
𝑷 𝒈 𝝊𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, ∆( + 𝒛+ ) = 𝟎 (𝑾𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 & 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌)
𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟐

or
𝒈 𝑷𝟏 𝝊𝟏 𝟐 𝒈 𝑷𝟐 𝝊𝟐 𝟐
𝒁𝟏 ( ) + + + 𝑾𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕 = 𝒁𝟐 ( ) + + − 𝑭𝒉
𝒈𝒄 𝝆 𝟐 𝒈𝒄 𝝆 𝟐

*Neglecting friction and shaft work:

−𝒅𝑾𝒔
− 𝑭𝒉 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒎
𝒈 𝑷𝟏 𝝊𝟏 𝟐 𝒈 𝑷𝟐 𝝊𝟐 𝟐
𝒁𝟏 ( ) + + = 𝒁𝟐 ( ) + + = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚)
𝒈𝒄 𝝆 𝟐 𝒈𝒄 𝝆 𝟐

Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures

𝑷𝟏 𝒈 𝝊𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟐 𝒈 𝝊𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝒛 + = + 𝒛 + = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒂 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆)
𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟏 𝟐 𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟐 𝟐
𝒐𝒓
𝝊𝟏 𝟐 𝒈 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 𝒈
𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆 + 𝝆 𝒛𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆 + 𝝆 𝒛𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒂 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆)
𝟐 𝒈𝒄 𝟐 𝒈𝒄
Where:
  𝑷 = 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = represents the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid. This is the
same as the pressure used in thermodynamics and property tables.
𝝊𝟐
 𝝆 𝟐 = 𝒅𝒚𝒏𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =represents the pressure rise when the fluid in motion is brought
to a stop isentropically.
𝒈
 𝝆 𝒈 𝒛 = 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =which is not pressure in a real sense since its value depends
𝒄
on the reference level selected; it accounts for the elevation effects, i.e., of fluid weight on
pressure.
 The sum of the static, dynamic, and hydrostatic pressures is called the total pressure

First law flow system

Injection work + potential energy+kinetic energy = - Shaft work - internal energy + heat.

𝑷 𝑔 𝝊𝟐 −𝒅𝑾𝒔 𝒅𝑸
∆( + 𝒛+ ) = − (∆𝒖 − )
𝝆 𝑔𝑐 𝟐 𝒅𝒎 𝒅𝒎

Where: P= pressure
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑧 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝜐 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 or pump work
* 𝑢 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒; 𝑄 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡; 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Δ𝑃
= 𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝜌
𝑔
Δ𝑧 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑔𝑐
Δ𝜐 2
= 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
2
*All of the quantities in equation (pressure, density, etc.) except internal energy (∆𝒖)
𝒅𝑸
and heat ( ) can be directly measured.
𝒅𝒎
𝒅𝑸
Evaluation of (∆𝒖 − ):
𝒅𝒎
For incompressible fluid (good approximation for most liquids and also for gases under certain conditions):

𝒅𝑸
(∆𝒖 − ) = 𝑭𝒉 ~ 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝒏𝒐𝒏 − 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎)
𝒅𝒎

Therefore, the first law flow system will be:

 𝑷 𝒈 𝝊𝟐 −𝒅𝑾𝒔
∆( + 𝒛+ ) = − 𝑭𝒉 (𝑩𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒊 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈)
𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟐 𝒅𝒎

*Neglecting friction and shaft work:

−𝒅𝑾𝒔
− 𝑭𝒉 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒎

𝑷 𝒈 𝝊𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, ∆( + 𝒛+ ) = 𝟎 (𝑾𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 & 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌)
𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟐

Also, using the first Law Flow System,

𝑷 𝒈 𝝊𝟐 −𝒅𝑾𝒔
∆( + 𝒛+ ) = − 𝑭𝒉
𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟐 𝒅𝒎

Boundary layer

 Bernoulli equation is valid for fluid flow where viscous effects are negligibly small
compared to inertial, gravitational, and pressure effects.
 Bernoulli’s Equation cannot be valid for an entire flow field of practical interest. In other
words, we cannot apply the Bernoulli equation everywhere in a flow, no matter how small
the fluid’s viscosity.
 It turns out that the equation is reasonable in certain regions of many practical flows. We
refer to such regions as “inviscid regions of flow”. They are regions where net viscous or
frictional forces are negligibly small compared to other forces acting on fluid particles.
 It is typically useful in flow regions outside of boundary layers (i.e. very close to solid
walls), where the fluid motion is governed by the combined effects of pressure and gravity
forces.
Limitations of Bernoulli’s Equation:
 Bernoulli equation is applicable to steady flow. It should not be used during the transient start-
up and shut-down periods, or during periods of change in the flow conditions.
 Frictional/Frictionless flow .Every flow involves some friction, no matter how small, and frictional
effects may or may not be negligible. The situation is complicated even more by the amount of
error that can be tolerated. In general, frictional effects are negligible for short flow sections with
large cross sections, especially at low flow velocities. Frictional effects are usually significant in
long and narrow flow passages, in the wake region downstream of an object, and in diverging flow
 sections such as diffusers because of the increased possibility of the fluid separating from the
walls in such geometries.
 The Bernoulli equation was derived from a force balance on a particle moving along a
“streamline”. Therefore, the Bernoulli equation is not applicable in a flow section that involves a
pump, turbine, fan, or any other machine or impeller since such devices destroy the streamlines
and carry out energy interactions with the fluid particles. When the flow section considered
involves any of these devices, the energy equation should be used instead to account for the shaft
work input or output.
 Incompressible fluid. One of the assumptions used in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation is
that density is constant and thus the flow is incompressible.
 No heat transfer. The density of a gas is inversely proportional to temperature, and thus the
Bernoulli equation should not be used for flow sections that involve significant temperature
change such as heating or cooling sections.
Application of Bernoulli’s Equation (Without Frictional heating and shaft work) :

I. For fluid-flow measuring devices

*Neglecting friction, elevation and shaft work:
𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 − 𝝊𝟏 𝟐
𝐆𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: + =𝟎
𝝆 𝟐

A. Pitot Tube: A tube with a pressure tap at the stagnation point that measures stagnation pressure.

𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 − 𝝊𝟏 𝟐
+ =𝟎
𝝆 𝟐
𝒈
𝜐1 = √2 ℎ1
𝒈𝒄

B. Pitot-Static Tube : A tube that has both a stagnation pressure tap and several circumferential static
pressure taps and it measures both stagnation and static pressures
 𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 − 𝝊𝟏 𝟐
+ =𝟎
𝝆 𝟐
√𝟐∆𝑷
𝝊𝟏 =
𝝆

𝟐(𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 )
𝝊=√
𝝆

C. Obstruction Flowmeters: Venturi, Orifice, and Nozzle Meters:

C-1. Venturi Meter

 𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 − 𝝊𝟏 𝟐
+ =𝟎
𝝆 𝟐

𝟏/𝟐 𝟏/𝟐
𝟐(𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 )
𝝆 𝟐(𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 )
𝝊𝟐 = 𝒐𝒓 𝝊𝟐 = 𝑪𝑽𝒗
𝑺 𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 − 𝟐𝟐 𝝆 (𝟏 − )
[ 𝑺𝟏 ] [ 𝑺𝟏 𝟐 ]

Where: 𝐶𝑉𝑣 = coefficient of discharge for venture meter to compensate for friction heating & non-uniform
flow
= 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 (𝑅𝑒)

C-2. Orifice Meter

𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 − 𝝊𝟏 𝟐
+ =𝟎
𝝆 𝟐

𝟏/𝟐

𝟐(𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 )
𝝊𝟐 = 𝑪𝑽𝒐
𝑺 𝟐
𝝆 (𝟏 − 𝟐 𝟐 )
[ 𝑺𝟏 ]

Where:
𝐶𝑉𝑜 = coefficient of discharge for orifice meter to compensate for friction heating & non-uniform flow
 𝐷2
= 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 (𝑅𝑒) 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷1
𝑆2 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 , 𝑚2
𝑆1 = 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝑚2
𝑁
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 ,
𝑚2

*Note: 𝑫𝟐 = 𝑫𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑫𝟏 = 𝑫𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆

C. Obstruction Flowmeters: Venturi, Orifice, and Nozzle Meters:

𝟐(𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 ) 𝒅𝒐
𝝊𝟐 = 𝑪𝑽𝒐 √ 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝜷 = (𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐)
𝝆(𝟏 − 𝜷𝟒 ) 𝑫𝒕
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑞 = 𝜐1 𝑆1 = 𝜐2 𝑆2

 The velocity is obtained by assuming no loss, and thus it is the maximum velocity that can occur
at the constriction site. In reality, some pressure losses due to frictional effects are inevitable,
and thus the velocity will be less.
 Also, the fluid stream will continue to contract past the obstruction, and the vena contracta area
is less than the flow area of the obstruction. Both losses can be accounted for by incorporating a
correction factor called the discharge coefficient, (𝑪𝑽 )
𝟐(𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 )
𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: 𝒒 = 𝑺𝒐 𝑪𝑽𝒐 √
𝝆(𝟏 − 𝜷𝟒 )
 𝒅𝒐 𝝅𝒅𝟎 𝟐
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝜷 = ; 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 ; 𝑺𝟎 = 𝑺 𝟐 =
𝑫𝒕 𝟒

Coefficient of Discharge Values, (𝑪𝑽 ):

Type of Obstruction Meter Dicharge Coefficient, 𝑪𝑽

Venturi Meter

*𝐶𝑉 of Venturi meters are very high, ranging between 0.95

and 0.99 (the higher values are for the higher Reynolds
numbers) for most flows.

*In the absence of specific data, we can take 𝐶𝑉 = 0.98 for

Venturi meters
Orifice Meter

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐷2 = 𝑑𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷1 = 𝐷𝑡

∗ 𝑼𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑴𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓 (𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟕):

𝑪𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗𝟓𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟐𝜷𝟐.𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟒𝜷𝟖
𝟗𝟏. 𝟕𝟏𝜷𝟐.𝟓
+
𝑹𝒆𝟎.𝟕𝟓
(𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 < 𝜷 < 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟎𝟒 < 𝑹𝒆
< 𝟏𝟎𝟕 )
∗ 𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒂, 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝑹𝒆, 𝑪𝑽 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏
 Flow Nozzle

𝑼𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑴𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓 (𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟕):

𝟔. 𝟓𝟑𝜷𝟎.𝟓
𝑪𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟕𝟓 +
𝑹𝒆𝟎.𝟓
(𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 < 𝜷 < 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟎𝟒 < 𝑹𝒆
< 𝟏𝟎𝟕 )

∗ 𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒂, 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝑹𝒆, 𝑪𝑽 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔

Sample Problem:
The pitot-static tube uses mercury as a manometer fluid. When it is placed in a water flow, the
manometer height reading is h = 21.30 cm. Neglecting yaw and other errors, what is the flow
velocity in m/sec?
𝟐(𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 )
𝝊=√
𝝆
𝐠
∆𝐏 = 𝐏𝟐 − 𝐏𝟏 = 𝐑 𝐦 (𝛒𝐦 − 𝛒𝐟 )
𝐠𝐜
m
g 9.81 kg 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
∆𝑃 = (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = Rm (ρm − ρf ) = ( sec 2 ) (0.213 𝑚)(13600 − 1000) 3 = 26,328.10
gc 1
𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝑚 m 𝑚2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 − 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝟐(𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 ) 𝟐 (26,328.10 𝑚2 ) 𝒎
𝝊=√ = √ kg
= 𝟕. 𝟐𝟓𝟔
𝝆 1000 3 𝒔𝒆𝒄
m
Sample Problem:
What is the water velocity as measured by an orifice plate (0.06-m diameter) in a 0.305-m-
𝑛
diameter pipe with the measured pressure drop being 75,150 𝑚2 ?
For Orifice meter:

𝟏/𝟐

𝟐(𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 )
𝝊𝟐 = 𝑪𝑽𝒐
𝑺 𝟐
𝝆 (𝟏 − 𝟐 𝟐 )
[ 𝑺𝟏 ]
𝑛
∆𝑃 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 75,150 2
𝑚
𝜋𝐷𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 2 𝜋(0.305𝑚)2
𝑆1 = = = 0.0731𝑚2
4 4
𝜋𝐷𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 2 𝜋(0.06𝑚)2
𝑆2 = = = 2.827 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4 4
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000 3
𝑚
𝐷
𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑉𝑜 : as a 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 (𝑅𝑒) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷2
1
𝐷1 𝜐1 𝜌
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
*𝑉1 cannot be determined unless 𝑉2 is known (by using the volumetric flow rate, (𝜐1 𝑆1 = 𝜐2 𝑆2 ). However,
neither 𝜐1 𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝜐2 is known, which gives the initial aspect of an unsolvable problem.
𝐷 𝐷 0.06 𝑚
* However, if we consider the behavior of the curve, where 𝐷2 = 𝐷𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 0.305 𝑚 = 0.20
1 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒

From the graph, Reynolds number (Re) is about 40 to 40,000 with 𝐶𝑉𝑜 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0.60 𝑡𝑜 0.68,
By trial and error / Iteration,
Assume 𝑪𝑽𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓
1 1
2
𝑁 2
2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) 2 (75,150 2 )
𝜐2 = 𝐶𝑉𝑜 = 0.65 [ 𝑚 ]
𝑆 2 𝑘𝑔 (2.827 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2 )2
𝜌 (1 − 2 2 ) 1000 3 [1 − ]
[ 𝑆1 ] 𝑚 (0.0731𝑚2 )2

𝑁 1/2
150,300
𝑉𝜐2 = 0.65 [ 𝑚2 ] = 7.97 𝑚
998.504 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜐1 𝑆1 = 𝜐2 𝑆2
𝑆2 𝑚 2.827 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2 𝑚
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝜐̅1 = 𝜐̅2 ( ) = 7.97 ( 2 ) = 0.308
𝑆1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 0.0731𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝐷1 𝜐1 𝜌 0.305 𝑚(0.308 𝑠𝑒𝑐 )(1000 3 )
𝑅𝑒 = = 𝑚 = 93,940
𝜇 𝑘𝑔
0.001 𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉, 𝑪𝒗𝒐 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐 ≠ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓

Assume 𝑪𝑽𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐
1 1
2
𝑁 2
2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) 2 (75,150 2 )
𝜐2 = 𝐶𝑉𝑜 = 0.62 [ 𝑚 ]
𝑆 2 𝑘𝑔 (2.827 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2 )2
𝜌 (1 − 2 2 ) 1000 3 [1 − ]
[ 𝑆1 ] 𝑚 (0.0731𝑚2 )2

𝑁 1/2
150,300
𝜐2 = 0.62 [ 𝑚2 ] = 7.61 𝑚
998.504 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜐1 𝑆1 = 𝜐2 𝑆2

𝑆2 𝑚 2.827 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2 𝑚
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝜐̅1 = 𝜐̅2 ( ) = 7.61 ( 2 ) = 0.294
𝑆1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 0.0731𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝐷1 𝜐1 𝜌 0.305 𝑚(0.294 𝑠𝑒𝑐 )(1000 3 )
𝑅𝑒 = = 𝑚 = 89670
𝜇 𝑘𝑔
0.001 𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉, 𝑪𝒗𝒐 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐
𝒎
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝝊𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟒
𝒔𝒆𝒄
Alternative Solution:
∗ 𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒂, 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝑹𝒆, 𝑪𝑽 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏

𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆: 𝑪𝑽 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏
𝑁
2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) 2 (75,150 ) 𝑚3
𝑞 = 𝑆𝑜 𝐶𝑉 √
−3
= (2.827 𝑥 10 𝑚2 ) (0.61)√
𝑚2 = 2.116𝑥10−2
𝜌(1 − 𝛽 4 ) kg 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1000 (1 − 0.204 )
m3

𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑞 = 𝜐1 𝑆1 = 𝜐2 𝑆2
𝑚3
𝑞 2.116𝑥10−2 𝑚
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑞 = 𝜐1 𝑆1 ; 𝜐1 = = 2
= 0.29
𝑆1 𝜋(0.305𝑚) 𝑠𝑒𝑐
4
Validate: 𝐶𝑉 = 0.61
𝑚 kg
𝐷𝜐1 𝜌 (0.305𝑚) (0.29 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ) (1000 m3 )
𝑅𝑒 = = = 8.845𝑥104
𝜇 𝑘𝑔
0.001 𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝟗𝟏. 𝟕𝟏𝜷𝟐.𝟓
𝑪𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗𝟓𝟗 + 𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟐𝜷𝟐.𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟒𝜷𝟖 +
𝑹𝒆𝟎.𝟕𝟓
(𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 < 𝜷 < 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟎𝟒 < 𝑹𝒆 < 𝟏𝟎𝟕 )

𝟗𝟏. 𝟕𝟏(𝟎. 𝟐𝟎)𝟐.𝟓

𝑪𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗𝟓𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟐(𝟎. 𝟐𝟎)𝟐.𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟒(𝟎. 𝟐𝟎)𝟖 + = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 ≈≈ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏
(8.845𝑥104 )𝟎.𝟕𝟓

Sample Problem:
kg kg
The flow rate of methanol at 20℃ (ρ = 788.4 m3 and μ = 5.857 x10−4 m∙s) through a 4 −
cm diameter pipe is to be measured with a 3 − cm diameter orifice meter equipped with a
mercury manometer across the orifice plate. If the differential height of the manometer is read to
be 11 cm, determine the flow rate of methanol through the pipe and the average flow velocity

Given: 𝐷𝑡 = 4 𝑐𝑚 (0.04 𝑚)

Methanol (20℃)

𝒅𝟎 = 𝟑 𝒄𝒎 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝒎)
Required:
a. Flowrate of methanol, q
b. Average velocity, 𝜐
Solution:
𝟐(𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 )
𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: 𝒒 = 𝑺𝒐 𝑪𝑽 √
𝝆(𝟏 − 𝜷𝟒 )
𝑑𝑜 0.03
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝛽 = = = 0.75
𝐷𝑡 0.04
m
𝑔 9.81 kg 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
∆𝑃 = (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = ℎ𝑚 (𝜌𝑚2 − 𝜌𝑚1 ) = ( sec 2 ) (0.11𝑚)(13600 − 788.4) 3 = 13,825
𝑔𝑐 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝑚 m 𝑚2
1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 − 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝜋𝑑0 2 𝜋(0.03𝑚)2
𝑆0 = 𝑆2 = = = 7.07𝑥10−4 𝑚2
4 4
𝑪𝑽 = 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕
∗ 𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒂, 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝑹𝒆, 𝑪𝑽 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏

𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆: 𝑪𝑽 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏
𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) 2 (13,825 ) 𝑚3
𝑞 = 𝑆𝑜 𝐶𝑉 √ = (7.07𝑥10 −4
𝑚 2 )(0.61) √ 𝑚2 = 3.09𝑥10 −3
𝜌(1 − 𝛽 4 ) kg 𝑠𝑒𝑐
788.4 3 (1 − 0.754 )
m

𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑞 = 𝜐1 𝑆1 = 𝜐2 𝑆2

𝑚3
𝑞 3.09𝑥10−3 𝑚
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑞 = 𝜐1 𝑆1 ; 𝜐1 = = 2
= 2.46
𝑆1 𝜋(0.04𝑚) 𝑠𝑒𝑐
4
Validate: 𝐶𝑉 = 0.61
𝑚 kg
𝐷𝜐1 𝜌 (0.04𝑚) (2.46 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ) (788.4 m3 )
𝑅𝑒 = = = 1.3245𝑥105
𝜇 kg
5.857 x10−4 m ∙ s
𝟗𝟏. 𝟕𝟏𝜷𝟐.𝟓
𝑪𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗𝟓𝟗 + 𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟐𝜷𝟐.𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟒𝜷𝟖 +
𝑹𝒆𝟎.𝟕𝟓
(𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 < 𝜷 < 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟎𝟒 < 𝑹𝒆 < 𝟏𝟎𝟕 )

𝟗𝟏. 𝟕𝟏(𝟎. 𝟕𝟓)𝟐.𝟓

𝑪𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗𝟓𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟐(𝟎. 𝟕𝟓)𝟐.𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟒(𝟎. 𝟕𝟓)𝟖 + = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟏 ≈≈ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏
(1.3245𝑥105 )𝟎.𝟕𝟓
II. Fluid Flowing through pipe without frictional heating and shaft work :

Sample Problems:
What is the volumetric flow rate for the tank (h = 3.048 m; exit cross-sectional area of 0.279 m2) shown
in figure below if 𝐹ℎ is taken to be zero.

Given:
ℎ = 3.048; 𝑆2 = 0.279 𝑚2 𝐹ℎ = 0
Required: Volumetric flow rate, q
Solution:
Using Bernoulli Equation,
(Using orderly and systematic approach),
Inlet 1: Liquid surface in the tank
Outlet 2: Exit
𝑷 𝒈 𝝊𝟐 −𝒅𝑾𝒔
∆( + 𝒛 + ) = − 𝑭𝒉 (𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟐 𝒅𝒎

Δ𝑃
= 0 ( 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)
𝜌
−𝑑𝑊𝑠
= 0 (𝑁𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑)
𝑑𝑚
𝐹ℎ = 0 (𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠)

𝒈 𝝊𝟐
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, ∆ ( 𝒛+ )=𝟎
𝒈𝒄 𝟐

𝒈 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 − 𝝊𝟏 𝟐
(𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟏 ) + =𝟎
𝒈𝒄 𝟐

*Z2 = 0 (Datum plane) and Z1= h (3.048m)

*Neglect υ1 , since the average velocity from the exit υ2 will be much greater than the velocity υ1 ≈0

𝒈 ̅𝟐 𝟐
𝝊
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, (𝟎 − 𝒉) + =𝟎
𝒈𝒄 𝟐
𝒈 𝒎 𝒎
̅𝟐 = √𝟐 𝒉 = √𝟐(𝟗. 𝟖
𝝊 𝟐
)(𝟑. 𝟎𝟒𝟖 𝒎) = 𝟕. 𝟕𝟕
𝒈𝒄 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒔𝒆𝒄
Volumetric Flowrate, q:
𝒒 = 𝝊𝟏 𝑺𝟏 = 𝝊𝟐 𝑺𝟐
𝐦 𝐦𝟑
𝒒 = ( 𝟕. 𝟕𝟕 𝐬𝐞𝐜) (𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟗 𝐦𝟐 ) = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 𝐬𝐞𝐜
Sample Problem:
Water issues from the nozzle of a horizontal hose-pipe. The hose has an internal diameter of 60 mm and
the nozzle tapers to an exit diameter of 20 mm. If the gauge pressure at the connection between the nozzle
𝑘𝑔
and the pipe is 200 kPa, what is the flowrate? The density of water is 1000 𝑚3 .

Given:
60-mm 20-mm

∆𝑃 = (𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴 ) = 200 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Required: Flowrate, q
Solution:
𝑷 𝒈 𝝊𝟐
∆( + 𝒛 + ) = 𝟎 (𝑾𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 & 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌)
𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟐
𝑔
∆( 𝒛) = 𝟎 (𝑯𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒏𝒐 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)
𝑔𝑐

𝑷 𝝊𝟐
∆( + ) = 𝟎 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝚫𝝊𝟐 = 𝝊𝑩 𝟐 − 𝝊𝑨 𝟐
𝝆 𝟐
𝑁
where: ∆P = 200,000
𝑚2
𝑁
Δ𝑃 200,000 2 𝑚2
2 𝟐 𝟐
Δ𝜐 = 𝝊𝑩 − 𝝊𝑨 = −2 ( ) = 2 ( 𝑚 ) = 400 ;
𝜌 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
1000 3
𝑚
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑎 𝜐𝑎 𝑆𝑎 = 𝜌𝑏 𝜐𝑏 𝑆𝑏
𝜋(0.06𝑚)2 𝜋(0.02𝑚)2
𝑆𝐴 = = 2.827𝑥10−3 𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝐵 = = 3.142𝑥10−4 𝑚2
4 4
𝜐𝐴 𝑆𝐴 𝜐𝐴 (2.827𝑥10−3 𝑚2 )
𝜐𝐵 = = = 8.997 𝜐𝐴
𝑆𝐵 3.142𝑥10−4 𝑚2

𝑚2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝝊𝑩 𝟐 − 𝝊𝑨 𝟐 = 400
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑚2
(8.997 𝜐𝐴 )2 − 𝝊𝑨 𝟐 = 400
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

𝑚2
400
𝜐𝐴 =
√ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 = 2.237 𝑚 ; 𝜐𝐵 = 8.997 (2.237
𝑚
) = 20.126
𝑚
79.946 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑚 𝑚3
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑞 = 𝜐𝑎 𝑆𝑎 = 2.237 (2.827𝑥10−3 𝑚2 ) = 6.324 𝑥10−3
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Sample Problem:
𝑘𝑔
Water with a density of 998 𝑚3 enters a 50 mm pipe fitting horizontally as shown below at a steady velocity
𝑚 𝑘𝑁
of 1 and a gauge pressure of 100 2. It leaves the fitting horizontally, at the same elevation, at an angle
𝑠 𝑚
of 45° with the entrance direction. The diameter at the outlet is 20 mm. Assuming the fluid density is
constant, the kinetic energy and momentum correction factors at both entrance and exit are unity, and the
friction loss in the fitting is negligible, calculate the gauge pressure at the exit of the fitting

Given:
𝒎
̅𝒂 = 𝟏
𝝊𝟏 = 𝝊
𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝑫𝟏 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝒎 ; 𝑫𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝒎

𝒌𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟗𝟗𝟖 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒎𝟑
𝒌𝑵
𝑷𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐
𝒎
Required: 𝑃2𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒
Solution:
𝑷 𝑔 𝝊𝟐 −𝒅𝑾𝒔
∆( + 𝒛+ ) = − 𝑭𝒉 (𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝝆 𝑔𝑐 𝟐 𝒅𝒎

−𝑑𝑊𝑠
= 0 (𝑁𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑)
𝑑𝑚
𝐹ℎ = 0 (𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝑔 𝑔
∆ ( 𝒛) = 𝟎 or 𝑔𝑐
(𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟏 ) = 𝟎
𝑔𝑐
(Kinetic energy and momentum correction factors at both entrance and exit are unity and fluid
enters and leaves at the same elevation)
𝑷 𝝊𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, ∆ ( + ) = 𝟎
𝝆 𝟐
𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 − 𝝊𝟏 𝟐
𝐆𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: + =𝟎
𝝆 𝟐
a. Using the volumetric flow rate equation:
𝒒 = 𝝊𝟏 𝑺𝟏 = 𝝊𝟐 𝑺𝟐

𝜋𝐷1 2 𝜋(0.05𝑚)2
𝑆1 == = 1.963 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4 4
𝜋𝐷2 2 𝜋(0.02𝑚)2
𝑆2 = = = 3.1416 𝑥 10−4 𝑚2
4 4
𝒎
𝝊𝟏 𝑺𝟏 (𝟏 𝒔𝒆𝒄)(1.963 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2 ) 𝒎
̅𝒃 =
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝝊𝟐 = 𝝊 = = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟒𝟖
𝑺𝟐 3.1416 𝑥 10−4 𝑚2 𝒔𝒆𝒄

𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 − 𝝊𝟏 𝟐
+ =𝟎
𝝆 𝟐
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 2 𝑚 2
2
𝜌(𝜐2 − 𝜐1 2)
𝑘𝑁 998 3 [(6.248 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ) − (1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ) ] 1𝑘𝑁
𝑚
𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃1 − = 100 2 − { 𝑥( )}
2 𝑚 2 1000𝑁

𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑏 = 100 2
− 18.981 2 = 81.019 2
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
2. A large tank open to the atmosphere is filled with water to a height of 5 m from the outlet tap (See figure below).
A tap near the bottom of the tank is now opened, and water flows out from the smooth and rounded outlet. Determine
the water velocity at the outlet.

Given:
Large tank open to atmosphere
Water height (Z1 ) = 5m

Required: Water velocity at the outlet

Solution:
∆𝐏 𝐠 ∆𝛖𝟐 −𝐝𝐖𝐬
( + ∆𝐳 + )= − 𝐅𝐡
𝛒 𝐠𝐜 𝟐 𝐝𝐦

∆𝐏
P2 = Patm ; Therefore, ΔP = (P2 − Patm ) = 0 → =𝟎
𝛒
−𝐝𝐖𝐬
Also, − 𝐅𝐡 = 𝟎 (smooth and rounded outlet and no pump work)
𝐝𝐦
𝒈 ∆𝝊𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆: ∆𝒁 + =𝟎
𝒈𝒄 𝟐
Using Point 2 as the reference point

z2 = 0 z1 = 5 → Δz = (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) = (0 − 5)m = −5 m

υin = υ1 = 0 ( the tank is large relative to the outlet) 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜐2 >>> 𝜐1

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜐𝑖𝑛 = 𝜐1 = 0 → ∆𝝊𝟐 = 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 − 𝝊𝟏 𝟐 = 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟎 = 𝝊𝟐 𝟐

𝒈 ∆𝝊𝟐
( ∆𝒛 + )=𝟎
𝒈𝒄 𝟐

𝑔 𝑣2 2 − 𝜐1 2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒: (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + =0 𝑧2 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜐1 = 0
𝑔𝑐 2
𝐠 𝛖𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟎
(𝟎 − 𝟓)𝐦 + =𝟎
𝐠𝐜 𝟐
𝐠 𝛖𝟐 𝟐
(−𝟓𝐦) +
𝐠𝐜 𝟐

𝐦
𝐠 𝐠 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝐦
𝛖𝟐 𝟐 = 𝟐 (𝟓 𝐦) → 𝛖𝟐 = √𝟐 (𝟓𝐦) = 𝟐 (𝟓𝐦) 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝟐 = 𝟗. 𝟗
𝐠𝐜 𝐠𝐜 𝐤𝐠 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 − 𝐦 𝐬𝐞𝐜
𝟏 𝐤𝐠 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 − 𝐦
𝟐
√ ( 𝐬𝐞𝐜 − 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝟐 )

Sample Problem:
During a trip to the beach (𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚) car runs out of gasoline, and it becomes necessary to siphon
gas out of the car of a Good Samaritan (As shown in figure below). The siphon is a small-diameter hose,
and to start the siphon it is necessary to insert one siphon end in the full gas tank, fill the hose with
gasoline via suction, and then place the other end in a gas can container below the level of the gas
tank. The difference in pressure between point 1 (at the free surface of the gasoline in the tank) and
point 2 (at the outlet of the tube) causes the liquid to flow from the higher to the lower elevation. Point
2 is located 0.75 m below point 1 in this case, and point 3 is located 2 m above point 1. The siphon
diameter is 5 mm, and frictional heating and losses in the siphon is negligible. If the density of gasoline
𝑘𝑔
is 750 , determine:
𝑚3
a. Minimum time to withdraw 4 liters of gasoline from the tank to the gas can container
b. The pressure at point 3

Given:
 ∆𝑷 𝒈 ∆𝝊𝟐 −𝒅𝑾𝒔
( + ∆𝒛 + )= − 𝑭𝒉
𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟐 𝒅𝒎

−𝑑𝑊𝑠
𝐹𝑜𝑟 ( − 𝐹ℎ ) = 0 (𝑛𝑜 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝑑𝑚

∆𝑃
𝐹𝑜𝑟 ( ) = 0
𝜌
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 (𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 (𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 )

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, Δ𝑃 = (𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ) = 0

𝒈 ∆𝝊𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, ( ∆𝒛 + )=𝟎
𝒈𝒄 𝟐
𝑘𝑔
The density of gasoline is 750 .
𝑚3
Required:
a. Minimum time to withdraw 4 liters of gasoline from the tank to the gas can container
b. The pressure at point 3
Solution:
a. Minimum time to withdraw 4 liters of gasoline from the tank to the gas can container
Using Pt. 2 as the reference point:
𝑧2 = 0 𝑧1 = 0.75 ;
𝜐𝑖𝑛 = 𝜐1 = 0 ( 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)

𝒈 ∆𝝊𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆: ∆𝒛 + =𝟎
𝒈𝒄 𝟐

𝒈 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 − 𝝊𝟏 𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆: (𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟏 ) + =𝟎 𝒛𝟐 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝊𝟏 = 𝟎
𝒈𝒄 𝟐
𝒈 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟎
(𝟎 − 𝒛𝟏 ) + =𝟎
𝒈𝒄 𝟐
𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝒈
= (𝒛𝟏 )
𝟐 𝒈𝒄

m
𝑔 9.81 𝑚
𝜐2 = √2 (𝑧1 ) = 2 sec2 (0.75𝑚) = 3.84
𝑔𝑐 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝑚
2
√ ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 )

The cross-sectional area of the tube and the flow rate of gasoline are:
𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 2 𝜋(0.005𝑚)2
𝑆= = = 1.96 𝑥10−5 𝑚2
4 4
𝑚 𝑚3 𝑙𝑖
𝑞 = 𝜐2 𝑆 = 3.84 (1.96 𝑥10−5 𝑚2 ) = 7.526 𝑥 10−5 (0.07526 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Therefore , the . Minimum time to withdraw 4 liters of gasoline is:

 Volume of gasoli ne 4 li
t= = = 53.149 secs
q li
0.07526 sec
b. The pressure at Point 3 (𝑷𝟑 )
Using Pt. 2 as the reference point:
𝑧2 = 0 𝑧3 = 2.75 𝑚 ;
Based on continuity equation and conservation of mass:
𝑚 = 𝜌𝜐3 𝑆3 = 𝜌𝜐2 𝑆2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝜐3 = 𝜐2 ( 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)
∆𝑷 𝒈 ∆𝝊𝟐 −𝒅𝑾𝒔
( + ∆𝒛 + )= − 𝑭𝒉
𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟐 𝒅𝒎
−𝑑𝑊𝑠
𝐹𝑜𝑟 ( − 𝐹ℎ ) = 0 (𝑛𝑜 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝑑𝑚
2
∆𝜐
𝐹𝑜𝑟 ( ) = 0 [ 𝜐3 = 𝜐2 ( 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)]
2
∆𝑷 𝒈
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, ( + ∆𝒛) = 𝟎
𝝆 𝒈𝒄
∆𝑷
:
𝝆
𝑃2 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 (101.325𝑘𝑃𝑎)
𝑘𝑔
The density of gasoline is 750
𝑚3
𝑃3 = ? ? ?
𝒈
∆𝒛:
𝒈𝒄
𝑧2 = 0 𝑧3 = 2.75 𝑚
𝑃3 − 𝑃2 𝑔
+ (𝑧3 − 𝑧2 ) = 0
𝜌 𝑔𝑐
𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 m
(𝑃3 − 101,325) 9.81
𝑚2 + ( sec2 ) (2.75 − 0)𝑚 = 0
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝑚
750 3 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐2 − 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑚
m
𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑘𝑔 9.81
𝑃3 = 101,325 − (750 ) ( sec2 ) (2.75 − 0)𝑚
𝑚 2 𝑚 3 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 −𝑚
1
𝑠𝑒𝑐2 − 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑃3 = 101,325 2
− 750 (9.81)(2.75) 2
= (101,325 − 20,233.125)
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚2
= 81,091.875 𝑃𝑎 (81.09 𝑘𝑃𝑎)

END OF LECTURE