Manufacturing process 1

Tutorial
 Different types of die set and die
cutting operation

• Cutting operations are essentially a controlled

process of plastic deformation or yielding of
the material leading to fracture.
• Cutting and forming thin sheets of metal
usually performed as cold working
• A set of dies is the required tooling for
working with the presses.
• A die set consists essentially of three parts:
(i) a punch (male tool),
(ii) a die (a female tool) and
(iii) stripper plate.

The punch is fixed or bolted to the ram and the die is fixed on
the machine bed in such a manner that the two are in perfect
alignment. When the punch along with the ram of the press
moves downwards, the punch passes centrally through the die.
• The die and punch are made of high quality,
fine grained alloy steel.
• They are then heat treated to develop high
hardness, wear resistance and impact-
resistance
• Two configurations:
(i) Open frame type, and
• Open frame type presses are less robust as compared to
closed frame type, but provide greater access for loading
material as they are open in front as well as sides.
• Due to their appearance, they are also referred to as C-frame
or gap presses as well.
(ii) Closed frame type.
• Closed frame type presses are used for heavier work.
• The capacity of the press is indicated by the force (or
tonnage), the press is capable of exerting greater force.
• The three most important operations in press
working that cut metal by the shearing
mechanism are
– shearing,
– blanking, and
– punching.
• Cutting of sheet metal is accomplished by a
shearing action between two sharp cutting
edges.
The three most important operations in press working that cut
metal by the shearing mechanism
Shearing is a sheet-metal cutting operation along a straight line
between two cutting edges
• Shearing is typically used to cut large sheets into smaller
sections for subsequent press working operations.
• It is performed on a machine called a power shears, or
squaring shears.
• The upper blade of the power shears is often inclined, to
reduce the required cutting force.
• Blanking involves cutting of the sheet metal along a closed
outline in a single step to separate the piece from the
surrounding stock.
• The part that is cut out is the desired product in the operation
and is called the blank
• Punching is similar to blanking except that it produces a
hole, and the separated piece is scrap, called the slug.
• The remaining stock is the desired part.
 OTHER SHEET-METAL-CUTTING
OPERATIONS
Cutoff and Parting
• Cutoff is a shearing operation in which blanks are
separated from a sheet-metal strip by cutting the
opposite sides of the part in sequence. With each cut, a
new part is produced. The features of
• Parting involves cutting a sheet-metal strip by a punch
with two cutting edges that match the opposite sides of
the blank
• Parting is less efficient than cutoff in the sense that it
results in some wasted material.
Slotting is the term sometimes used for a
punching operation that cuts out an elongated
or rectangular hole
• Perforating involves the simultaneous
punching of a pattern of holes in sheet metal.
• The hole pattern is usually for decorative
purposes, or to allow passage of light, gas, or
fluid.
• To obtain the desired outline of a blank,
portions of the sheet metal are often removed
by notching and semi-notching.
• Trimming is a cutting operation performed on a formed
part to remove excess metal and establish size.

• Shaving is a shearing operation performed with very

small clearance to obtain accurate dimensions and cut
edges that are smooth and straight

• Fine blanking is a shearing operation used to blank

sheet-metal parts with close tolerances and smooth,
straight edges in one step
 OTHER OPERATIONS PERFORMED
WITH PRESSES
• Apart from punching and blanking, several
other useful operations are performed with
the help of mechanical presses:
• Some of these are listed below:
(i) Bending,
(ii) Deep drawing,
(iii) Coining, and
(iv) Embossing.
 Forging
• Forging is a deformation process in which the work is
compressed between two dies, using either impact or
gradual pressure to form the part.

• It is the oldest of the metal forming operations, dating back to

perhaps 5000 B.C.E

• used to make a variety of high-strength components for

automotive, aerospace, and other applications.

• These components include engine crankshafts and connecting

rods, gears, aircraft structural components, and jet engine
turbine parts
A forging machine that applies an impact load is called a
forging hammer, while one that applies gradual pressure is
called a forging press.

Forging is carried out in many different ways. One way to classify

the operations is by working temperature.
Cold Forging
• Description: Forging is performed at or near room
temperature. This process involves high pressure to deform
the metal.
• Application: Used for small, simple parts like bolts, nuts, and
fasteners
Hot Forging
• Description: The metal is heated to a temperature above its
recrystallization point before forging. This makes the material
more ductile and easier to shape.
• Application: Used for large and complex parts such as
automotive components, industrial machinery parts, and
aircraft components.
Based on the flow of the work metal is constrained by the
dies.
1. Open-Die Forging
• Description: The workpiece is compressed between flat or
simple-shaped dies that do not enclose the material
completely. The operator manipulates the workpiece to
achieve the desired shape.
• Application: Used for large components like shafts, discs, and
rings.
2. Closed-Die Forging (Impression Die Forging)
• Description: The workpiece is placed in a die that contains a
cavity in the shape of the desired part. The material is
deformed under high pressure to fill the die cavity.
• Application: Used for producing complex shapes such as
gears, connecting rods, and crankshafts.
Precision Forging
• Description: A type of closed-die forging that aims to produce
parts with very tight tolerances and minimal post-forging
machining.
• Application: Used for parts requiring high precision and
minimal finishing work, like turbine blades and high-
performance gears.
Roll Forging
• Description: The workpiece is passed through rotating rolls
with grooves that shape the material.
• Application: Used for making long parts with varying cross-
sections, such as tapered shafts and leaf springs.
Swaging
• Description: A radial forging process where the workpiece is
reduced in diameter by the movement of dies that close in a
radial direction.
• Application: Used for tapering, reducing, or forming points on
rods and tubes.
Upset Forging
• Description: The process of increasing the
diameter of a workpiece by compressing its
length.
• Application: Commonly used to form heads
on bolts, nails, and other fasteners
 FORGING HAMMERS, PRESSES, AND
DIES

Forging hammers operate by applying an impact loading against

the work. The term drop hammer is often used
• Drop hammers are most frequently used for impression-die
forging
• Drop hammers can be classified as gravity drop hammers and
power drop hammers.
Forging Presses: Presses apply gradual pressure, rather than sudden
impact, to accomplish the forging operation
• Forging presses include mechanical presses, hydraulic presses, and
screw presses.

Forging Dies Proper die design is important in the success of a forging

operation.
• Parts to be forged must be designed based on knowledge of the
principles and limitations of this process.
• Typical draft angles are 3° on aluminum and magnesium parts and
5° to 7° on steel parts.
• Draft angles on precision forgings are near zero.
 Design consideration of dies
Designing dies for press work and metal forging involves several
steps and considerations.
Die Design for Press Work
Here are the key steps and components in designing a die for press
work:
1. Determine the Process Requirements
Type of Operation: Identify whether the process involves
cutting (blanking, piercing), bending, forming, or drawing.
Material Specifications: Determine the material type, thickness,
and mechanical properties.
2. Component Design
Create a detailed drawing of the component to be manufactured.
Include dimensions, tolerances, and any special features.
3. Die Layout
Blanking/Piercing: Design the layout for blanking and piercing dies,
considering the strip layout for optimal material utilization.
Bending/Forming: Design the die considering bend radii, angles,
and spring-back allowances.
Drawing: Design the die to accommodate the depth of the draw,
ensuring proper metal flow.

4. Die Components Design

Punch and Die Block: Design the punch and die block with
appropriate clearances based on material thickness and type.
Strippers and Pilots: Design strippers to hold the workpiece during
the operation.
Die Set: Design the die set, including the upper and lower die
shoes, guide pins, and bushings.
5. Material Selection for Die Components
Choose materials with high wear resistance and
toughness, such as tool steels (D2, A2, O1).
6. Design Calculation
Cutting Clearance: Calculate the clearance between
the punch and die.
Bending Allowance: Calculate the bending
allowance based on the material type and thickness.
Drawing Force: Calculate the drawing force required
and ensure the press capacity is sufficient.
Die Design for Metal Forging

Metal forging involves deforming metal into desired shapes

using compressive forces.
steps for designing a die for metal forging:
1. Determine the Process Requirements
Type of Forging: Identify whether the process involves open-die
forging, closed-die forging, or impression-die forging.
Material Specifications: Determine the material type, initial billet
size, and mechanical properties.
2. Component Design
Create a detailed drawing of the forged component, including
dimensions, tolerances, and any special features.
3. Die Layout
Design the impression or cavity in the die to achieve the desired
final shape.
4. Die Components Design
Upper and Lower Dies: Design the upper and lower dies with appropriate
draft angles, fillets, and parting lines.
Flash Gutter: Design the flash gutter to control excess material and
ensure proper die closure.
Ejectors: Design ejectors to remove the forged part from the die after
forging.
5. Material Selection for Die Components
Choose materials with high toughness, wear resistance, and thermal
fatigue resistance, such as H13 tool steel for hot forging.
6. Design Calculation
Forging Force: Calculate the required forging force and ensure the press
capacity is sufficient.
Draft Angles: Design appropriate draft angles to facilitate part removal
from the die.
Fillet Radii: Design fillet radii to avoid stress concentrations and improve
material flow.
 A round disk of 150 mm diameter is to be blanked from a strip of 3.2 mm,
half-hard cold-rolled steel whose shear strength is 310 MPa. Determine (a) the
appropriate punch and die diameters, and (b) blanking force.
Solution:
(a) From Table the clearance allowance for half-hard coldrolled steel is Ac=
0.075. Accordingly,
c =Ac t = 0.075(3.2 mm) = 0.24 mm
c

The blank is to have a diameter = 150 mm, and die size determines blank size.
Therefore,
Die opening diameter = 150.00 mm
Punch diameter = Db - 2c = 150 – 2 (0.24) = 149.52 mm
(b) To determine the blanking force, assume that the entire perimeter of the
part is blanked at one time. The length of the cut edge is
L = πDb = 150 π = 471.2 mm and the force is
F = StL = 310(471.2)(3.2) = 467,469 N ( 53 tons)

c =clearance, Ac=clearance allowance , t= stock thickness

, Db=Blanking punch diamete, F = blanking force L= length of the cut edge, S= shear strength,
Powder metallurgy process(steps)
• The powder metallurgy process consists of the following
basic steps:
1. Formation of metallic powders.
2. Mixing or blending of the metallic powders in required proportions.
3. Compressing and compacting the powders into desired shapes and
sizes in form of articles.
4. Sintering the compacted articles in a controlled furnace atmosphere.
5. Subjecting the sintered articles to secondary processing if needed so.
Cont.
1. Formation of metallic powders..
• Commonly used powder making processes are given as
under.
1. Atomization
2. Chemical reduction
3. Electrolysis process
4. Crushing
5. Milling
6. Condensation of metal vapors
 2. Mixing or blending of the metallic
powders in required proportions.
• Blending is carried out for several purposes as follows.
1. Blending imparts uniformity in the shapes of the powder
particles.
2. Blending facilitates mixing of different powder particles to
provide wide ranging physical and mechanical properties.
3. Lubricants can be added during the blending process to improve
the flow characteristics of the powder particles reducing friction
between particles and dies.
4. Binders can be added to the mixture of the powder particles to
enhance the green strength during the powder compaction
process.
 3. Compressing and compacting the
powders
• The principle goal of the compaction process is to apply pressure
and bond the particles
• The compaction exercise imparts the following effects.
1. Reduces voids between the power particles and enhance the
density of the consolidated powder.
2. Produces adhesion and bonding of the powder particles to
improve green strength in the consolidated powder particles,
3. Facilitates plastic deformation of the powder particles to
conform to the final desired shape of the part,
4. Enhances the contact area among the powder particles and
facilitates the subsequent sintering process.
4. Sintering the compacted articles
• Sintering refers to the heating of the compacted powder to a
specific temperature
• Sintering facilitates the bonding action between the individual
powder particles and increase in the strength of the final part.
• Sintering process enhances the density of the final part by
filling up the developed holes and increasing the area of
contact among the powder particles in compact perform.
• The time, temperature and the furnace atmosphere are the
three critical factors that control the sintering process.
 Terminology of powder metallurgy
Atomization:
A process where molten metal is disintegrated into fine droplets that solidify into powders. This
can be achieved using gas, water, or centrifugal forces.
Green Compact:
The pressed but unsintered powder mass formed during the compaction stage. It is called "green"
because it is in a fragile state and needs sintering to attain full strength.
Sintering:
The process of heating the green compact in a furnace to promote diffusion bonding between the
powder particles, resulting in increased strength and density.
Powder Blending/Mixing:
The process of combining different metal powders and additives to achieve a homogeneous
mixture with desired properties.
Compaction:
The process of pressing metal powders into a die to form a shape with sufficient strength for
handling before sintering.
Density:
The mass per unit volume of the powder or the compacted part. It can be apparent density (loose
powder), tap density (after tapping), or sintered density (after sintering).
Porosity:
The presence of pores or voids in the compacted or sintered part. Controlling porosity is critical
for achieving desired mechanical properties.
Binder:
An additive used in the powder mixture to improve the handling characteristics of the green
compact and provide additional strength.
Lubricant:
A substance added to the powder mixture or applied to the die walls to
reduce friction during compaction and facilitate ejection from the die.
Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP):
A post-sintering process where the part is subjected to high temperature and isostatic
pressure to further densify and eliminate residual porosity.
Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP):
A process where the powder is compacted in a flexible mold under isostatic pressure
at room temperature.
Mechanical Alloying:
A process involving repeated welding, fracturing, and rewelding of powder particles in
a high-energy ball mill, leading to the formation of alloy powders with fine
microstructures.
Impregnation:
The process of filling the pores of a sintered part with another material, such as oil or
resin, to improve properties like lubrication or sealing.
Infiltration:
The process of filling the pores of a sintered part with a molten metal to increase its
density and strength.
Repressing:
Also known as sizing, this secondary operation involves applying additional pressure to
a sintered part to improve dimensional accuracy and density.
 Basic Types Of Casting

Sand casting

Expendable Shell casting

mold
Investment
casting
Lost foam
Casting casing

Multiple use
Die casting
mold
Permanent
casting
Plaster mold and ceramic mold casting
Plaster mold:
• similar to sand casting, except mold is made of POP and not
sand
• To minimize contraction, curing time, reduce cracking,
additives like talc and silica flour are mixed with the plaster.

Ceramic mold:
• mold is made of refractory ceramic materials which can
withstand high temp. than plaster.
• Ceramic molding can be used to cast steels, CI, and other high
temp. alloys.
 Expendable moulding processes
Shell moulding
• The shell moulding is a casting process in which the mould is a
thin shell of 9 mm thick. This is made of sand held together by
thermosetting resin binder.
 Vacuum moulding
• n this process, a sand mold is held together by vacuum
pressure and not by a chemical binder.
• The term vacuum in this process refers to the making of the
mold, rather than the casting operation. Casting operation is
same as any other process.
 Expanded polystyrene process
• In this process, a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene
foam pattern is used.
• This pattern will vaporize when the molten metal is poured
into the mold.
• Also called as lost-foam process, lost pattern process,
evaporative-foam
• process
 Investment casting
• In this casting process, a pattern made of wax is coated with
a refractory material to make the mold surface, after which
the wax is melted away while pouring the molten metal.
• This is a precision casting process.
• Using this we can make castings of high accuracy with
intricate details.
 Permanent mold process
• using only metal mold for casting
• Molds are generally made of steel, CI
 Vacuum permanent mold casting:
• variation of low pressure casting, but in this vacuum
is used to draw the molten metal into the mold
cavity
 Die casting
• In this process, high pressure of 7 to 350 MPa is used to
pressurize the molten metal into die cavity. The pressure is
maintained during solidification.
• Category: hot chamber machines, cold chamber machines

hot chamber machines, cold chamber machines

 Centrifugal casting
• In this method, the mold is rotated at high speed so that the
molten metal is distributed by the centrifugal force to the
outer regions of the die cavity
• includes : true centrifugal casting, semi centrifugal casting

True centrifugal casting semi centrifugal casting

 Defects in sand castings

• Sand blow and Pinholes: defect consisting of a

balloon-shaped gas cavity or gas cavities caused by
release of mold gases during pouring.
• It is present just below the casting top surface.
• Low permeability, bad gas venting, and high moisture
content of the sand mold are the usual causes.
 Cont.
• Sand wash: surface dip that results from erosion of the
sand mold during pouring.
• This contour is formed in the surface of the final cast
part.
• Scab: It is caused by portions of the mold surface
flaking off during
solidification and gets embedded in the casting surface.
• Penetration: surface defect that occurs when the liquid
penetrates into the
sand mold as the fluidity of liquid metal is high, After
solidifying, the casting
surface consists of a mixture of sand and metal. Harder
ramming of sand
mold minimize this defect.
 Cont.
• Mold shift: defect caused by displacement of
the mold cope in sideward direction relative to
the drag. This results in a step in the cast
product at the parting line.
• Core shift: displacement of core vertically. Core
shift and mold shift are caused by buoyancy of
the molten metal.
• Mold crack: ‘fin’ like defect in cast part that
occurs when mold strength is very less, and a
crack develops, through which liquid metal can
seep.
 Cont.

• Misruns: castings that solidify before completely filling the mold

cavity. This occurs because of
(1) low fluidity of the molten metal,
(2) low pouring temperature,
(3) slow pouring,
(4) thinner cross-section of the mold cavity.
• Cold Shuts: This defect occurs when two portions of the metal flow
together but no fusion occurs between them due to premature
freezing.
 Cont.
• Cold shots: forming of solid globules of metal that
are entrapped in the casting. Proper pouring
procedures and gating system designs can prevent
this defect.
• Shrinkage cavity: cavity in the surface or an internal
void in the casting, caused by solidification shrinkage
that restricts the amount of molten metal present in
the last region to freeze. It is sometimes called as
‘pipe’. Proper riser design can solve this problem.
• Micro porosity: network of small voids distributed
throughout the casting caused by localized
solidification shrinkage of the final molten metal.