Longitudinal static stability

Flight Mechanics - Academic year 2023/24

Dr. Mauro Mancini

Politecnico di Torino
Table of contents

1. Introduction

2. Longitudinal static stability

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Introduction
Introduction

What does it mean stability? What does it mean being stable?

A convenient, non-necessarily engineering definition:
A condition is stable when it lasts over time without undergoing major
changes despite being subjected to external stimulation.

Back to engineering:
A physical system (e.g. the aircraft) is in a stable condition if, after an
external perturbation, it spontaneously tends to return to its initial
state.

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Introduction

EXAMPLE: PENDULUM

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Introduction

• Stability is a characteristic of the equilibrium points of the phys-

ical system!
Equilibrium ⇒ Perturbation ⇒ … ??? (Time evolution)

• Static stability describes the tendency of an aircraft to retain its

original position when subjected to unbalanced forces or mo-
ments acting on the aircraft.
• Dynamic stability describes the form of motion an aircraft in static
stability undergoes when it tries to return to its original position.
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Introduction

In aircrafts, three types of dimensional stabilities are considered:

• Longitudinal stability, concerning the pitching motion.
• Directional stability, concerning the yawing motion.
• Lateral stability, concerning the rolling motion.

Longitudinal static stability is only concerned with the aircraft’s mo-

tion about the 𝑦 axis. It is an important aspect of the handling qualities of
the aircraft, and one of the main factors determining the ease with which the
pilot is able to maintain level flight. 5
Introduction

• Static stability: is the reaction of a body to a disturbance from

equilibrium.
• To determine the static stability of a body, the body must be ini-
tially disturbed from its equilibrium state.
• Three kinds of static stability:
• Positive: when disturbed from equilibrium, the initial tendency of
the body is to return to its original equilibrium position (stable).
• Neutral: when disturbed from equilibrium, the initial tendency of
the body is to remain in the disturbed position (neutrally stable).
• Negative: when disturbed from equilibrium, the initial tendency of
the body is to continue to displace from original equilibrium posi-
tion (unstable).

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Longitudinal static stability
Longitudinal static stability

• Initial equilibrium condition: Straight and level flight

• 𝑇sin(𝑖𝑇 ) ≈ 0, 𝑇cos(𝑖𝑇 ) ≈ 𝑇

Equilibrium:

𝐿 + 𝐿𝑡 = 𝑊, 𝑇 = 𝐷, 𝐿 ⋅ 𝑥 − 𝐿 𝑇 ⋅ 𝑥𝑡 − 𝑀0 = 0

⇒ Equilibrium characterised by 𝛼 = 𝛼eq .

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Longitudinal static stability

• Perturbation: 𝛼 = 𝛼eq + Δ𝛼 ⇒ Which kind of static stability?

1. Positive (stable): The aircraft encounters a disturbance (e.g. tur-
bulence, gust) that causes positive Δ𝛼. The nose of the aircraft
rises and, immediately afterwards, the nose lowers and returns to
its original attitude.

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Longitudinal static stability

• Perturbation: 𝛼 = 𝛼eq + Δ𝛼 ⇒ Which kind of static stability?

1. Positive (stable):
2. Neutrally stable: The aircraft encounters a disturbance (e.g. tur-
bulence, gust) that causes positive Δ𝛼. The nose of the aircraft rises
and the aircraft subsequently maintains the new attitude.

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Longitudinal static stability

• Perturbation: 𝛼 = 𝛼eq + Δ𝛼 ⇒ Which kind of static stability?

1. Positive (stable):
2. Neutrally stable:
3. Negative (unstable): The aircraft encounters a disturbance (e.g.
turbulence, gust) that causes positive Δ𝛼. The nose of the aircraft
rises and, immediately afterwards, the nose continues pitching pitch-
ing upwards away from the original attitude.

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Longitudinal static stability

• Perturbation: 𝛼 = 𝛼eq + Δ𝛼 ⇒ Which kind of static stability?

1. Positive (stable):
2. Neutrally stable:
3. Negative (unstable):

Longitudinal static stability (or ”gust stability”) of an aircraft:

• If an aircraft in equilibrium is momentarily disturbed by a vertical gust,

the resulting change in angle of attack causes changes in lift coefficients
on the aircraft (velocity is constant for this time period).
• The changes in lift coefficients produce additional aerodynamic forces
and moments in this disturbed position.
• The aircraft is stable if the aerodynamic forces and moments cre-
ated tend to return the aircraft to its original undisturbed condition.
• The aircraft is neutrally stable if the aerodynamic forces and mo-
ments created tend to maintain the aircraft to its new condition.
• The aircraft is unstable if the aerodynamic forces and moments cre-
ated tend to cause the aircraft to diverge further from equilibrium.
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Longitudinal static stability

• Perturbation: 𝛼 = 𝛼eq + Δ𝛼 ⇒ Which kind of static stability?

1. Positive (stable):
2. Neutrally stable:
3. Negative (unstable):

What determines the occurrence of 1. 2. or 3.?

• The pitching moment for 𝛼 = 0: 𝑐𝑀 (𝛼 = 0) = 𝑐𝑀

0
• The partial derivative of pitching moment with respect to changes
𝜕𝑐
in angle of attack: 𝜕𝛼𝑀 = 𝑐𝑀
𝛼

• 𝑀 is the pitching moment,

𝑀
𝑐𝑀 = 𝑐𝑀 + 𝑐𝑀 𝛼, 𝑐𝑀 = • 𝑞 is the dynamic pressure,
0 𝛼 𝑞𝑆𝑐
• 𝑆 is the wing area,
𝑐𝑀 = 𝑓(𝛼) ≈ straight line.
• 𝑐 is the wing mean chord.

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Longitudinal static stability

Hypothesis:

• The aircraft has a plane of symmetry (𝑥 − 𝑧).

• Initial condition 𝑉 = const., 𝛾 = 0 (𝛾 flight path vector).
• 𝑉 is in the plane of symmetry (𝛽 = 0).

𝐿 = 𝑊, 𝑇 = 𝐷, 𝑀 = 𝑞𝑐𝑆𝑐𝑀 = 0

Pitching moment coefficient vs 𝛼

𝑐𝑀 = 𝑐𝑀 + 𝑐𝑀 𝛼
0 𝛼

Conditions for positive longitudinal static stability:

𝑐𝑀 > 0, 𝑐𝑀 < 0
0 𝛼

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Longitudinal static stability

Static stability analysis:

1. Equilibrium 𝛼 = 𝛼eq
2. Perturbation: 𝛼 = 𝛼eq + Δ𝛼 ⇒ 𝑐𝑀 = 𝑐𝑀 Δ𝛼
𝛼
• If Δ𝛼 > 0, then 𝑐𝑀 < 0 ⇒ Equilibrium recovered.
• If Δ𝛼 < 0, then 𝑐𝑀 > 0 ⇒ Equilibrium recovered.

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Longitudinal static stability

Conditions for positive longitudinal static stability:

𝑐𝑀 > 0, 𝑐𝑀 < 0
0 𝛼

• 𝑐𝑀 < 0 is required for the stability of the equilibrium.

𝛼
• 𝑐𝑀 > 0 is required to obtain an equilibrium point where 𝑐𝑀 = 0.
0

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Longitudinal static stability

Conditions for positive longitudinal static stability:

𝑐𝑀 > 0, 𝑐𝑀 < 0
0 𝛼

• 𝑐𝑀 < 0 is required for the stability of the equilibrium.

𝛼
• 𝑐𝑀 > 0 is required to obtain an equilibrium point where 𝑐𝑀 = 0.
0

Who determines 𝑐𝑀 and 𝑐𝑀 ?

0 𝛼

• 𝑐𝑀 is given by the geometry of the lifting surfaces. (Wing con-

0
tribution: airfoils, wing sweep and wing twist. Classical airfoils:
𝑐𝑀 < 0, wing sweep and wing twist to obtain 𝑐𝑀 > 0 for the wing).
0 0
• 𝑐𝑀 is obtained computing the equilibrium about the 𝑦 axis.
𝛼

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Longitudinal static stability

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Longitudinal static stability

⇒ Equilibrium to rotation about 𝑦 (pole: 𝑐.𝑔.), hypothesis:

• cos(𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 ) ≈ 1, sin(𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 ) ≈ 𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 .
• Δ𝑧 neglectable.
• 𝐷𝑤 << 𝐿𝑤 , 𝐷𝑡 << 𝐿𝑡 , 𝑀0 neglectable.
𝑡

𝑀 = 𝑀0 + 𝐿𝑤 (𝑥𝑔 − 𝑥𝑎 ) − 𝐿𝑡 𝑙𝑡′
𝑤

⇓ 𝑙𝑡′ = 𝑙𝑡 − (𝑥𝑔 − 𝑥𝑎 )

𝑀 = 𝑀0 + (𝐿𝑤 + 𝐿𝑡 )(𝑥𝑔 − 𝑥𝑎 ) − 𝐿𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝑤

1 1
⇓ (… ) = (… )
𝑞𝑐𝑆 𝑞𝑐𝑆

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Longitudinal static stability

𝑆𝑡 𝑥𝑔 − 𝑥𝑎
𝑐𝑀 = 𝑐𝑀 + (𝑐𝐿 + 𝑐𝐿 ) − 𝑐𝐿 𝜂𝑡 𝑉𝐻 (1)
0𝑤 ⏟ 𝑤 𝑆 𝑡 𝑐 𝑡

𝑐𝐿

where:

• 𝜂𝑡 = 𝑉 ′2 /𝑉∞
2
∈ [0.8, 1.2],
• 𝑐𝐿 = 𝐿𝑡 /(𝑞𝑆𝑡 𝑉 ′2 ),
𝑡
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
• 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑐𝑆
is the horizontal tail volume ratio,
• 𝑐𝐿 is the lift coefficient of the entire aircraft.

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Longitudinal static stability

Considering 𝑐𝐿 = 𝑎𝛼 and 𝑐𝐿 = 𝑎𝑡 𝛼𝑡 we can write Eq. (1) as

𝑡

𝑥𝑔 − 𝑥𝑎
𝑐𝑀 = 𝑐𝑀 +𝑎 𝛼 − 𝑎𝑡 𝜂𝑡 𝑉𝐻 𝛼𝑡 (2)
0𝑤 𝑐

• Tail angle of attack:

𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼 𝑤 − 𝑖 𝑤 + 𝑖 𝑡 − 𝜖

𝜕𝜖
⇓ down wash angle: 𝜖 = 𝜖0 + 𝜖𝛼 𝛼𝑤 , 𝜖𝛼 =
𝜕𝛼

𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼𝑤 (1 − 𝜖𝛼 ) − 𝑖, 𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑤 − 𝑖𝑡 + 𝜖0 (3)

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Longitudinal static stability

Now we have to find a relation between 𝛼𝑤 and 𝛼 (angle of attack of

the entire aircraft)

𝑆𝑡
𝑎𝛼
⏟ = 𝑎⏟
𝑤 𝛼𝑤 + 𝑎 𝑡 𝛼𝑡
𝑐𝐿 𝑆 ⏟
𝑐𝐿 𝑐𝐿
𝑤 𝑡

⇓ 𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼𝑤 (1 − 𝜖𝛼 ) − 𝑖

𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝑎 𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑡
𝑎𝛼 = 𝑎𝑤 𝛼𝑤 + 𝑎𝑡 (1 − 𝜖𝛼 )𝛼𝑤 − 𝑎𝑡 𝑖 = 𝑎𝑤 [1 + (1 − 𝜖𝛼 )] 𝛼𝑤 − 𝑎𝑡 𝑖
𝑆 𝑆 𝑎𝑤 𝑆
⏟ 𝑆
𝐹

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Longitudinal static stability

𝑆𝑡 𝜕𝑐𝐿
1) 𝑐𝐿 = 𝑎𝛼 = 𝑎𝑤 (1 + 𝐹)𝛼𝑤 − 𝑎𝑡 𝑖 ⇒ 𝑎= = 𝑎𝑤 (1 + 𝐹)
𝑆 𝜕𝛼

𝑆𝑡 1) 𝑆𝑡 𝑎 𝑡
2) 𝑐𝐿 = 𝑎𝛼 = 𝑎𝑤 (1 + 𝐹)𝛼𝑤 − 𝑎𝑡 𝑖 −→ 𝛼𝑤 = 𝛼 + 𝑖 (4)
𝑆 𝑆 𝑎
Now we can insert Eq. 4 into Eq. 3:
𝑆𝑡 𝑎 𝑡
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼(1 − 𝜖𝛼 ) + 𝑖(1 − 𝜖𝛼 ) − 𝑖, (5)
𝑆 𝑎
and then we insert Eq. 5 into Eq. 2:

𝑥𝑔 − 𝑥𝑎 𝑆𝑡 𝑎 𝑡
𝑐𝑀 = 𝑐𝑀 +𝑎 𝛼 − 𝑎𝑡 𝜂𝑡 𝑉𝐻 (1 − 𝜖𝛼 ) 𝛼 − 𝑎𝑡 𝜂𝑡 𝑉𝐻 𝑖 ( (1 − 𝜖𝛼 ) − 1)
0𝑤 𝑐 𝑆 𝑎

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Longitudinal static stability

Since 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑤 (1 + 𝐹) with 𝐹 defined above, the 𝑐𝑀 equation becomes:

𝑥𝑔 − 𝑥𝑎 𝑖
𝑐𝑀 = 𝑐 𝑀 +𝑎 𝛼 − 𝑎𝑡 𝜂𝑡 𝑉𝐻 (1 − 𝜖𝛼 ) 𝛼 + 𝑎𝑡 𝜂𝑡 𝑉𝐻 𝑖
0𝑤 𝑐 1+𝐹

Therefore:
𝑖
𝑐𝑀 = 𝑐𝑀 + 𝑎𝑡 𝜂𝑡 𝑉𝐻
0 0𝑤 1+𝐹

𝑥𝑔 𝑥𝑎 𝑎𝑡
𝑐𝑀 = 𝑎 [ − − 𝜂𝑡 𝑉𝐻 (1 − 𝜖𝛼 )]
𝛼 𝑐 𝑐 𝑎

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Longitudinal static stability

Positive static stability requires 𝑐𝑀 < 0!

𝛼

Neutral point (NP) 𝑥𝑁 ∶

𝑥𝑎 𝑎𝑡
𝑥𝑁 = 𝛼+ 𝜂𝑡 𝑉𝐻 (1 − 𝜖𝛼 )
𝑐 𝑎

• 𝑥𝑔 < 𝑥𝑁 (c.g. in front of NP) ⇒ 𝑐𝑀 < 0 Stable equilibrium point

𝛼
• 𝑥𝑔 ≥ 𝑥𝑁 (c.g. behind of NP) ⇒ 𝑐𝑀 ≥ 0 No equilibrium point
𝛼

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Longitudinal static stability

• The equilibrium point 𝛼eq must be: 𝛼eq ∈ [𝛼min , 𝛼max ]!

• Changing 𝛼eq requires changing the intersection!

Control surface!

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Longitudinal static stability

Tail: Stabilizer (fixed) + Elevator (movable)

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Longitudinal static stability

• The rotation of the elevator (𝛿𝑒 ) changes the zero-lift direction of

the tail, thus producing a variation of 𝑐𝐿 . So we have:
𝑡

𝑐𝐿 =𝑐𝐿 𝛼 + 𝑐𝐿 𝛿𝑒 𝑐𝐿 > 0
𝛼 𝛿 𝛿

𝑐𝑀 =𝑐𝑀 + 𝑐𝑀 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑀 𝛿𝑒 𝑐𝑀 < 0
0 𝛼 𝛿 𝛿

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