ME - 412

HEAT & MASS TRANSFER

Arranged By
PROF. DR. ASAD NAEEM SHAH
UET LAHORE
[email protected]
RADIATION HEAT
TRANSFER
Part 2
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 HEAT EXCHANGE OF THREE BODIES
▪ A network for a three-body problem
is shown in Fig. 1. In this case each
of the bodies exchanges heat with
the other two.
▪ To determine the heat flows in a
problem of this type, the values of
the radiosities must be calculated.
▪ This may be accomplished by
performing standard methods of
analysis used in dc-circuit theory.
Fig. 1: Radiation network for
▪ The most convenient method is an
three surfaces that see each
application of Kirchhoff’s current other and nothing else.
law to the circuit, which states that
the sum of the currents entering a
node is zero.
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 HEAT EXCHANGE OF THREE-BODIES Cont.
𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐽1 𝐽1 − 𝐽2 𝐽1 − 𝐽3
𝑞1 = = + → (1)
1 − 𝜖1 1 1
𝐴1 𝜖1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴1 𝐹13

𝐸𝑏2 − 𝐽2 𝐽2 − 𝐽1 𝐽2 − 𝐽3
𝑞2 = = + → (2)
1 − 𝜖2 1 1
𝐴2 𝜖2 𝐴2 𝐹21 𝐴2 𝐹23

𝐸𝑏3 − 𝐽3 𝐽3 − 𝐽1 𝐽3 − 𝐽2
𝑞3 = = + → (3)
1 − 𝜖3 1 1
𝐴3 𝜖3 𝐴3 𝐹31 𝐴3 𝐹32

Above system of eqns. can be solved for the possible H.T.

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HEAT EXCHANGE OF INSULATED SURFACES
AND SURFACES WITH LARGE AREAS
▪ As (𝐸𝑏 −𝐽) represents the
potential difference for heat
flow through the surface
1−𝜖
resistance i.e., .
𝜖𝐴
▪ If a surface is perfectly
insulated ( i.e., refractory or
re-radiative), it has zero heat
flow and the potential
difference across the surface
resistance is zero, resulting in
𝐽 = 𝐸𝑏 as depicted in Fig. 1
for surface and node 3. Fig. 1
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 H.E. FOR INSULATED SURFACES AND
SURFACES WITH LARGE AREAS Cont.
▪ The insulated surface does not have zero surface resistance. In
effect, the J node in the network is floating (i.e., it is not
connected to a radiation surface resistance), and thus it does not
draw any heat current.
▪ On the other hand, a surface with a very large area (i.e., 𝐴 → ∞)
has a surface resistance approaching zero, which means 𝐽 = 𝐸𝑏
in this case. Thus, insulated surface and surface with a large area
both have 𝑱 = 𝑬𝒃 , but for entirely different reasons.
▪ It is important to note that a surface with a very large area
behaves like a blackbody with 𝜖 = 1. Moreover, atmosphere or
space between two large surfaces like a large room is also
assumed to be a black body.
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HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN TWO INFINITE
PARALLEL SURFACES
▪ Consider two infinite parallel
planes in which 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 𝐴 ;
and the radiation shape factor is
unity since all the radiation
leaving one plane reaches the
other.
▪ The network is given in Fig. 1, and
the heat flow per unit area may
be obtained from Equation:
𝑞 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2
ൗ𝐴 =
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2
𝜖1 + 𝐹12 + 𝜖2 Fig. 1

𝑞 𝜎 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 As 𝐹11 + 𝐹12 = 1

֜ ൗ𝐴 = But 𝐹11 = 0
1 1
𝜖1 𝜖2 − 1
+

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EXAMPLE
SOLUTION

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Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 PROBLEM
A square room 3 by 3 m has a floor heated to 300 K, a
ceiling at 290 K, and walls that are assumed perfectly
insulated. The height of the room is 2.5 m. The
emissivity of all surfaces is 0.8. Using the network
method, find the net interchange between floor and
ceiling and the wall temperature.

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 SOLUTION (HINTS)
1. Circuit Analysis
2. Shape Factor Analysis
3. Resistance Analysis
4. Emissive Power Analysis
5. Node Analysis
6. H.T Analysis

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 HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN TWO
LONG CONCENTRIC CYLINDERS
▪ Consider two long concentric
cylinders at temperature 𝑇1 & 𝑇2 as
shown in Fig. 1.
▪ Heat exchange may be calculated by
the following equation:

𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2
𝑞1−2 =
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2
+ +
𝜖1 𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝜖2 𝐴 2
Fig. 1: Radiation exchange between
two cylindrical surfaces.
𝐴1 (𝐸𝑏1 −𝐸𝑏2 )
֜ 𝑞1−2 = → (1)
1 𝐴1 1 𝐹22 + 𝐹21 = 1
+ −1 𝐴1
𝜖1 𝐴2 𝜖2 𝐹22 = 1 −
𝐴2
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 HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN TWO LONG
CONCENTRIC CYLINDERS Cont.
4 4
𝑞 𝜋𝑑1 𝜎 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
֜ ൗ𝐿 =
1 𝑑1 1
+ −1
𝜖1 𝑑2 𝜖2
▪ In case of spherical container, the area ratio of Eqn. (1) will be
modified as under:
𝐴1 4𝜋𝑟12 𝑟12
= =
𝐴2 4𝜋𝑟22 𝑟22
▪ Thus Eqn. (1) leads to:

𝐴1 𝜎 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
֜ 𝑞1−2 =
1 𝑟12 1
+ −1
𝜖1 𝑟22 𝜖2
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 PROBLEM
A spherical container of diameter 300 mm is used to store the
liquid oxygen at -182˚C. The system is insulated by a concentric
sphere of diameter 450 mm. There is evacuated space
between the two spheres having same emissivity of 0.03. If the
temperature of outer sphere is 30˚C, estimate the H.T.R by
radiation to the oxygen in the container. Assume that inner
surface of outer sphere and outer surface of inner container
are diffuse and gray.
HINTS:
𝐴1 𝜎 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
𝑞1−2 = 2 = −2.81𝑊
1 𝑟1 1
+ −1
𝜖1 𝑟22 𝜖2
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 RADIATION SHIELDS
▪ A method to reduce radiant heat transfer between two
particular surfaces by introducing an additional surface
resistance in the heat flow path so that overall heat transfer
can be retarded is known as radiation shielding.
▪ These shields do not deliver or remove any heat from the
overall system.
▪ The shields only place another resistance in the heat-flow
path to retard the heat.
▪ Thin sheets of plastic coated with highly reflecting metallic
films on both sides serve as very effective radiation shields.

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 RADIATION SHIELDS Cont.
➢APPLICATIONS:
o These shields are used for the insulation of cryogenic storage
tanks, e.g., liquid hydrogen, liquid oxygen and LNG storage
tanks.
o A good application of radiation shield is also observed in the
measuring of fluid temperature by a thermometer or a
thermocouple which is shielded to reduce the effects of
radiation.

➢ HEAT EXCHANGE:
▪ Consider two parallel infinite planes as
shown in Fig. 1. Heat exchange between
these surfaces may be calculated as
Fig. 1
follows:
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 RADIATION SHIELDS Cont.
𝑞 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2
ൗ𝐴 = → (1)
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2
+ +
𝜖1 𝐹12 𝜖2

▪ Now considering the same two planes, but with a radiation

shield placed between them (Fig. 2).

▪ Heat transfer between plate 1

and the shield must be precisely
the same as that between the
shield and plate 2, i.e.,
𝑞 𝑞
=
𝐴 1−3 𝐴 3−2 Fig. 2
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 RADIATION SHIELDS Cont.
▪ Therefore,

𝑞 𝑞 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏3
= ൗ𝐴 =
𝐴 1−3 1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖3
+ +
𝜖1 𝐹13 𝜖3

𝑞 𝐸𝑏3 − 𝐸𝑏2
=
𝐴 3−2 1 − 𝜖3 1 1 − 𝜖2
+ +
𝜖3 𝐹32 𝜖2
▪ Thus, overall heat transfer for the system is:

𝑞 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2
֜ ൗ𝐴 = → (2)
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖3 1 − 𝜖3 1 1 − 𝜖2
+ + + + +
𝜖1 𝐹13 𝜖3 𝜖3 𝐹32 𝜖2

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 RADIATION SHIELDS Cont.
▪ The radiation network corresponding to the situation of the
latter case (shown in Fig. 2) is depicted in Fig. 3:

Fig. 3

▪ As the number of resistances are increased by inserting the 3rd

plate between the two plates, heat exchange rate is reduced.
This additional 3rd plate is called the radiation shield.

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 RADIATION SHIELDS Cont.
▪ As 𝐹13 = 𝐹32 = 1, so Eqn. (2) becomes:

𝑞 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2
ൗ𝐴 =
1 1 2
+ + −2
𝜖1 𝜖2 𝜖3

4 4
𝑞 𝜎 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
֜ ൗ𝐴 = →→ (4)
1 1 2
+ + −2
𝜖1 𝜖2 𝜖3
▪ If there are more than one shields, number of resistances can
be found for the subsequent heat transfer analysis as follows:
No. of resistances = 3(n+1); where n = number of shields
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 PROBLEM
A cryogenic fluid flows through a long tube of 20-mm diameter,
the outer surface of which is diffuse and gray with 𝜖1 = 0.020
and 𝑇1 = 77𝐾. This tube is concentric with a larger tube of 50-
mm diameter, the inner surface of which is diffuse and gray with
𝜖2 = 0.05 and 𝑇2 = 300𝐾. The space between the surfaces is
evacuated. Calculate the heat gain by the cryogenic fluid per unit
length of tubes. If a thin radiation shield of 35-mm diameter and
𝜖3 = 0.02 (both sides) is inserted midway between the inner and
outer surfaces, calculate the change (percentage) in heat gain per
unit length of the tubes.
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 SOLUTION

SYSTEM WITHOUT SHIELD:

𝑞 𝜋𝐷1 𝜎 𝑇14 − 𝑇24

ൗ𝐿 =
1 𝐷1 1
+ −1
𝜖1 𝐷2 𝜖2

𝑞
֜ ൗ𝐿 = −0.50 𝑊/𝑚

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SYSTEM WITH SHIELD:

𝑞
֜ ൗ𝐿 = −0.25 𝑊/𝑚

PERCENTAGE HEAT GAINED:

𝑞𝑤/𝑜 − 𝑞𝑤
֜ = 50%
𝑞𝑤/𝑜
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 GAS RADIATION
▪ Radiation exchange between a gas and a heat-transfer
surface is considerably more complex than the situations
described in the preceding sections. Unlike most solid
bodies, gases are in many cases transparent to radiation.
▪ When gases absorb and emit radiation, they usually do so
only in certain narrow wavelength bands.
▪ Some gases, such as 𝑁2 , 𝑂2 , and others of nonpolar
symmetrical molecular structure (e.g., propane), are
essentially transparent at low temperatures, while 𝐶𝑂2 ,
𝐻2 𝑂 and various hydrocarbon (HC) gases radiate to an
appreciable extent.
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 GAS RADIATION Cont.
▪ The absorption of radiation in gas layers may be described
analytically considering the system shown in Fig. 1.
▪ A monochromatic beam of radiation having an intensity 𝐼𝜆 impinges
on the gas layer of thickness 𝑑𝑥.
▪ The decrease in intensity resulting from
absorption in the layers is assumed to be
proportional to the thickness of the layer
𝑑𝑥 and the intensity of radiation 𝐼𝜆 at that
point, thus:
𝑑𝐼𝜆 = −𝑎𝜆 𝐼𝜆 𝑑𝑥 →→ (1)
where the proportionality constant 𝒂𝝀 is called Fig. 1: Absorption in a
the monochromatic absorption coefficient. gas layer.

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 GAS RADIATION Cont.
▪ Integrating the equation (1) gives:
𝐼𝜆𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝐼𝜆
න = න −𝑎𝜆 𝑑𝑥
𝐼𝜆0 𝐼𝜆 0

𝐼𝜆𝑥
֜ = 𝑒 −𝑎𝜆𝑥 →→ (2)
𝐼𝜆0
▪ Equation (2) is called Beer’s law and represents the exponential-
decay formula experienced in many types of radiation analyses
dealing with absorption.
▪ In accordance with the definition of monochromatic emissivity
𝐸
(i.e., 𝜖𝜆 = 𝜆 ), the monochromatic transmissivity is also defined
𝐸𝑏𝜆
as:
𝐼𝜆𝑥
= 𝜏𝜆
𝐼𝜆0
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 GAS RADIATION Cont.
֜ 𝜏𝜆 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝜆𝑥 →→ 3 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑞𝑛. (2)
▪ If the gas is non-reflecting, then:
𝜏𝜆 + 𝛼𝜆 = 1
֜ 𝛼𝜆 = 1 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝜆𝑥 →→ 4 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑞𝑛. (3)
▪ It is obvious from Eqn. (4) that the absorptivity is a function of
the thickness of the gas layer 𝑥 and disports the temperature
dependence as well.
▪ Gases frequently absorb only in narrow wavelength bands e.g.,
water vapor has an absorptivity of about 0.7 between 1.4 and 1.5
𝜇𝑚, about 0.8 between 1.6 and 1.8 𝜇𝑚, about 1.0 between 2.6
and 2.8 𝜇𝑚, and about 1.0 between 5.5 and 7.0 𝜇𝑚.
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 RADIATION PROPERTIES OF THE
ENVIRONMENT
▪ The major portion of solar energy is concentrated in the short-
wavelength region as revealed by the radiation spectrum of the
sun. Consequently, the real surfaces may exhibit different
absorption properties for solar radiation than for long-wavelength
“earthbound” radiation.
▪ Meteorologists and hydrologists use the term insolation to
describe the intensity of direct solar radiation incident on a
horizontal surface per unit area and per unit time, designated with
the symbol ‘I’.
▪ Insolation is analogous to the term irradiation employed for
incident “earthbound” radiation. The meteorological literature
also uses the following unit:
1 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑦 𝐿𝑦 = 1 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑐𝑚2 41.86 𝑘𝐽/𝑚2
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 RADIATION PROPERTIES OF THE
ENVIRONMENT Cont.
▪ Insolation and radiation intensity are frequently expressed in
langley per unit time e.g., the Stefan-Boltzmann constant may be
given as:
𝜎 = 0.826 × 10−10 𝐿𝑦/𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∙ 𝐾 4
▪ Radiation heat transfer in the environment is governed by the
absorption, scattering, and reflection properties of the atmosphere
and natural surfaces.
➢ SCATTERING OF RADIATION:
▪ Following two types of scattering phenomena occur in the
atmosphere:
1. Molecular scattering
2. Particulate scattering
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 RADIATION PROPERTIES OF THE
ENVIRONMENT Cont.
o Molecular scattering is observed because of the interaction of
radiation with individual molecules. The blue color of the sky results
from the scattering of the violet (short) wavelengths by the air
molecules.
o Particulate scattering results from the interaction of radiation with
the many types of particles that may be suspended in the air e.g.,
dust, smog, and water droplets are all particulate scattering centers.
The scattering process is governed mainly by the size of the particle
in comparison with the wavelength of radiation. Maximum
scattering occurs when wavelength and particle size are equal and
decreases progressively for longer wavelengths. For wavelengths
smaller than the particle size, the radiation tends to be reflected.
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 RADIATION PROPERTIES OF THE
ENVIRONMENT Cont.
▪ As reflection phenomena in the atmosphere occur for
wavelengths less than the particle size, thus are independent of
wavelength in this region.
▪ The term albedo is used to describe the reflective properties of
surfaces and is defined by:
Table 1

𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑙𝑏𝑒𝑑𝑜 = →→ (1)
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

▪ The albedo of the surface is dependent on

the angle the incoming solar rays make with
the surface. The albedo is also termed as
reflectivity. The albedos of some natural
surfaces are given in Table 1.
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 RADIATION PROPERTIES OF THE
ENVIRONMENT Cont.
▪ The atmosphere absorbs radiation quite selectively in narrow-
wavelength bands. The absorption for solar radiation occurs in
entirely different bands relative to the absorption of the radiation
from the earth because of the different spectrums for the two types
of radiation.
▪ The approximate spectrums for solar and earth radiation, is shown
in Fig. 1. A quick inspection of these curves will show that the
atmosphere transmits most of the short-wavelength radiation while
absorbing most of the back radiation from the earth.
▪ Therefore, the atmosphere acts like a greenhouse, trapping the
incoming solar radiation to provide energy and warmth for humans
on earth.
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 RADIATION PROPERTIES OF THE ENVIRONMENT Cont.

It is important
to note the scale
differential on
the two curves.

Fig.1: Thermal-radiation spectrums for the sun and earth with

primary absorption bands indicated by shaded areas. Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad N Shah
 RADIATION PROPERTIES OF THE
ENVIRONMENT Cont.
▪ The absorption and scattering of radiation may be described with
Beer’s law assuming that both processes are superimposed on each
other:
𝐼𝜆𝑥
= 𝑒 −𝑎𝜆𝑥 →→ (2)
𝐼𝜆0
where 𝑎𝜆 is called the monochromatic absorption coefficient. For a scattering
process, however, 𝑎𝜆 may be replaced by a scattering coefficient 𝑘𝜆 .
▪ The appropriate coefficients based on over all wavelengths are then
defined as:
𝑎𝑚𝑠 = average molecular scattering coefficient over all wavelengths
𝑎𝑝𝑠 = average particulate scattering coefficient over all wavelengths
𝑎 = average absorption coefficient over all wavelengths
𝑎𝑡 = 𝑎𝑚𝑠 + 𝑎𝑝𝑠 + 𝑎 = total attenuation coefficient over all wavelengths.
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 RADIATION PROPERTIES OF THE
ENVIRONMENT Cont.
▪ If the insolations are defined as:
𝐼𝑐 = direct, cloudless sky insolation at earth’s surface
𝐼𝑜 = insolation at outer limits of earth’s atmosphere
▪ Then radiation insolation at the earth’s surface is expressed as:
𝐼𝑐
= 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝑒 −𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑚 →→ (3)
𝐼0
where ‘𝑚’ is the relative thickness of the air mass or the air-mass-
ratio, defined as:
𝑚𝑎 actual optical mass
𝑚= = → (𝑖)
𝑚𝑧 the mass if sun is at its zenith
and 𝑛 is the turbidity factor of the air defined as:
𝑎𝑡
𝑛= → (𝑖𝑖)
𝑎𝑚𝑠
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 RADIATION PROPERTIES OF THE
ENVIRONMENT Cont.
▪ The molecular scattering coefficient for air at atmospheric
pressure is given by Eagleson as:
𝑎𝑚𝑠 = 0.128 − 0.054 log 𝑚 →→ (4)
▪ The relative thickness of the air mass ‘𝑚’ is calculated as the
cosecant of the solar altitude 𝛼 following the Fig. 2:

𝑚𝑧
= cos 𝜃𝑧 = cos 90 − 𝛼
𝑚𝑎
𝑚𝑧 𝜶
֜ = sin 𝛼
𝑚𝑎
𝑚𝑎
= csc 𝛼 = 𝑚 →→ (5)
𝑚𝑧 Fig. 2

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 RADIATION PROPERTIES OF THE
ENVIRONMENT Cont.
▪ The turbidity factor ‘𝑛’ involved in Eqn. (3) is thus a convenient
means of specifying atmospheric purity and clarity. Its value
ranges from about 2.0 for very clear air to 4 or 5 for very
smoggy, industrial environment.
▪ The insolation at the outer edge of the atmosphere may be
expressed in terms of the solar constant 𝐸𝑏𝑜 by:
𝐼𝑜 = 𝐸𝑏𝑜 sin 𝛼 →→ (5)
where α is again the angle the rays make with the horizontal.
▪ The value of solar constant, however, is given as:
𝐸𝑏𝑜 = 442.4 𝐵𝑡𝑢/ℎ ∙ 𝑓𝑡 2
= 2.00 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑐𝑚2 ∙ 𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 1395 𝑊/𝑚2
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 RADIATION PROPERTIES OF THE
ENVIRONMENT Cont.
▪ An average variation of incident solar radiation for cloudy and
cloudless situations as a function of solar altitude angle is given in
Table 2.
Table 2

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 PROBLEM
A certain smoggy atmosphere has a turbidity of 4.0. Calculate the
direct, cloudless-sky insolation for a solar altitude angle of 75˚. How
much is this reduced from that of a clear sky?

SOLUTION
𝐼𝑜 = 𝐸𝑏𝑜 sin 𝛼 = 1347 𝑊/𝑚2
𝑚 = csc 𝛼 = 1.035
𝑎𝑚𝑠 = 0.128 − 0.054 log 𝑚 = 0.1272
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑠𝑚 = 1035 𝑊/𝑚2
֜ 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 23%
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 HOME ASSIGNMENT

▪ Solve the following:

➢Examples: 8.2, 8.6, 8.7,8.8, 8.10

➢Problems: 8.23, 8.24, 8.25, 8.27, 8.31, 8.52,

8.54, 8.67, 8.68, 8.72 + Related Problems (by
Y. A. Cengel, 2nd Edition)

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