Certificate Declaration Acknowledgement Intraduction Properties of P-n Junction Diade Principle uf P-n Junction Diode © Depletion Region Forward Biased Reverse Biesed Pn Junction Diode Forward Gised F-n Junction Diode Forward Biesed Cherecterstcs Reversed Biosed F-n Junetion Diode © Reverse ised Characteristics Applcatins of P-n Junction Dinde BibliographyPN JUNCTION Aisa known as diode, One of he basics cf semicenductartechnalagy. * Greate by placing n-type and p-type material in close contect. Difiusian ~ mabite charges (hles) in p-type combine with mobile charges (electrans) in n-type. Region of charges left behind (dopant fixed in crystal lattice) © Group Il inp-ype Cone less than Si-negative charge). ‘© Group IV inn-type (one more praton than Si-positive charge). Region is totally depleted of mobile charges ~"depetion region” © Electric fil! forms due to fixed charges on the depletion © Deplotion region has high resistance due ta lack of mobile charges. PROPERTIES OF PN FUNCTION > Thepe and n- sides of PN Junction before the entact > TheP-Al Junction ater contact. in equibrivm and in open circuit. Carrier concentrations clang the whole device, thraugh th p-n junction, Not space charge density acrass the p-n junction.PRINCIPLES OF PN JUNCTION DEPLETION REGION In semiconductor physics, the Gepetion region, also called depletion layer, depletion zone junction regia, space change region orspana charge layer. is an insulating regian within a conductive, daped semicondctar material ‘here the motile charge carriars have been diffused vay, or have been forced eway by an electric field. The only alements let inthe depletion regi ae lonized dancr er accaptar impurities, The depletion region i sa remed because itis formed fram = conducting region by remnval ct ll ree charge carriers. leaving none ta carry a currant. Understanding the depletion region is key to explaining moder semiconductor electraics: dindas bipaler junction transistors. fied-clfect transistors. and varcblecagzitance dndes al rly on degletin region Forward bias Forward bias (P positive with respect ta N) narrows the depletion region and Inwers the barrier to carrier injection (shown in the figure to the right). In more detail, majority carriers get same energy from the bias field, enabling them to ga inta the region and neutralize opposite charges, The more bias the more neutralization (or screening of ions in the region) occurs. The earriers can be recombined to the iors but thermal energy immedictely mckes recornbined carrier trensitin back as Ferm energy isin proximity When bins is strong enough that the depetinn region becomes very ‘thin, the diffusion component cf the current greatly increases end Serres Hewat tet the drift component decreases. In this case, the net current is rightward in the figure of the p-n junction, The carrier density is large (it varias exponentially with the epplied bias vcltage), meking the junction conductive and allowing a large forward current.The mathematical description of the currant is provided by the Shockley diade equation. The law ‘current condusted under reverse bias and the large current under forward bias is an example. Reverse bias Vide dopo gor Undar reverse bis (P negative with respect to N) the patente ima drop fie.valtage) acress the éeplstian ragion increases. In mare detail, mojority carriers are pus away fram th junction, leaving behind more charged inns. Thus the depletion region is widened end its field becomes stronger, which increases the érift component of current and decreases the diusion component. In this case, the net currants leitward inthe figura ofthe pn junctin, Tne carrier density (mostly. minority carrisrs) is small and only © very sivll reverse saturation current flaws.PN JUNCTION DIODE If one side of a single crystal of pure semiconductor (Germanium or Silicon) is doped with acceptor impurity atoms and the other side is doped with donor impurity atoms, a PN junction is formed as shown in Fig. P region has a high concentration of holes and N region contains a large number of electrons. ‘As soon as the junction is formed, free electrons and holes cross through the junction by the process © der atom of diffusion. During this process, the electrons crossing the junction from N-region into the P region, recombine with holes in the P-region very close to + Hoes the junction. Similarly holes crossing the junction i] from the P-region into the N-region, recombine with electrons in the N-region very close to the junction. P/N Junetion diode Thus a region is formed, which does not have any mobile charges very close to the junction. This region is called depletion region. In this region, on the left side of the junction, the acceptor atoms become negative ions and on the right side of the junction, the donor atoms become Positive ions . ©" Acceptor atom = Eletrons An electric field is set up, between the donor and acceptor ions in the depletion region. The potential at the N-side is higher than the potential at P-side, Therefore electrons in the N- side are prevented to go to the lower potential of P-side. Similarly, holes in the P-side find themselves at a lower potential and are prevented to cross to the N-side. Thus, there is a barrier at the junction which opposes the movement of the majority charge carriers. The difference of potential from one side of the barrier to the other side is called potential barrier. The potential barrier is approximately 0.7V for a silicon PN junction and 0.3V for a germanium PN junction. The distance from one side of the barrier to the other side is called the width of the barrier, which depends upon the nature of the material.Forward Biased PN Junction Diode: When the positive terminal of the battery is connected tn F-side and negative terminal to the N-side, so that the potential difference acts in opposite direction to the barrier patential, then the PN junction diode is said to be forward biased. ‘han the Pt junction is ferward biased (Fg), the anolid postive potential repels the hole inthe P-egion, ard the applied negative patente repels the electrons inthe N-ragin, so the cherges riove towards the junction. the applied potential difference is mare than the potential barrier, scme holes and free electrons enter the depletion region. Fence, the potential barier es well asthe width ef the depletion region are reduced. The positive donar ions and negative eeceptar ians within the dealtion region recain electrons and holes respectively. As a result ofthis, the depletion region disappears and the potential barrier alsa diseppears. Hence, under the action ofthe farward potential difference, tha majority charge carriers flaw across the junction in eppasite direction and constitute current fiw in the forward direction, Forward Bias Characteristics The circuit fer the study of forward bies characteristics of PN junction diade is shown in Fig 2. The valtage between P- end and tend is increased from zera in suitable equal steps rd the corresgonding currents are nated dawn. Fig b shows the forward bias characteristic curve ofthe dinde. Voltage is the independent variable. Therefore, it is platted along Y-axis, Sinca current isthe dapendent variable, itis plettad against Y-axis. From the ‘Vz (volt) —> 4a) Diode ctreull-Fonward bias (2) Forward characteristics Fig Fonward bias characteristics of a diode characteristic curve. the following conclusions can be made. (i) The forward characteristic is not @ straight line, Hence the ratin V/lis nat 2 constant (ie) the dinde does nat obey Ohm's law. This implies that the semiconductor diode is 8 non-lineer conductor of electricity. (i) It can be seen from the characteristic curve that initially, the current is very small. This is because . the diode will start canducting, only when the external voltage overcomes the barrier potential (0.7¥ for silicon diode). As the voltage is increased to 0.7 ¥, large number of free electrons and holes start crossing the junction. Above (.7¥, the current increases rapidly. The valtage at which the current starts to increase ‘rapidly is known as cut-in voltage or knee voltage of the dinde,Reverse Diased PN Junction Diode: When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N-side and negative terminal to the P-side, so that the applied potential difference is In the same direction as that of barrier potential, the junction is said to be reverse biased. ‘When the PN junction is reverse biased (Fig], electrons in the N region and holes in the P- region are attracted away from the junction. Because of this, the number of negative ions in the P-region and positive ions in the N- region increases. Hence the depletion region becomes wider and the potential barrier is increased, Since the depletion region does not contain majority charge carriers, it acts like an insulator. Therefore, no current should flow in the external circuit. But, in practice, a very small current of the order of few microamperes flows in the reverse direction. This is due to the minority carriers flowing in the opposite direction, This reverse current is small, because the number of minority carriers in both regions is very small, Since the major source of minority carriers is, thermally broken covalent bonds, the reverse current mainly depends on the junction temperature. Reverse Dias Characteristics The circuit for the study of reverse bias choractaristies of PN junction dade is shown in Fig a. The voltage is increesed fram zera in suitable steps. For each vltage, the carrasacrding current readings are nated down, Fig 6 shows the reverse bies charectristic curve of the diode. From the characteristic eurve, ican he concluded that. as voltage is increased fram zera, reverse current (inthe arder af microamperes)inraeses ard reaches the maximum value ata small value of the reverse voltage. When the vltege is further increased, the current is almost independant af the reverse voltage ust a certain critical value. This raverse curren is known as the reverse saturetin current ar leakage current This current is due tothe minarty charge carers, which depends on arctan teripeature =, (vot) 1 ual (a) Diode circutt-Reverse bas (b) Reverse characteristtes Fig’ Reverse bias characteristies of a diodeAPPLICATIONS PN JUNCTION Que to this characteristic, the diade finds number cf applications es given below: “> Rectification The conversion of alternating current into direct current is known as rectification. A p-n junction diode ellows electric current when it is forward biased and blocks electric current when it is reverse biased. This ‘action of p-n junction diode enables us to use it as a rectifier, indes ere used in clamping circuits for DC restoration Ciodes are used in lipping eircults for weve shaping Codes ere used in voltage multipliers. Cindes are used as switch in digital lagic circuits used in computers, Cindes are used in demodulation circuits. Laser diodes are used in optical communicetions, Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are used in digital displays. Cindes are used in voltage regulatars,CONCLUSION The o-n junction is the basic building black for ather s/c devices. Understanding of junction theary serve as the foundation to understanding other s/c devices Madern p-n junctions are fabricated using “planar technology" When p-n iunction is formed - the uncompensated -ve ions (NA-) on the p-side and uncompensated +ve ion (ND) on aside Thus, depletion region formed at the junctionAt thermal equiibrium, the drift current (due to the electric field) balanced by difusian current (due to concentration gradients ofthe mobile carriers) When +V applied ta p-side~ lerae current will flow through the junction, while when -V applied virtually no current flaws Practical devices depart fram ideal characteristics because of carrier generation recombination in the depletion layer, high injection under forward bias and series-resistance effect.